{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,1]],"date-time":"2026-04-01T23:44:58Z","timestamp":1775087098112,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":125,"publisher":"Institute for Operations Research and the Management Sciences (INFORMS)","issue":"1","content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Organization Science"],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2010,2]]},"abstract":"<jats:p> Organization theory is a theory without a protagonist. Organizations are typically portrayed in organizational scholarship as aggregations of individuals, as instantiations of the environment, as nodes in a social network, as members of a population, or as a bundle of organizing processes. This paper hopes to highlight the need for understanding, explicating, and researching the enduring, noun-like qualities of the organization. We situate the organization in a broader social landscape by examining what is unique about the organization as a social actor. We propose two assumptions that underlie our conceptualization of organizations as social actors: external attribution and intentionality. We then highlight important questions and implications forming the core of a distinctively organizational analytical perspective. <\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1287\/orsc.1090.0443","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2009,7,3]],"date-time":"2009-07-03T02:46:09Z","timestamp":1246589169000},"page":"290-305","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":329,"title":["Perspective\u2014Finding the Organization in Organizational Theory: A Meta-Theory of the Organization as a Social Actor"],"prefix":"10.1287","volume":"21","author":[{"given":"Brayden G.","family":"King","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Kellogg School of Management, Northwestern University Evanston, Illinois 60208"}]},{"given":"Teppo","family":"Felin","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Marriott School of Management, Brigham Young University, Provo, Utah 84602"}]},{"given":"David A.","family":"Whetten","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Marriott School of Management, Brigham Young University, Provo, Utah 84602"}]}],"member":"109","reference":[{"key":"B1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1037\/0033-295X.84.6.485"},{"key":"B2","first-page":"263","volume":"7","author":"Albert S.","year":"1985","journal-title":"Res. Organ. Behav."},{"key":"B3","first-page":"777","volume":"62","author":"Alchian A.","year":"1972","journal-title":"Amer. Econom. Rev."},{"key":"B4","first-page":"149","volume-title":"A Companion to Economic Geography","author":"Amin A.","year":"2000"},{"key":"B5","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1287\/orsc.1070.0280"},{"key":"B6","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.2307\/2392620"},{"key":"B7","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/014920639101700108"},{"key":"B8","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.2307\/2657254"},{"key":"B9","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/S1479-8387(06)03007-4"},{"key":"B10","volume-title":"Thinking Sociologically","author":"Bauman Z.","year":"2001"},{"key":"B11","first-page":"680","volume-title":"Handbook of Social Psychology","author":"Baumeister R. F.","year":"1998"},{"key":"B12","volume-title":"The Quest for Responsibility: Accountability and Citizenship in Complex Organisations","author":"Bovens M. A. P.","year":"1998"},{"key":"B13","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.2307\/3033745"},{"key":"B14","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.2307\/2579779"},{"key":"B15","first-page":"1","volume-title":"Handbook of Organization Studies","author":"Clegg S.","year":"1996"},{"key":"B16","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/S0733-558X(02)19013-6"},{"key":"B17","volume-title":"The Asymmetric Society","author":"Coleman J. S.","year":"1982"},{"key":"B18","volume-title":"Foundations of Social Theory","author":"Coleman J. S.","year":"1990"},{"key":"B19","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1093\/jleo\/7.special_issue.7"},{"key":"B20","volume-title":"A Behavioral Theory of the Firm","author":"Cyert R. M.","year":"1963"},{"key":"B21","volume-title":"Narrating the Organization: Dramas of Institutional Identity","author":"Czarniawska B.","year":"1997"},{"key":"B22","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.5465\/amr.1999.1893940"},{"key":"B23","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1287\/orsc.1050.0137"},{"key":"B24","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.2307\/2095931"},{"key":"B25","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/978-1-4899-2271-7"},{"key":"B26","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/(SICI)1097-0266(199902)20:2<147::AID-SMJ11>3.0.CO;2-Q"},{"key":"B27","first-page":"141","volume":"4","author":"Demsetz H.","year":"1988","journal-title":"J. Law, Econom., Organ."},{"key":"B28","volume-title":"The Intentional Stance","author":"Dennett D. C.","year":"1987"},{"key":"B29","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1287\/mnsc.1030.0143"},{"key":"B30","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.2307\/788782"},{"key":"B31","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.2307\/2095101"},{"key":"B32","volume-title":"American Anti-Management Theories of Organization","author":"Donaldson L.","year":"1995"},{"key":"B33","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.2307\/256405"},{"key":"B34","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1017\/CBO9780511624995"},{"key":"B35","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1086\/260866"},{"key":"B36","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/0735-2751.00132"},{"key":"B37","volume-title":"Reputation: Realizing Value from the Corporate Image","author":"Fombrun C. J.","year":"1996"},{"key":"B38","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.2307\/256324"},{"key":"B39","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.2307\/2094928"},{"key":"B40","volume-title":"Oxford Handbook of Analytical Sociology","author":"Freese J.","year":"2009"},{"key":"B41","first-page":"293","volume-title":"The New Institutionalism in Organizational Analysis","author":"Galaskiewicz J.","year":"1991"},{"key":"B42","volume-title":"The New Industrial State","author":"Galbraith J. K.","year":"1967"},{"key":"B43","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1287\/orsc.1070.0277"},{"key":"B44","volume-title":"Political Theories of the Middle Age","author":"Gierke O.","year":"1922"},{"key":"B45","volume-title":"Sociality and Responsibility: New Essays in Plural Subject Theory","author":"Gilbert M.","year":"2000"},{"key":"B46","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.5465\/amr.2000.2791603"},{"key":"B47","volume-title":"The Presentation of Self in Everyday Life","author":"Goffman E.","year":"1959"},{"key":"B48","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.5840\/jphil2007104328"},{"key":"B49","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1287\/orsc.8.6.593"},{"key":"B50","first-page":"453","volume-title":"The Handbook of Economic Sociology","author":"Granovetter M. S.","year":"1994"},{"key":"B51","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.4159\/9780674038288"},{"key":"B52","first-page":"519","volume":"35","author":"Hayek F.","year":"1945","journal-title":"Amer. Econom. Rev."},{"key":"B53","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/job.77"},{"key":"B54","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.2307\/2095630"},{"key":"B55","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/0002764297040004004"},{"key":"B56","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/105649269761015"},{"key":"B57","volume-title":"Exit, Voice, and Loyalty; Responses to Decline in Firms, Organizations, and States","author":"Hirschman A. O.","year":"1970"},{"key":"B58","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev.soc.26.1.525"},{"key":"B59","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/000312240607100208"},{"key":"B60","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/0304-405X(76)90026-X"},{"key":"B61","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.5465\/amr.2006.20208687"},{"key":"B62","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1086\/517899"},{"key":"B63","volume-title":"Personal Influence: The Part Played by People in the Flow of Mass Communications","author":"Katz E.","year":"1955"},{"key":"B64","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/000312240807300303"},{"key":"B65","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.5465\/amr.1994.9410210745"},{"key":"B66","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/(SICI)1097-0266(200003)21:3<405::AID-SMJ103>3.0.CO;2-5"},{"key":"B67","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.4135\/9781849200387.n10"},{"key":"B68","volume-title":"The Organizational State: Social Choice in National Policy Domains","author":"Laumann E. O.","year":"1987"},{"key":"B69","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.2307\/2391211"},{"key":"B70","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.2307\/2393200"},{"key":"B71","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/0170840605051486"},{"key":"B72","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1353\/sof.2004.0046"},{"key":"B73","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/S0733-558X(02)19001-X"},{"key":"B74","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/0170840607087260"},{"key":"B75","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/job.4030130202"},{"key":"B76","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1023\/A:1007113830879"},{"key":"B77","volume-title":"State, Trust, and Corporation","author":"Maitland F. W.","year":"1904"},{"key":"B78","volume-title":"Organization","author":"March J. G.","year":"1958"},{"key":"B79","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1467-6494.1983.tb00344.x"},{"key":"B80","volume-title":"Mind, Self, and Society","author":"Mead G. H.","year":"1934"},{"key":"B81","volume-title":"Political Parties","author":"Michels R.","year":"1949"},{"key":"B82","first-page":"15","volume-title":"Handbook of Self and Identity","author":"Mischel W.","year":"2003"},{"key":"B83","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.2307\/259081"},{"key":"B84","volume-title":"An Evolutionary Theory of Economic Change","author":"Nelson R. S.","year":"1982"},{"key":"B85","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/(SICI)1097-0266(199707)18:1+<187::AID-SMJ936>3.0.CO;2-K"},{"key":"B86","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.2307\/2667000"},{"key":"B87","volume-title":"The Logic of Collective Action; Public Goods and the Theory of Groups","author":"Olson M.","year":"1965"},{"key":"B88","first-page":"129","volume":"25","author":"Ouchi W. G.","year":"1980","journal-title":"Amer. Soc. Rev."},{"key":"B89","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.2307\/2090570"},{"key":"B90","volume-title":"Complex Organizations: A Critical Essay","author":"Perrow C.","year":"1979"},{"key":"B91","volume-title":"Organizing America: Wealth, Power, and the Origins of Corporate Capitalism","author":"Perrow C.","year":"2002"},{"key":"B92","first-page":"167","volume-title":"Socializing Metaphysics","author":"Pettit P.","year":"2003"},{"key":"B93","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.5465\/amr.1993.9402210152"},{"key":"B94","volume-title":"The External Control of Organizations: A Resource Dependence Perspective","author":"Pfeffer J.","year":"1978"},{"key":"B95","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.7208\/chicago\/9780226185941.001.0001"},{"key":"B96","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1086\/367917"},{"key":"B97","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.5465\/AMJ.2006.21794663"},{"key":"B98","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.2307\/975901"},{"key":"B99","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/BF01384942"},{"key":"B100","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1744-6570.1987.tb00609.x"},{"key":"B101","volume-title":"Organizations: Rational, Natural, and Open Systems","author":"Scott W. R.","year":"1998"},{"key":"B102","volume-title":"Institutional Environments and Organizations","author":"Scott W. R.","year":"1994"},{"key":"B103","volume-title":"TVA and the Grass Roots: A Study in the Sociology of Formal Organization","author":"Selznick P.","year":"1949"},{"key":"B104","volume-title":"Leadership in Administration","author":"Selznick P.","year":"1957"},{"key":"B105","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.2307\/2393719"},{"key":"B106","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1086\/229967"},{"key":"B107","volume-title":"Administrative Behavior: A Study of Decision-Making Processes in Administrative Organization","author":"Simon H. A.","year":"1945"},{"key":"B108","volume-title":"The Sciences of the Artificial","author":"Simon H. A.","year":"1969"},{"key":"B109","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1257\/jep.5.2.25"},{"key":"B110","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.2307\/256844"},{"key":"B111","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1086\/587152"},{"key":"B112","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.2307\/2393989"},{"key":"B113","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/S0733-558X(02)19011-2"},{"key":"B114","first-page":"142","volume-title":"Handbook of Organizations","author":"Stinchcombe A. L.","year":"1965"},{"key":"B115","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/0047-2786.00149"},{"key":"B116","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3366\/epi.2004.1.2.109"},{"key":"B117","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.2307\/258786"},{"key":"B118","volume-title":"The Theory of Social and Economic Organization","author":"Weber M.","year":"1947"},{"key":"B119","volume-title":"Sensemaking in Organizations","author":"Weick K. E.","year":"1995"},{"key":"B120","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1287\/orsc.9.5.543"},{"key":"B121","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/1056492606291200"},{"key":"B122","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/0007650302238775"},{"key":"B123","volume-title":"Markets and Hierarchies, Analysis and Antitrust Implications: A Study in the Economics of Internal Organization","author":"Williamson O. E.","year":"1975"},{"key":"B124","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1287\/orsc.8.3.209"},{"key":"B125","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1086\/210178"}],"container-title":["Organization Science"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/pubsonline.informs.org\/doi\/pdf\/10.1287\/orsc.1090.0443","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2023,4,2]],"date-time":"2023-04-02T19:33:35Z","timestamp":1680464015000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/pubsonline.informs.org\/doi\/10.1287\/orsc.1090.0443"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2010,2]]},"references-count":125,"journal-issue":{"issue":"1","published-print":{"date-parts":[[2010,2]]}},"alternative-id":["10.1287\/orsc.1090.0443"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1287\/orsc.1090.0443","relation":{},"ISSN":["1047-7039","1526-5455"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1047-7039","type":"print"},{"value":"1526-5455","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2010,2]]}}}