Induction Motors

Introduction
Three-phase induction motors are the most common
and frequently encountered machines in industry
simple design, rugged, low-price, easy maintenance
wide range of power ratings: fractional horsepower to 10
MW
run essentially as constant speed from no-load to full load
Its speed depends on the frequency of the power source
not easy to have variable speed control
requires a variable-frequency power-electronic drive for optimal
speed control

Construction
An induction motor has two main parts

a stationary stator
consisting of a steel frame that supports a hollow, cylindrical core
core, constructed from stacked laminations (why?), having a number
of evenly spaced slots, providing the space for the stator winding

Stator of IM

Construction
a revolving rotor
composed of punched laminations, stacked to create a series of rotor
slots, providing space for the rotor winding
one of two types of rotor windings
conventional 3-phase windings made of insulated wire (wound-rotor)
similar to the winding on the stator
aluminum bus bars shorted together at the ends by two aluminum rings,
forming a squirrel-cage shaped circuit (squirrel-cage)

Two basic design types depending on the rotor design

squirrel-cage: conducting bars laid into slots and shorted at both
ends by shorting rings.
wound-rotor: complete set of three-phase windings exactly as the
stator. Usually Y-connected, the ends of the three rotor wires are
connected to 3 slip rings on the rotor shaft. In this way, the rotor
circuit is accessible.

Construction
Squirrel cage rotor

Wound rotor

Notice the
slip rings

Construction
Slip rings

Cutaway in a
typical woundrotor IM.
Notice the
brushes and the
slip rings

Brushes

Rotating Magnetic Field

Balanced three phase windings, i.e.
mechanically displaced 120
degrees form each other, fed by
balanced three phase source
A rotating magnetic field with
constant magnitude is produced,
rotating with a speed

Where fe is the supply frequency and

P is the no. of poles and nsync is called
the synchronous speed in rpm
(revolutions per minute)

120 fe
nsync
rpm
P

Synchronous speed
P

50 Hz

60 Hz

3000

3600

1500

1800

1000

1200

750

900

10

600

720

12

500

600

Rotating Magnetic Field

Rotating Magnetic Field

Rotating Magnetic Field

Bnet (t ) Ba (t ) Bb (t ) Bc (t )
BM sin(t )0 BM sin(t 120)120 BM sin(t 240)240

BM sin(t )x
3
BM sin(t 120)]y
2
3
[0.5BM sin(t 240)]x [
BM sin(t 240)]y
2
[0.5BM sin(t 120)]x [

Rotating Magnetic Field

1
3
1
3
Bnet (t ) [ BM sin(t ) BM sin(t )
BM cos(t ) BM sin(t )
BM cos(t )]x
4
4
4
4
3
3
3
3
[
BM sin(t ) BM cos(t )
BM sin(t ) BM cos(t )]y
4
4
4
4
[1.5BM sin(t )]x [1.5BM cos(t )]y

Rotating Magnetic Field

Principle of operation
This rotating magnetic field cuts the rotor windings and
produces an induced voltage in the rotor windings
Due to the fact that the rotor windings are short circuited, for
both squirrel cage and wound-rotor, and induced current
flows in the rotor windings
The rotor current produces another magnetic field
A torque is produced as a result of the interaction of those
two magnetic fields

ind kBR Bs

Where ind is the induced torque and BR and BS are the magnetic
flux densities of the rotor and the stator respectively

Induction motor speed

At what speed will the IM run?
Can the IM run at the synchronous speed, why?
If rotor runs at the synchronous speed, which is the
same speed of the rotating magnetic field, then the
rotor will appear stationary to the rotating magnetic
field and the rotating magnetic field will not cut the
rotor. So, no induced current will flow in the rotor and
no rotor magnetic flux will be produced so no torque
is generated and the rotor speed will fall below the
synchronous speed
When the speed falls, the rotating magnetic field will
cut the rotor windings and a torque is produced

Induction motor speed

So, the IM will always run at a speed lower than
the synchronous speed
The difference between the motor speed and the
synchronous speed is called the Slip

nslip nsync nm
Where nslip= slip speed
nsync= speed of the magnetic field
nm = mechanical shaft speed of the motor

The Slip
s

nsync nm
nsync

Where s is the slip

Notice that : if the rotor runs at synchronous speed
s=0
if the rotor is stationary
s=1
Slip may be expressed as a percentage by multiplying the above
eq. by 100, notice that the slip is a ratio and doesnt have units

Induction Motors and Transformers

Both IM and transformer works on the principle of
induced voltage
Transformer: voltage applied to the primary windings
produce an induced voltage in the secondary windings
Induction motor: voltage applied to the stator windings
produce an induced voltage in the rotor windings
The difference is that, in the case of the induction motor,
the secondary windings can move
Due to the rotation of the rotor (the secondary winding of
the IM), the induced voltage in it does not have the same
frequency of the stator (the primary) voltage

Frequency
The frequency of the voltage induced in the
rotor is given by
Pn
fr

120
Where fr = the rotor frequency (Hz)
P = number of stator poles
n = slip speed (rpm)
P (ns nm )
fr
120
P sns

sf e
120

Frequency
What would be the frequency of the rotors
induced voltage at any speed nm?

fr s fe
When the rotor is blocked (s=1) , the frequency
of the induced voltage is equal to the supply
frequency
On the other hand, if the rotor runs at
synchronous speed (s = 0), the frequency will be
zero

Torque
While the input to the induction motor is electrical
power, its output is mechanical power and for that
we should know some terms and quantities
related to mechanical power
Any mechanical load applied to the motor shaft
will introduce a Torque on the motor shaft. This
torque is related to the motor output power and
the rotor speed
load

Pout

N .m

and

2 nm
m
60

rad / s

Horse power
Another unit used to measure mechanical
power is the horse power
It is used to refer to the mechanical output
power of the motor
Since we, as an electrical engineers, deal with
watts as a unit to measure electrical power,
there is a relation between horse power and
watts

hp 746 watts

Example
A 208-V, 10hp, four pole, 60 Hz, Y-connected
induction motor has a full-load slip of 5
percent
1. What is the synchronous speed of this motor?
2. What is the rotor speed of this motor at rated
load?
3. What is the rotor frequency of this motor at
rated load?
4. What is the shaft torque of this motor at rated
load?

Solution
1.
2.

nsync

120 f e 120(60)

1800 rpm
P
4

nm (1 s)ns
(1 0.05) 1800 1710 rpm

f r sf e 0.05 60 3Hz

3.
load

4.

Pout

Pout

m 2 nm
60
10 hp 746 watt / hp

41.7 N .m
1710 2 (1/ 60)

Equivalent Circuit
The induction motor is similar to the transformer
with the exception that its secondary windings are
free to rotate

As we noticed in the transformer, it is easier if we can

combine these two circuits in one circuit but there are
some difficulties

Equivalent Circuit
When the rotor is locked (or blocked), i.e. s =1,
the largest voltage and rotor frequency are
induced in the rotor, Why?
On the other side, if the rotor rotates at
synchronous speed, i.e. s = 0, the induced
voltage and frequency in the rotor will be equal
to zero, Why?

ER sER 0

Where ER0 is the largest value of the rotors induced

voltage obtained at s = 1(loacked rotor)

Equivalent Circuit
The same is true for the frequency, i.e.
fr s fe
It is known that

X L 2 f L
So, as the frequency of the induced voltage in the
rotor changes, the reactance of the rotor circuit
also changes
X

f
L
r
r
r
r
r
Where X is the rotor reactance
r0

at the supply frequency

(at blocked rotor)

2 sf e Lr
sX r 0

Equivalent Circuit
Then, we can draw the rotor equivalent circuit as
follows

Where ER is the induced voltage in the rotor and RR is

the rotor resistance

Equivalent Circuit
Now we can calculate the
E rotor current as
IR

( RR jX R )

sER 0

( RR jsX R 0 )

Dividing both the numerator and denominator by

s so nothing changes we get
E
IR

R0

RR
jX R 0 )
s

Where ER0 is the induced voltage and XR0 is the rotor

reactance at blocked rotor condition (s = 1)

Equivalent Circuit
Now we can have the rotor equivalent circuit

Equivalent Circuit
Now as we managed to solve the induced voltage and different frequency
problems, we can combine the stator and rotor circuits in one equivalent
circuit
Where

X 2 a X R0
2
eff

2
R2 aeff
RR

IR
I2
aeff
E1 aeff ER 0
aeff

NS

NR

Power losses in Induction machines

Copper losses
Copper loss in the stator (PSCL) = I12R1
Copper loss in the rotor (PRCL) = I22R2

Core loss (Pcore)

Mechanical power loss due to friction and
windage
How this power flow in the motor?

Power flow in induction motor

Power relations
Pin 3 VL I L cos 3 Vph I ph cos
PSCL 3 I12 R1

PAG Pin ( PSCL Pcore )

PRCL 3I 22 R2

Pconv PAG PRCL

Pout Pconv ( Pf w Pstray )

ind

Pconv

Equivalent Circuit
We can rearrange the equivalent circuit as follows

Actual rotor
resistance

Resistance
equivalent to
mechanical load

Power relations
Pin 3 VL I L cos 3 Vph I ph cos
PSCL 3 I12 R1

PAG Pin ( PSCL Pcore ) Pconv PRCL

R2
3I
s
2
2

PRCL 3I 22 R2

Pconv PAG PRCL 3I 22 R2 (1 s)

s
Pconv (1 s) PAG
Pout Pconv ( Pf w Pstray )

ind

PRCL

PRCL (1 s)

s
Pconv

(1 s ) PAG

(1 s )s

Power relations
PAG

Pconv

1-s

PRCL

PAG : PRCL : Pconv

1 :

: 1-s

Example
A 480-V, 60 Hz, 50-hp, three phase induction motor
is drawing 60A at 0.85 PF lagging. The stator
copper losses are 2 kW, and the rotor copper
losses are 700 W. The friction and windage
losses are 600 W, the core losses are 1800 W,
and the stray losses are negligible. Find the
following quantities:
1.
2.
3.
4.

The air-gap power PAG.

The power converted Pconv.
The output power Pout.
The efficiency of the motor.

Solution
1.

Pin 3VL I L cos

3 480 60 0.85 42.4 kW

PAG Pin PSCL Pcore

42.4 2 1.8 38.6 kW
Pconv PAG PRCL

2.

3.

700
38.6
37.9 kW
1000
Pout Pconv PF &W
600
37.9
37.3 kW
1000

Solution
37.3
Pout
50 hp
0.746

4.

Pout
100%
Pin

37.3

100 88%
42.4

Example
A 460-V, 25-hp, 60 Hz, four-pole, Y-connected induction motor
has the following impedances in ohms per phase referred to
the stator circuit:
R1= 0.641 R2= 0.332
X1= 1.106 X2= 0.464 XM= 26.3
The total rotational losses are 1100 W and are assumed to be
constant. The core loss is lumped in with the rotational
losses. For a rotor slip of 2.2 percent at the rated voltage and
rated frequency, find the motors
1.
2.
3.

Speed
Stator current
Power factor

4. Pconv and Pout

5. ind and load

6. Efficiency

Solution
120 f e 120 60
nsync

1800 rpm
P
4
1.
nm (1 s )nsync (1 0.022) 1800 1760 rpm
R2
0.332
Z2
jX 2
j 0.464
s
0.022
2.
15.09 j 0.464 15.11.76
1
1
Zf

1/ jX M 1/ Z 2 j 0.038 0.0662 1.76

12.9431.1
0.0773 31.1

Solution
Ztot Z stat Z f
0.641 j1.106 12.9431.1
11.72 j 7.79 14.0733.6
4600
V
3
I1

18.88 33.6 A
Z tot 14.0733.6

PF cos33.6 0.833 lagging

Pin 3VL I L cos 3 460 18.88 0.833 12530 W

3.
PSCL 3I12 R1 3(18.88) 2 0.641 685 W
4.

PAG Pin PSCL 12530 685 11845 W

Solution
Pconv (1 s) PAG (1 0.022)(11845) 11585 W

Pout Pconv PF &W 11585 1100 10485 W

5. ind
load

10485
=
14.1 hp
746
PAG
11845

sync 2 1800

Pout

10485

m 2 1760

62.8 N.m
60
56.9 N.m

60
6.
Pout
10485

100%
100 83.7%
Pin
12530

Torque, power and Thevenins Theorem

Thevenins theorem can be used to transform
the network to the left of points a and b
into an equivalent voltage source VTH in series
with equivalent impedance RTH+jXTH

Torque, power and Thevenins Theorem

VTH

jX M
V
R1 j ( X 1 X M )

| VTH || V |

RTH jX TH ( R1 jX 1 ) // jX M

XM
R12 ( X 1 X M )2

Torque, power and Thevenins Theorem

Since XM>>X1 and XM>>R1
VTH

XM
V
X1 X M

Because XM>>X1 and XM+X1>>R

2 1
RTH

XM
R1

X1 X M
X TH X 1

Torque, power and Thevenins Theorem

VTH
VTH
I2

2
ZT
R2

2
R

(
X

X
)
TH

TH
2
s

Then the power converted to mechanical (Pconv)

Pconv

R2 (1 s)
3I
s
2
2

And the internal mechanical torque (Tconv)

ind

Pconv

Pconv

(1 s )s

3I 22

R2
s PAG

Torque, power and Thevenins Theorem

ind

VTH
3

2
s
R R2 ( X X )2
TH
2
TH s

ind

RTH

R2
s

R2
3V
s
2
R2
( X TH X 2 ) 2
s
2
TH

Torque-speed characteristics
Typical torquespeed
characteristics of
induction motor

Comments
1. The induced torque is zero at synchronous
speed. Discussed earlier.
2. The curve is nearly linear between no-load and
full load. In this range, the rotor resistance is
much greater than the reactance, so the rotor
current, torque increase linearly with the slip.
3. There is a maximum possible torque that cant
be exceeded. This torque is called pullout torque
and is 2 to 3 times the rated full-load torque.

Comments

4. The starting torque of the motor is slightly

higher than its full-load torque, so the motor
will start carrying any load it can supply at
full load.
5. The torque of the motor for a given slip
varies as the square of the applied voltage.
6. If the rotor is driven faster than synchronous
speed it will run as a generator, converting
mechanical power to electric power.

Complete Speed-torque c/c

Maximum torque
Maximum torque occurs when the power transferred to R2/s is maximum.
This condition occurs when R2/s equals the magnitude of the impedance
RTH + j (XTH + X2)

R2
2
2
RTH ( X TH X 2 )
sTmax

sTmax

R2
R ( X TH X 2 )
2
TH

Maximum torque
The corresponding maximum torque of an
induction motor equals
max

2
3VTH
1

2
2
2s RTH RTH

(
X

X
)
TH
2

The slip at maximum torque is directly proportional

to the rotor resistance R2
The maximum torque is independent of R2

Maximum torque
Rotor resistance can be increased by inserting
external resistance in the rotor of a woundrotor induction motor.
The
value of the maximum torque remains
unaffected
but
the speed at which it occurs can be controlled.

Maximum torque

Effect of rotor resistance on torque-speed characteristic

Example
A two-pole, 50-Hz induction motor supplies 15kW
to a load at a speed of 2950 rpm.
1. What is the motors slip?
2. What is the induced torque in the motor in N.m
under these conditions?
3. What will be the operating speed of the motor if
its torque is doubled?
4. How much power will be supplied by the motor
when the torque is doubled?

Solution
120 f e 120 50
nsync

3000 rpm
P
2
1.
nsync nm 3000 2950
s

0.0167 or 1.67%
nsync
3000
no Pf W given

2. assume Pconv Pload and ind load

ind

Pconv

15 103

48.6 N.m
2
2950
60

Solution
3. In the low-slip region, the torque-speed curve is
linear and the induced torque is direct
proportional to slip. So, if the torque is doubled
the
3.33% 3000
and the
motor
nm new
(1 s )slip
nsyncwill
(1 be
0.0333)
2900
rpm speed
will be
Pconv ind m

4.

2
(2 48.6) (2900 ) 29.5 kW
60

Example
A 460-V, 25-hp, 60-Hz, four-pole, Y-connected woundrotor induction motor has the following impedances
in ohms per phase referred to the stator circuit
R1= 0.641 R2= 0.332
X1= 1.106 X2= 0.464 XM= 26.3

1. What is the maximum torque of this motor? At what

speed and slip does it occur?
2. What is the starting torque of this motor?
3. If the rotor resistance is doubled, what is the speed
at which the maximum torque now occur? What is
the new starting torque of the motor?
4. Calculate and plot the T-s c/c for both cases.

Solution
VTH V

XM
R12 ( X 1 X M ) 2

460
26.3
3

255.2 V
2
2
(0.641) (1.106 26.3)

RTH

XM
R1

X
1
M

26.3

(0.641)
0.590
1.106 26.3
X TH X 1 1.106

Solution
1.

sTmax

R2
2
RTH
( X TH X 2 )2

0.332
(0.590) (1.106 0.464)
2

0.198

m (1 s ) nsync (1 0.198) 1800 1444 rpm

Thencorresponding
speed is

Solution
The torque at this speed is
max

3VTH2

R R 2 ( X X )2
TH
TH
2
TH

3 (255.2) 2

2
2 (1800 )[0.590 (0.590) 2 (1.106 0.464) 2 ]
60
229 N.m
1

2s

Solution
2. The starting torque can be found from the
2 R2
3VTH s = 1
torque eqn. by1 substituting
start ind

s 1

RTH

R2
( X TH X 2 ) 2
s

s 1

3VTH2 R2

s [ RTH R2 ( X TH X 2 ) 2 ]
2

3 (255.2) 2 (0.332)

2
1800
[(0.590 0.332) 2 (1.106 0.464) 2 ]
60
104 N.m

Solution
3. If the rotor resistance is doubled, then the slip at
maximum torque doubles too
sTmax

R2

2
RTH
( X TH X 2 )2

The corresponding speed is

0.396

nm (1 s )nsync (1 0.396) 1800 1087 rpm

The maximum torque is still

max = 229 N.m

Solution
The starting torque is now
start

3 (255.2) 2 (0.664)

2
1800
[(0.590 0.664) 2 (1.106 0.464) 2 ]
60
170 N.m

Determination of motor parameters

Due to the similarity between the induction
motor equivalent circuit and the transformer
equivalent circuit, same tests are used to
determine the values of the motor parameters.
DC test: determine the stator resistance R1
No-load test: determine the rotational losses and
magnetization current (similar to no-load test in
Transformers).
Locked-rotor test: determine the rotor and stator
impedances (similar to short-circuit test in
Transformers).

DC test
The purpose of the DC test is to determine R1. A
variable DC voltage source is connected
between two stator terminals.
The DC source is adjusted to provide
approximately rated stator current, and the
resistance between the two stator leads is
determined from the voltmeter and ammeter
readings.

DC test
then

RDC

VDC

I DC

If the stator is Y-connected, the per phase stator

RDC
R1
resistance is
2

3
If the stator is delta-connected,
the per phase
R1 RDC
stator resistance is 2

No-load test

1. The motor is allowed to spin freely

2. The only load on the motor is the friction and
windage losses, so all Pconv is consumed by
mechanical losses
3. The slip is very small

No-load test

4. At this small slip

R2 (1 s)
s

R2

&

R 2 (1 s)
s

The equivalent circuit reduces to

X2

No-load test

5. Combining Rc & RF+W we get

No-load test
6. At the no-load conditions, the input power
measured by meters must equal the losses in the
motor.
7. The PRCL is negligible because I2 is extremely
small because R2(1-s)/s is very large.
Pin PSCLequals
Pcore PF &W
8. The input power
3I12 R1 Prot

Where

Prot Pcore PF &W

No-load test
9. The equivalent input impedance is thus
approximately
V
Z eq

I1,nl

X1 X M

If X1 can be found, in some other fashion, the

magnetizing impedance XM will be known

Blocked-rotor test
In this test, the rotor is locked or blocked so
that it cannot move, a voltage is applied to
the motor, and the resulting voltage, current
and power are measured.

Blocked-rotor test
The AC voltage applied to the stator is
adjusted so that the current flow is
approximately full-load value.
The locked-rotor power factor
can be found as
Pin
PF cos

3Vl I l

V impedance
The magnitude of the
total
Z
LR

Blocked-rotor test
'
Z LR RLR jX LR

Z LR cos j Z LR sin

RLR R1 R2
'
X LR
X1' X 2'

Where X1 and X2 are the stator and rotor

R2 RLR R1
reactances at the test frequency respectively
X LR

f rated '

X LR X 1 X 2
ftest

Blocked-rotor test
X1 and X2 as function of XLR
Rotor Design

X1

X2

Wound rotor

0.5 XLR

0.5 XLR

Design A

0.5 XLR

0.5 XLR

Design B

0.4 XLR

0.6 XLR

Design C

0.3 XLR

0.7 XLR

Design D

0.5 XLR

0.5 XLR

Midterm Exam No.2

Example
The following test data were taken on a 7.5-hp, four-pole, 208-V, 60-Hz,
design A, Y-connected IM having a rated current of 28 A.
DC Test:
VDC = 13.6 V
IDC = 28.0 A
No-load Test:
Vl = 208 V
f = 60 Hz
I = 8.17 A
Pin = 420 W
Locked-rotor Test:
Vl = 25 V
f = 15 Hz
I = 27.9 A
Pin = 920 W
(a) Sketch the per-phase equivalent circuit of this motor.
(b) Find the slip at pull-out torque, and find the value of the pull-out
torque.