I.

Environment

1. Definition

●​ The term "Environment" is derived from the French word "Environ" or "Environner,"
meaning to encircle or surround,,.
●​ It is defined as the sum total of water, air, and land, and the inter-relationships that exist
among them and with human beings, other living organisms, and property,.
●​ It encompasses all physical (non-living) and biological (living) components surrounding
an organism,.

2. Scope of Environmental Science Environmental science is a multidisciplinary field that

integrates physical, biological, and information sciences. Its scope includes:

●​ Natural Resource Conservation: Managing and maintaining forests and wildlife.

●​ Pollution Control: Monitoring and controlling environmental pollution (air, water, soil)
and waste management,.
●​ Ecosystem Structure and Function: Studying the processes linking biotic and abiotic
components.
●​ Environmental Management: Policy making and finding optimum solutions for
environmental problems caused by industrial development.
●​ Research and Development: Developing clean technologies and renewable energy
resources to combat global warming,.
●​ Social Development: Creating public awareness through NGOs and controlling
population explosion,.

3. Importance of Environmental Science

●​ Survival: It helps in understanding that our survival depends on natural resources (food,
fuel, shelter).
●​ Global Issues: It addresses international issues like global warming, ozone depletion,
acid rain, and marine pollution.
●​ Developmental Impact: It helps analyze problems arising from urbanization, industrial
growth, and transportation.
●​ Public Awareness: It educates the public on the need to limit population growth,
rationalize groundwater use, and sustain agricultural growth without damaging the
environment,.
●​ Sustainable Living: It helps people understand sustainable ways of living and using
resources efficiently.

II. Structure and Composition of Spheres

Everything in Earth's system falls into four major subsystems or "spheres".

1. Atmosphere (Air)

●​ Definition: The gaseous envelope surrounding the Earth, retained by gravity.

●​ Composition:
1.​ Gases: Nitrogen (78.08%), Oxygen (20.95%), Argon (0.93%), Carbon dioxide
(0.035-0.038%), and trace gases like Neon, Helium, and Methane,,.
2.​ Other: Water vapour (up to 4% in warm/wet regions) and dust particles,.
●​ Structure (Layers):
1.​ Troposphere (0–12 km): The lowest, most dense layer containing 80% of the
atmosphere's mass. All weather phenomena (clouds, storms) occur here.
Temperature decreases with altitude,.
2.​ Stratosphere (12–50 km): Contains the Ozone Layer (20–30 km), which
absorbs harmful UV radiation. Temperature increases with altitude here,.
3.​ Mesosphere (50–85 km): The coldest layer (dropping to -100°C). Meteors burn
up here,.
4.​ Thermosphere (85–500 km): Characterized by high temperatures (up to
1500°C). Contains the Ionosphere (radio wave reflection),.
5.​ Exosphere: The outermost layer extending into space,.

2. Hydrosphere (Water)

●​ Composition: Includes all water on Earth in solid, liquid, and gaseous forms,.
●​ Distribution:
○​ Oceans: Cover about 71% of Earth's surface and contain 97% of Earth's water
(saltwater),,.
○​ Freshwater: Only about 3% is fresh water. Of this, over two-thirds is frozen in
glaciers and ice sheets,.
●​ Function: Ranges from 10 to 20 km in thickness and plays a vital role in the hydrological
cycle,.

3. Lithosphere (Land)

●​ Definition: The solid, outer part of the Earth. It includes the crust and the upper mantle.
●​ Composition: Made of rocks, minerals, and soils. The crust is composed of elements
like Oxygen, Silicon, Aluminum, Iron, Calcium, Sodium, Potassium, and Magnesium.
●​ Structure:
○​ Crust: The outermost layer, divided into oceanic (5-10 km thick, dense) and
continental (33-70 km thick) crusts,.
○​ Mantle: Beneath the crust; semi-solid/plastic nature.
○​ Core: The center of the Earth, consisting of a liquid outer core and a solid inner
core, primarily of nickel and iron.

4. Biosphere (Living Things)

 ●​ Definition: The zone where life exists, encompassing parts of the atmosphere,
lithosphere, and hydrosphere,.
●​ Structure: Divided into biomes (ecological communities based on physical
surroundings) such as deserts, grasslands, and tropical rainforests,.
●​ Extent: Most life is found from 3 meters below ground to 30 meters above ground, and
in the top 200 meters of oceans.

III. Ecosystem

1. Definition An ecosystem is a self-sustained community of interdependent organisms (plants

and animals) interacting with one another and their physical environment,.

2. Structure: Biotic and Abiotic Components

●​ Abiotic (Non-living) Components:

○​ Physical factors: Sunlight, temperature, rainfall, soil texture,.
○​ Chemical factors: Moisture, salinity, soil nutrients, pH, dissolved oxygen,,.
●​ Biotic (Living) Components:
○​ Producers (Autotrophs): Organisms that synthesize their own food using
sunlight (photosynthesis), e.g., green plants, algae, phytoplankton,.
○​ Consumers (Heterotrophs): Organisms that depend on others for food,.
■​ Primary Consumers (Herbivores): Feed on plants (e.g., rabbits, insects,
zooplankton).
■​ Secondary Consumers (Carnivores): Feed on herbivores (e.g., frogs,
small fish).
■​ Tertiary/Quaternary Consumers (Top Carnivores): Feed on other
carnivores (e.g., lions, hawks),.
○​ Decomposers (Detritivores): Micro-organisms like bacteria and fungi that break
down dead organic matter, recycling nutrients back into the ecosystem,.

3. Functions of an Ecosystem The functional components work together as a unit:

1.​ Productivity: The rate of biomass production (Primary productivity by plants; Secondary
productivity by consumers).
2.​ Decomposition: Breaking down complex organic matter into inorganic substances.
3.​ Energy Flow: The unidirectional transfer of energy from the sun to producers and then
consumers,.
4.​ Nutrient Cycling: The cyclic exchange of materials (minerals) between biotic and
abiotic environments,.

4. Energy Flow in Ecosystems

●​ Unidirectional Flow: Energy flows from the Sun $\rightarrow$ Producers $\rightarrow$
Consumers $\rightarrow$ Decomposers. It does not revert back (non-cyclic),,.
●​ Thermodynamics:
○​ 1st Law: Energy is transformed (solar to chemical) but not created or destroyed,.
○​ 2nd Law: Energy transfer is inefficient; energy is degraded and lost as heat
(entropy) at each step,.
●​ Lindeman’s 10% Law: Only about 10% of the energy at one trophic level is transferred
to the next. The remaining 90% is lost as heat or used for metabolic processes,,.
●​ Food Chains and Webs:
○​ Food Chain: A linear sequence of organisms eating one another (e.g., Grass
$\rightarrow$ Insect $\rightarrow$ Frog $\rightarrow$ Snake).
○​ Food Web: An interconnected network of food chains,.
●​ Ecological Pyramids: Graphical representations of trophic levels.
○​ Pyramid of Energy: Always upright because energy decreases at higher levels,.
○​ Pyramid of Biomass: Usually upright, but can be inverted in aquatic ecosystems
(where phytoplankton have less biomass than zooplankton),.
○​ Pyramid of Numbers: Can be upright (grassland), inverted (parasitic), or irregular
(forest),.