Limit of a function /

Sections 2.2, 2.3, 2.4, 2.5, 2.6

Cagri Haciyusufoglu
October 13, 2025
A Preview of Calculus: Area Problem

The origins of calculus go back at least 2500 years to the ancient Greeks, who
found areas using the method of exhaustion. Eudoxus (fifth century BC) used
exhaustion to prove the area formula of a circle.
Let An be the area of the n-gon inscribed into the unit circle (r = 1). As the
number of sides n increases, we can obtain better and better approximations of
the area of the circle.
To exhaust the circle, we want to take n arbitrarily large. Therefore, we want
to define the area A of the unit circle as follows:
A = lim An
n→∞

The method of exhaustion is the main idea behind the Riemann Integral.

1
A Preview of Calculus: Tangent Problem

Question: How can we define the slope of the tangent line to a curve y = f (x)
at a point P (a, f (a))?
• Take another point Q(x, f (x) on the curve.
• Let mP Q be the slope of the secant line passing through P and Q.
• We imagine that the secant lines approach the the tangent line as Q
approaches P , or equivalently, as x approaches a. Therefore, we define
the slope m of the tangent line as follows:

m = lim mP Q
Q→P

f (x) − f (a)
= lim
x→a x−a

This process is called differentiation. It turns out that the Area and Tangent
Problems are inverse problems. This will be the content of the Fundamental
2
Theorem of Calculus.
Intuitive Definition of a Limit

Definition: The notation lim f (x) = L means that we can make the values
x→a
f (x) arbitrarily close to the number L by taking x to be sufficiently close to
the number a, except possibly at a. In this case, we say that

the limit of f (x) as x approaches a exists.

If f (x) approaches distinct numbers along different paths

as x approaches a, then the limit lim f (x) does not exist.
x→a

(
−1, if x<0
Example: Consider the piecewise-defined function: f (x) = .
1, if x>0
The limit lim f (x) does not exist because
x→0

- f (x) approaches −1 as x approaches 0 from left, whereas

- f (x) approaches 1 as x approaches 0 from right.

3
One-sided Limits

Theorem: The limit lim f (x) exists if and only if both right-hand and
x→a
left-hand limits exist, and they are equal.

lim f (x) = L ⇐⇒ lim f (x) = L and lim g(x) = L

x→a x→a+ x→a−

Example: Decide whether the limit lim f (x) exists, and justify your answer.
x→1
(
x, if x > 1
f (x) =
1, if x < 1

Solution: We study the one-sided limits and use the theorem above:
lim f (x) = lim x = 1
x→1+ x→1
=⇒ lim f (x) = 1
lim f (x) = lim 1 = 1 x→1
x→1− x→1

Thereofore, the limit lim f (x) exists (even if f (1) is not defined).
x→1

4
Continuity

Definition: Let f (x) be a function defined in an open interval containing the

number a. We say that f (x) is continuous at a if

lim f (x) = f (a).

x→a

Continuity is also called the direct substitution property for limits.

If f (x) is continuous at a, evaluate lim f (x) by substituting a for x.

x→a

Example: The limit lim f (x) exists, but f (x) is not continuous at 0:
x→0

(
0, x ̸= 0 lim f (x) = 0
x→0
f (x) = =⇒
1, x=0 f (0) = 1

Since lim f (x) ̸= f (0), f (x) is not continuous at 0.

x→0

5
Elementary Functions

The following classes of functions are called elementary functions.

• polynomials, rational functions, power/root functions,
• trigonometric and inverse trigonometric functions,
• exponential and logarithmic functions.
Theorem: Elementary functions are continuous in their domain.
Example: Limits by continuity (direct substitution):

• lim ln x = 0 • lim ex = eπ
x→1 x→π
√
• lim sin x = − 3/2 • lim arcsin x = π/2
x→ 5π x→1−
3

√ √
• lim 3
x = −3 • lim
√ (x
3
− x2 + 1) = 2 2 − 1
x→−27 x→ 2

• domain (ln x) = (0, ∞) • domain (ex ) = R

• domain (sin x) = R • domain (arcsin x) = [−1, 1]
√
• domain ( 3 x) = R • domain (x3 − x2 + 1) = R 6
The absolute value function is continuous everywhere in R

Definition: The absolute value function is defined piece-wise as follows:


−x if
 x<0
|x| = 0 if x=0

x if x>0


Note that restriction of the absolute value function |x| to the intervals (−∞, 0)
and (0, ∞) are polynomials (−x and x, respectively), which are continuous
everywhere. Therefore, |x| is also continuous at every point in one of these
intervals. For continuity at 0, we study the one-sided limits:
lim |x| = lim x=0
x→0+ x→0
=⇒ lim |x| = 0 = |0|
lim |x| = lim −x = 0 x→0
x→0− x→0

It follows that |x| satisfies the direct substitution property of limits at 0.

Therefore, |x| is continuous at 0, too. It follows that

|x| is continuous everywhere in R.

7
Limits Involving the Absolute Value Function

Example: Decide whether the limit exists, and justify your answer:
2x − 1
lim
x→0.5 |2x3 − x2 |

Solution: Note that when we try substituting 0 for x, we get 0/0. This is not a
number; we call such expressions arising from limits as form of the limit.
We study one-sided limits, factoring x2 out of the denominator:
2x − 1 2x − 1 1
lim = lim 2 = lim = 4
x→0.5+ x2 |2x − 1| x→0.5 x (2x − 1) x→0.5+ x2
2x − 1 2x − 1 1
lim = lim 2 = lim − 2 = −4
x→0.5− x2 |2x − 1| x→0.5 x (1 − 2x) x→0.5− x
The given limit does not exist because one-sided limits are not equal.

Remark: Studying one-sided limits allowed us to avoid the absolute value

function. After that, we applied the direct substitution property of limits for
rational functions, which are continuous in their domain, by a previous theorem.

8
 If f (x) approaches distinct numbers along different paths as x
approaches a, then the limit lim f (x) does not exist.
x→a

Example: Decide whether the limit lim sin(π/x) exists. Justify your answer.
x→0

Solution: The limit does not exist because there are sequences of numbers
that approach 0 along which sin π/x approaches distinct numbers:
1
sin(π/x) = 0 =⇒ π/x = nπ =⇒ x = n = 1, 2, 3, · · ·
n
2
sin(π/x) = 1 =⇒ π/x = 2nπ + π/2 =⇒ x = n = 1, 2, 3, · · ·
4n + 1
As we let n take increasing, values 1/n and 2/(4n + 1) both approach 0, along
which sin(π/x) approaches the distinct values 0 and 1. Therefore,
lim sin(π/x) does not exist
x→0

In fact, for any number |c| ≤ 1 there

is a sequence of x values that
approach 0 along which sin(π/x)
aprroaches the number c.
9
If the form of the limit is 0/0 try factoring/cancelling out

Example: Decide whether the limit exists, and justify your answer.
3x4 − 6x3 − 2x2 + 11x − 14
lim
x→2 x2 + x − 6
Solution: If we try to substitute x = 2, we obtain the indeterminate form 0/0.
By the remark below, (x − 2) must appear as a factor in both the numerator
and the denominator. We can use polynomial division to find these factors:
(x − 2)(3x3 − 2x + 7) 3x3 − 2x + 7 25
lim = lim = =5
x→2 (x − 2)(x + 3) x→2 x+3 5

Remark: If p(x) is a polynomial and p(a) = 0, then x − a is a factor of p(x):

p(a) = 0 =⇒ p(x) = (x − a)q(x) for some polynomial q(x)

Some useful identities

a − b2 = (a − b)(a + b)
2

a3 − b3 = (a − b)(a2 + ab + b2 )
a3 + b3 = (a + b)(a2 − ab + b2 )
10
Infinite Limits and Vertical Asymptotes

Definition: An infinite limit refers to one of the followings:

• The notation lim f (x) = ∞ means that we can make the values f (x)
x→a
arbitrarily large by taking x to be sufficiently close to the number a.

• The notation lim f (x) = −∞ means that we can make the values f (x)
x→a
arbitrarily large negative by taking x to be sufficiently close to the number a.

• If the limit of f (x) as x approaches a is infinite, then the vertical line x = a

in the xy-plane is called a vertical asymptote of the graph y = f (x).

• We will use similar definitions for one-sided limits.

1
Example: lim = ∞.
x→0 x2

1 1
Example: lim = ∞ and lim = −∞.
x→1+ x−1 x→1− x − 1

Example: lim ln x = −∞.

x→0+

11
The curve y = tan x has infinitely many vertical asymptotes

Example: Find the vertical asymptotes of f (x) = tan x.

Solution: Vertical asymptotes appear at numbers where there is an infinite

limit, in particular, at the numbers where the limit does not exist. Since the
limits exist at points where f (x) is continuous, to find the vertical asymptotes
sin x
we need to study the discontinuities of tan x = :
cos x
(2n + 1)π
cos x = 0 =⇒ x = , n∈Z
2
Moreover, since tan x is a periodic function with period π, it is sufficient to
determine if there is a vertical asymptote at x = π/2, because the limits will be
the same at other discontinuities by periodicity:
 
sin x 1
lim tan x = lim = −∞ the form of the limit is
x→π/2+ x→π/2+ cos x 0−
 
sin x 1
lim tan x = lim = ∞ the form of the limit is
x→π/2− x→π/2− cos x 0+
It follows that there are infinitely many vertical asymptotes of tan x:
(2n + 1)π
x= , n∈Z 12
2
Precise definition of a Limit

Definition: The notation lim f (x) = L means that for every positive number
x→a
ε > 0 there is a corresponding positive number δ = δ(ε) > 0 such that

|f (x) − L| < ϵ whenever |x − a| < δ (except possibly at x = a).

Example: Show that lim (4x − 7) = 13 using the precise definition.

x→5

Solution: Let ε > 0 be an arbitrary positive number. We need to find a

corresponding δ(ε) > 0 such that

|4x − 20| < ϵ whenever |x − 5| < δ

| {z } | {z }
|f (x)−L| x−a

Observe that |4x − 20| = 4|x − 5|. Therefore, we can choose δ = ε/4:
⋆
|x − 5| < δ = ε/4 =⇒ |4x − 20| < ε

Note that the choice of δ is not unique. Any choice of δ that is less than ε/4
makes the implication ⋆ true.

13
Precise definition of limits for quadratic polynomials

Example: Show that lim (x2 − 2x + 1) = 4 using the precise definition.

x→3

Solution: Let ϵ > 0 be an arbitrary positive number. We need to find a

corresponding δ = δ(ε) such that
|x2 − 2x − 3| < ε whenever |x − 3| < δ. (⋆)
2
Note that |x − 2x − 3| = |x − 3||x + 1|. We can control |x − 3| by δ. To have
control on the other factor |x + 1|, we restrict x to lie in some interval
containing 3. In fact, since we are interested only in values of x that are close
to 3, it is reasonable to assume that x is within a distance 1 from 3:
|x − 3| < 1 =⇒ 2 < x < 4 =⇒ 3 < x + 1 < 5 =⇒ |x + 1| < 5
If we choose δ = min {1, ε/5}, then ⋆ is true:

 |x − 3| < 1 =⇒ |x + 1| < 5

|x − 3| < δ =⇒
 |x − 3| < ε/5


=⇒ |x − 3||x + 1| < 5 (ε/5) = ε

⋆
=⇒ |x2 − 2x − 3| < ε
14
Largest possible δ

Example: Find the largest possible δ > 0 such that

√
| x − 2| < 0.4 whenever |x − 4| < δ. (⋆)

Solution: We have
√ √
| x − 2| < 0.4 ⇐⇒ 1.6 < x < 2.4 ⇐⇒ 2.56 < x < 5.76

The center of the interval |x − 4| < δ is 4, which is closer to 2.56 than 5.76:

4 − 2.56 = 1.44
=⇒ choose δ = 1.44
5.76 − 4 = 1.76

With this choice of δ = 1.44 the statement ⋆ is true:

√
|x−4| < 1.44 =⇒ 2.56 < x < 5.44 =⇒ 2.56 < x < 5.76 =⇒ | x−2| < 0.4

Moreover, for any choice of δ bigger than 1.44, the statement ⋆ is not true.
Therefore, 1.44 is the largest possible value of δ, which makes ⋆ true.

15
The limit of a sum is the sum of the limits

Theorem: Assume that the limits lim f (x) and lim g(x) exist. Then,
x→a x→a

lim [f (x) + g(x)] = lim f (x) + lim g(x)

x→a x→a x→a

Proof: Assuming the limits lim f (x) and lim g(x) exist, we let
x→a x→a

L = lim f (x) and M = lim g(x)

x→a x→a

We want to show that lim [f (x) + g(x)] = L + M . Let ε > 0. Then,

x→a

(1) there is δf > 0 such that |f (x) − L| < ε/2 whenever |x − a| < δf , and
(2) there is δg > 0 such that |g(x) − M | < ε/2 whenever |x − a| < δg .
Let δ = min {δf , δg }. It follows from (1), (2), and the triangle inequality

(f (x) + g(x)) − (L + M ) = (f (x) − L) + (g(x) − M )

≤ f (x) − L + g(x) − M

that whenever |x − a| < δ we have (f (x) + g(x)) − (L + M ) < ε.

16
Further Limit Laws

Theorem: Assume that the limits lim f (x) and lim g(x) exist.
x→a x→a

• The limit of a sum/difference is the sum of limits:

 
lim f (x) ± g(x) = lim f (x) ± lim g(x)
x→a x→a x→a

• The limit of a product is the product of the limits:

    
lim f (x)g(x) = lim f (x) lim g(x)
x→a x→a x→a

• The limit of a quotient is the quotient of the limits:

f (x) lim f (x)  

x→a
lim = lim g(x) ̸= 0
x→a g(x) lim g(x) x→a
x→a

17
Limit Laws
f (x) − 8
Example: If the limit lim exists, find lim f (x).
x→0 x2 x→0

Solution: First, we ”solve” for f (x):

f (x) − 8
f (x) = x2 +8
x2

Then we apply the sum law and product law of limits:

  f (x) − 8
  
lim f (x) = lim x2 lim + lim 8
x→0 x→0 x→0 x2 x→0

= 0 × L + 8

=⇒ lim f (x) = 8
x→0

f (x) − 8
where L is the limit lim , which exists by assumption.
x→0 x2

18
The Squeeze Theorem

Theorem: If f (x) ≤ g(x) ≤ h(x) when x is near a (except possibly at a) and

lim f (x) = lim h(x) = L,

x→a x→a

then lim g(x) = L.

x→a

Example: Decide whether the limit exists, and justify your answer.
 
lim x2 sin(1/x)
x→0

Solution: Note that the product law of limits is not applicable because
lim sin(1/x) does not exist. Instead, we can apply the Squeeze Theorem:
x→0

x2 ≥0
−1 ≤ sin(1/x) ≤ 1 =⇒ −x2 ≤ x2 sin(1/x) ≤ x2
 
ST
lim x2 = lim (−x2 ) = 0 =⇒ lim x2 sin(1/x) = 0
x→0 x→0 x→0

19
The Squeeze Theorem

Remark: If lim |f (x)| = 0, then limx→a f (x) = 0.

x→a

Proof: Assume that lim |f (x)| = 0, and note that −|f (x)| ≤ f (x) ≤ |f (x)|.
x→a

ST
lim −|f (x)| = lim |f (x)| = 0 =⇒ lim f (x) = 0
x→a x→a x→a

Example: Decide whether the limit exists, and justify your answer.
 
1
lim ln x sin
x→1 1−x

Solution: We will use the claim above:

   
1 | ln x|≥0 1
0 ≤ sin ≤1 =⇒ 0 ≤ ln x sin ≤ | ln x|
1−x 1−x
 
ST 1
lim | ln x| = 0 =⇒ lim ln x sin =0
x→1 x→1 1−x
 
Remark 1
=⇒ lim ln x sin =0
x→1 1−x
20
Precise definition of Infinite Limits

Definition: There are similar definitions for one-sided limits.

• The notation lim f (x) = ∞ means that we for every real number M there is
x→a
δ > 0 such that f (x) > M whenever |x − a| < δ.
• The notation lim f (x) = −∞ means that we for every real number M there
x→a
is δ > 0 such that f (x) < M whenever |x − a| < δ.

1
Example: Show that lim = ∞.
x→0 x2
Solution: Let M be any real number. We need to find δ = δ(M ) > 0 such that
1
>M whenever |x| < δ. ⋆
x2
√ 1 1
It follows from x2 = |x| that 2 > M ⇐⇒ |x| < √ .
x M
√
Choosing δ = 1/ M makes the statement ⋆ true:
1 1 1
|x| < δ = √ =⇒ x2 < =⇒ >M
M M x2
21
Limit Law for Compositions

Theorem: If lim g(x) exists, and f (x) is continuous at lim g(x), then
x→a x→a
 
lim f (g(x)) = f lim g(x)
x→a x→a

Example: Decide whether the limit exists, and justify your answer.
 √ 
1− x
lim arcsin
x→1 1−x

Solution: The limit of the inner function exists (its form is 0/0):
√ √ √
1− x 1− x 1+ x 1−x
lim = lim √ = lim √
x→1 1 − x x→1 1 − x 1+ x x→1 (1 − x)(1 + x)
1 1
= lim √ =
x→1 1 + x 2
Note that 1/2 belongs the domain of arcsin x, which is the closed interval
[−1, 1]. Note that as an elementary function arcsin x is continuous at 1/2, the
limit of the inner function. Therefore, it follows from the theorem above that
 √   √ 
1− x 1− x
lim arcsin = arcsin lim
x→1 1−x x→1 1 − x

= arcsin(1/2) = π/6 22
Combinations of continuous functions are continuous

Theorem: Combinations of continuous functions are continuous. More

precisely, if f (x) and g(x) are continous at some number a, then

f +g f −g fg f /g f ◦g
are continuous at a, too.
Note: For the quotient f /g, we need that g(a) ̸= 0, and for the composition
f ◦ g we need further that f (x) is continuous at g(a).

Proof: The proof for each one of the combinations above follows from
the definition of continuity, and the corresponding limit law.
As an example, let’s prove the statement for the product f g. Assume that f (x)
and g(x) are continuous at a. We need to show that f g is continuous at a:
lim (f g)(x) = (f g)(a)
x→a

By the product law of limits (1), and continuity (2) we have

  
1 2
lim (f g)(x) = lim f (x) lim g(x) = f (a)g(a) = (f g)(a)
x→a x→a x→a

23
Intervals of Continuity

Remember that elementary functions are continuous on their domain.

Therefore, the following theorem is a consequence of the previous theorem.
Theorem: A combination of elementary functions is continuous on its domain.
ln x + arctan x
Example: Find the intervals of continuity of f (x) = .
x2 − 1
Solution: As a combination of elementary functions, f (x) is continuous on its
domain. Since domain (ln x) = (0, ∞) and domain (arctan x) = R, we have
domain (f (x)) = (0, ∞) − {1} = (0, 1) ∪ (1, ∞).
Therefore, f (x) is continuous on the intervals (0, 1) and (1, ∞).
Example: Find the intervals of continuity of f (x) = ln(1 + cos x).
Solution: The domain of f (x) is {x | 1 + cos x > 0}. Since 1 + cos x ≥ 0 for
all x ∈ R, it is enough to remove the numbers at which cos x = −1:
cos x = −1 =⇒ x = (2n + 1)π where n∈Z
Therefore, f (x) is continuous on the following intervals (infinitely many):
··· , (−3π, −π) , (−π, π) , (π, 3π) , ···
24
The Intermediate Value Theorem (IVT)

Theorem: Let f (x) be a continuous function on a closed interval [a, b], and N
be a number between f (a) and f (b). Then, there is a number c ∈ [a, b] such
that f (c) = N . (That is, continuous functions attain any intermediate value).
Corollary: If f (x) is continuous and changes sign on an interval [a, b], then
there exists a root of the equation f (x) = 0 in [a, b].
The Intermediate Value Theorem is a non-constructive existence theorem.

Example: Show that there exists a root of the equation 4x3 + 3x = 6x2 + 2.

Solution: Let f (x) = 4x3 − 6x2 + 3x − 2. It is sufficient to demonstrate the

existence of a number c such that f (c) = 0.
f (0) = −2 < 0 IV T f (c) = 0 c is a root of the equation
=⇒ =⇒
f (2) = 12 > 0 for some c in [0, 2] but what is c?

Bisection Method: Now that we have a root in [0, 2], we check the sign of f (x)
at the midpoint (1) of [0, 2] to get a smaller interval containing a root:
f (1) = −1 < 0 f (c) = 0 Exercise:
 
IV T
=⇒
f (2) = 12 > 0 for some c in [1, 2] Iterate one more time. 25
One-Sided Continuity

Remember that in the hypotheses of the Intermediate Value Theorem

f (x) is a continuous function on a closed interval [a, b].
At the endpoints of the interval [a, b] we mean one-sided continuities:
• f (x) is continuous from right at a if lim f (x) = f (a), and
x→a+
• f (x) is continuous from left at b if lim f (x) = f (b)
x→b−

Example: Find the value of c that makes f (x) continuous at x = 1/2:

(
arcsin x, if x ≥ 1/2
f (x) =
4x2 − c, if x < 1/2
Solution: Note that f (x) is continuous from right at x = 1/2 because of the
equality sign and that arcsin x is continuous at 1/2 as an elementary function.
Therefore, it is enough to have the left-continuity at x = 1/2:
lim f (x) = f (1/2) =⇒ lim (4x2 − c) = arcsin(1/2)
x→1/2− x→1/2

6+π
=⇒ 1 − c = π/6 =⇒ c =
6 26
Limits at infinity / Horizontal Asymptotes

Definition: Below are the intuitive and precise definitions of limits at infinity.
Intuitive: The notation lim f (x) = L means that we can make the values of f (x)
x→∞
arbitrarily close to the number L by taking x to be sufficiently large.
Precise: The notation lim f (x) = L means that for every positive number ε > 0,
x→∞
there is a corresponding number M = M (ε) such that
|f (x) − L| < ε whenever x > M.
• In this case, we call the line y = L the horizontal asymptote of y = f (x).
Example: Remember that the lines x = ±π/2 are vertical asymptotes of tan x.
The lines y = ±π/2 are the horizontal asymptotes of its inverse arctan x.

lim arctan x = π/2

x→∞

lim arctan x = −π/2

x→−∞

27
Limits at Infinity: Polynomials

Example: Find the horizontal asymptotes of P (x) = 1 + 2x3 − 5x7 , if exists.

 
1 2
Solution: We factor out x7 : lim (1 + 2x3 − 5x7 ) = lim x7 + − 5 .
x→∞ x→∞ x7 x4
 
1 2
Since lim x7 = ∞ and lim + 4 − 5 = −5, the form of the limit is
x→∞ x→∞ x7 x
∞ × (−5),
which represents the limit of the product of two functions one of which
becomes arbitrarily large, and the other approaches −5, as x → ∞. Therefore,
the product becomes arbitrarily large negative: lim P (x) = −∞. By a similar
x→∞
argument, lim P (x) = ∞, so P (x) has no horizontal asymptotes.
x→−∞
Remark: We can carry out similar arguments for any polynomial
P (x) = an xn + an−1 xn−1 + · · · + a1 x + a0 .
The limits at infinity of non-constant polynomials are either ∞ or −∞, which
we can determine by looking at the leading term an xn . Therefore,
non-constant polynomials do not have horizontal asymptotes.
28
Limits at Infinity : Rational Functions

Let R(x) = P (x)/Q(x) be a rational function where

P (x) = an xn + an−1 xn−1 + · · · + a1 x + a0
Q(x) = bm xm + bm−1 xm−1 + · · · + b1 x + b0
To find the horizontal asymptotes (limits at infinity) of R(x), our strategy is to
divide all the terms by xm where m is the degree of Q(x).
5x3 − 2x2 + x − 2 5 − 2/x + 1/x2 − 2/x3
Example: lim = lim = 5/2.
x→−∞ 2x3 + 3x − 5 x→−∞ 2 + 3/x2 − 5/x3
5x4 − 2x2 + x − 2 5x − 2/x + 1/x2 − 2/x3
Example: lim = lim = −∞.
x→−∞ 2x + 3x − 5
3 x→−∞ 2 + 3/x2 − 5/x3
−∞
Note that the form of the latter limit is 2
, which results in −∞.
2
3x + x − 2 3/x + 1/x2 − 2/x3
Example: lim = lim = 0.
x→−∞ 2x + 3x − 5
3 x→−∞ 2 + 3/x2 − 5/x3

Remark: More generally, we can determine the limits at infinity for rational
an xn
functions by looking at the quotient of the greatest degree terms: .
bm xm
29
Horizontal Asymptotes
√
Example: Find the horizontal asymptotes of f (x) = 9x2 + x − 5 + 3x.
Solution: First, let’s investigate the limit as x → ∞:
p
lim 9x2 + x − 5 = ∞
∞+∞
x→∞
p
=⇒ lim ( 9x2 + x − 5 + 3x) = ∞
x→∞
lim 3x = ∞
x→∞

It follows that lim f (x) does not exist: no horizontal asymptote as x → ∞.

x→∞
p
Second, let’s investigate the limit as x → −∞: lim ( 9x2 + x − 5 + 3x).
x→−∞
Observe that the form of the limit is different than the previous one: ∞ − ∞.
This form is one of the indeterminate forms, where no immediate conclusion
can be drawn, unlike in the first case. We need to put in more√ effort:
p p 9x2 + 4x − 5 − 3x
lim ( 9x + 3x − 5 + 3x) = lim ( 9x + 4x − 5 + 3x) √
2 2
x→−∞ x→−∞ 9x2 + 4x − 5 − 3x
√ 
4x − 5 4x − 5
= lim √ = lim p x2 = |x|
x→−∞ 9x2 + 4x − 5 − 3x x→−∞ −x 9 + 4/x − 5/x2 − 3x
4 − 5/x 2
= lim p =−
x→−∞ − 9 + 4/x − 5/x − 3
2 3
Therefore, y = −2/3 is the horizontal asymptote of f (x) as x → −∞. 30
More Examples

Examples: Limits of some compositions:

 
lim arctan(ln x) = lim arctan x = π/2 lim ln x = ∞
x→∞ x→∞ x→∞
 
lim arctan(ln x) = lim arctan x = −π/2 lim ln x = −∞
x→0+ x→−∞ x→0+
 
lim arctan(ex ) = lim arctan x = 0 lim ex = 0
x→−∞ x→0 x→−∞

Example: Decide whether the limit exists, and justify your answer:
lim e−x sin x
x→∞

Solution: Note that limx→∞ sin x does not exist.

e−x >0
−1 ≤ sin x ≤ 1 =⇒ −e−x ≤ e−x sin x ≤ e−x
Since lim −ex = lim ex = 0, the limit exists by the Squeeze Theorem:
x→−∞ x→−∞

lim e−x sin x = 0

x→∞
31
Is there a nowhere-continuous function on R?

Theorem: Every open interval contains a rational and an irrational number.

Claim: There is no number at which f (x) is continuous:
(
1, if x is rational
f (x) =
0, if x is irrational

Proof: Let a be a real number. By the theorem above, there are

• irrational x-values that approach a along which f (x) → 0, and

• rational x-values that approach a along which f (x) → 1.

Therefore, limx→a f (x) does not exist, which implies that f (x) is not
continuous at a. Since a is arbitrary, f (x) is nowhere continuous.

If f (x) approaches distinct numbers along different paths

as x approaches a, then the limit lim f (x) does not exist.
x→a

32