What is Database?

An organized collection of structured information, or data

A database is usually controlled by a database management system (DBMS).

The data can then be easily accessed, managed, modified, updated, controlled,
and organized.
Data Vs Information
Data Information

unorganised and unrefined facts organised data presented in a meaningful

context

raw materials which do not carry any specific a group of data that collectively carries a logical
meaning meaning

doesn’t depend on information depends on data

measured in bits and bytes is measured in meaningful units like time,

quantity, etc

insufficient for decision making sufficient for decision making

Why we need Database?

We use
applications Where can we save data?

We put data to File System?

application, and ● Read all data every time
also we take data ● Difficult to search
rom application ● Difficult to update
● I data row much, Oh No!
Think about it, i
application can’t Database is the solution
keep data ● Mana e Separately rom
anywhere application
● Easy to Manipulate

We will lose our precious data per

each reboot
File is not enough!
Feature Brief Description

Redundancy Copy of same data in many place

Inconsistency Copy of some data doesn’t match each other

Hard to access Really hard and have to implement search algorithm

Unauthorized access Very hard to control access level to file data

No Concurrent access Doesn’t allow fully concurrent access to same file.

No backup and recovery Does not incorporate any backup and recovery of data if a file is
lost or corrupted.
How they works?

DBMS
Use Database Model
To define how data is
Application
collected, stored,
Take data
managed, and utilized.
from CRUD
database via
their Data
languages
Database Management System

An interface between the database and its end users or programs

Allow users to retrieve, update, and manage how the information is organized and
optimized.

Use database model how to store, retrieve and so on.

Also facilitates oversight and control of databases, enabling a variety of

administrative operations such as performance monitoring, tuning, and backup
and recovery.
Database Model

A database model shows the logical structure of a database, including the

relationships and constraints that determine how data can be stored and
accessed.

Individual database models are designed based on the rules and concepts of
whichever broader data model the designers adopt.

Most data models can be represented by an accompanying database diagram.

Evolution of the Database
In these days
Cloud Database
Self Driving Database
2009
NoSQL Database
1990
Object Oriented
Database
1980
Relational Database
1960
Navigational Databases
Hierarchical database
Network database
Relational Concepts

Relationships
Model Integrity Constraints
Database Relational Algebra

Good & Bad Things

Relational Model

Relational Model was proposed by E.F.

Codd to model data in the form of
relations.

Codd’s relational model allowed

individual records to be associated
with more than one table, thereby
enabling “many-to-many” relationships
between data points in addition to
“one-to-many” relationships.

Codd proposed a language for

managing relational data, known as
Alpha, which influenced the
development of later database
languages. (Origin of SQL)
Concepts of Relational Model
Concept Description

Domain A set of atomic value that an attribute can take. Value of a column.

Attribute Properties that define a relation. Name of column in a table.

Tuple A set of attribute. A row of table that contain a record.

Relation Instance A finite set of tuples and doesn’t allow duplication. Table in database.

Relation Schema Define name of relation and attribute of relation. Table definition.

Key Attributes, that can identify turple in a relation uniquely.

Degree Number of attributes in a relation

Cardinality Number of tuples in a relation

Concept of Relation

Domain

R(A1, A2, ... , An) = STUDENT(NAME, DOB, GENDER, PHONE, EMAIL)

Concept of Keys

Key is an attribute or set of attributes which helps you to identify a tuple(row) in a

relation(table).

Keys help you uniquely identify a row in a table by a combination of one or more
columns in that table.

Key is also helpful for finding unique record or row from the table.

Key allows you to establish a relationship between and identify the relation
between tables.
Types of Key
Key Description

Super Key The set of attributes that can uniquely identify a tuple is known as Super
Key.

Candidate Key A minimum set of attributes that uniquely identify tuples in a table.
Candidate Key is a super key with no repeated attributes.

Primary Key A column or group of columns in a table that uniquely identify every row in
that table.

Alternate Key The candidate key other than the primary key is called an alternate key.

Foreign Key A key that creates a relationship between two tables. The purpose of
Foreign keys is to maintain data integrity and allow navigation between two
different instances of an entity.
 One to One

One to Many
Relationships Many to Many
Relational Model Unary Relationship

Ternary Relationship
One to One (1 : 1)

1 0 .. 1
Person Passport

A one to one (1:1) relationship is the relationship of one entity to only one other
entity, and vice versa.

It should be rare in any relational database design.

In fact, it could indicate that two entities actually belong in the same table.
One to Many (1 : M)

1 0 .. *
Customer Orders

In a one-to-many relationship, one record in a table can be associated with one or

more records in another table.

For example a customer can take zero to many orders.

This relationship can be described as many-to-one in other hand.

Many to Many (M : N)

1 0 .. * 0 .. * 1
Customer Orders Product

A many-to-many relationship occurs when multiple records in a table are associated with multiple records
in another table.

For example, a many-to-many relationship exists between customers and products: customers can
purchase various products, and products can be purchased by many customers.

Relational database systems usually don't allow you to implement a direct many-to-many relationship
between two tables.

You can break the many-to-many relationship into two one-to-many relationships by using a third table
(Orders), called a join table.
Unary Relationship
*
Employee

0 .. 1
supervisor

A unary relationship, also called recursive, is one in which a relationship exists

between occurrences of the same entity set.

In this relationship, the primary and foreign keys are the same, but they represent
two entities with different roles.
Unary Relationship
*
Employee

0 .. 1
supervisor

A unary relationship, also called recursive, is one in which a relationship exists

between occurrences of the same entity set.

In this relationship, the primary and foreign keys are the same, but they represent
two entities with different roles.
Ternary Relationship
A ternary relationship is a relationship type
Product that involves many to many relationships
between three tables.
1
For each n-ary (> 2) relationship, create a new
0 .. *
relation to represent the relationship.
Supply The primary key of the new relation is a
0 .. * combination of the primary keys of the
0 .. *
participating entities that hold the N (many)
1 1 side.

Part Supplier In most cases of an n-ary relationship, all the

participating entities hold a many side.
 Relational Integrity constraints in
DBMS are referred to conditions
Relational Integrity which must be present for a valid
Constraints relation.

1. Domain Integrity
Relational Model 2. Entity Integrity
3. Referential Transparency
Integrity
Domain Integrity

Domain integrity specifies that all columns in a relational database must be

declared upon a defined domain.

The primary unit of data in the relational data model is the data item. Such data
items are said to be non-decomposable or atomic.

Domain Constraint = Data type + Constraints

(NOT NULL / UNIQUE / PRIMARY KEY / FOREIGN KEY / CHECK / DEFAULT)
Entity Integrity

To ensure entity integrity, it is required that every table have a primary key.

Neither the PK nor any part of it can contain null values.

This is because null values for the primary key mean we cannot identify some
rows.
Referential Transparency Integrity

Referential integrity requires that a foreign key must have a matching primary key
or it must be null.

This constraint is specified between two tables (parent and child); it maintains the
correspondence between rows in these tables.

It means the reference from a row in one table to another table must be valid.
Relational
Algebra Basic Operations

Join Operations
Relational Model
Relational Algebra

A theory that uses algebraic structures with a well-founded semantics for

modeling data, and defining queries on it.

The main premise of the relational algebra is to define operators that transform
one or more input relations to an output relation.

Primitive theory is introduced by Edgar F. Codd.

This is the base theory of Structured Query Language (SQL)

 Relational Operation use Set Theory,
but adds additional constraints to
Basic these operators.

Operations 1.
2.
Union
Difference
3. Intersection
Relational Algebra 4. Projection
5. Selection
6. Rename
7. Cartesian Product
Set Algebra in Relational Model

The relational algebra uses set union, set difference, and Cartesian product from
set theory, but adds additional constraints to these operators.

For set union and set difference, the two relations involved must be
union-compatible—that is, the two relations must have the same set of attributes.

Because set intersection is defined in terms of set union and set difference, the
two relations involved in set intersection must also be union-compatible.

For the Cartesian product to be defined, the two relations involved must have
disjoint headers—that is, they must not have a common attribute name.
Set Operations

UNION DIFFERENCE INTERSECT

A∪B A-B A∩B

Union Operator (⋃)
R1
Column 1 Column 2 Column 3

1 A 100
R1 ⋃ R2
2 B 10
Column 1 Column 2 Column 3

1 A 100
R2
2 B 10
Column 1 Column 2 Column 3

2 B 10 3 C 1

3 C 1
Difference Operator (-)
R1
Column 1 Column 2 Column 3

1 A 100
R1 - R2
2 B 10
Column 1 Column 2 Column 3

1 A 100
R2

Column 1 Column 2 Column 3

2 B 10

3 C 1
Intersect Operator (∩)
R1
Column 1 Column 2 Column 3

1 A 100
R1 - R2
2 B 10
Column 1 Column 2 Column 3

2 B 10
R2

Column 1 Column 2 Column 3

2 B 10

3 C 1
Projection (Π)

The projection eliminates all attributes of the input relation but those mentioned in
the projection [Link] projection method defines a relation that contains a vertical
subset of Relation.

This operator helps you to keep specific columns from a relation and discards the
other columns.

When implemented in SQL standard the "default projection" returns a multiset

instead of a set, and the Π projection to eliminate duplicate data is obtained by the
addition of the DISTINCT keyword.
Project Operator (Π)
Registration Π name, date (Registration)
ID Name Date Course Name Date

1 Aung Aung 2021-10-14 Java Basic Aung Aung 2021-10-14

2 Maung Maung 2021-10-15 Java Basic Maung Maung 2021-10-15

3 Thidar 2021-10-18 Spring Thidar 2021-10-18

4 Nilar 2021-10-20 Spring Nilar 2021-10-20

Selection (σ)

The select operation is used for selecting a subset of the tuples according to a
given selection condition.

It is used as an expression to choose tuples which meet the selection condition.

Select operator selects tuples that satisfy a given predicate.

A generalized selection is a unary operation and can write the normal selection
and the logical operators ∧ (and), ∨ (or) and ¬ (negation).
Select Operator (σ)
Registration σ date = '2021-10-14' ∨ date = '2021-10-15' (Registration)
ID Name Date ID Name Date

1 Aung Aung 2021-10-14 1 Aung Aung 2021-10-14

2 Maung Maung 2021-10-15 2 Maung Maung 2021-10-15

3 Thidar 2021-10-18

4 Nilar 2021-10-20
Rename Operation (ρ)

Rename is a unary operation used for renaming attributes of a relation.

ρ (a/b)R will rename the attribute ‘b’ of relation by ‘a’.

Cartesian Product (⨯)

For the Cartesian product to be defined, the two relations involved must have
disjoint headers—that is, they must not have a common attribute name.

Cartesian product of a set of n-tuples with a set of m-tuples yields a set of

"flattened" (n + m)-tuples.

The cardinality of the Cartesian product is the product of the cardinalities of its
factors, that is, |R × S| = |R| × |S|.
Cartesian Product Operator (⨯)
R1 R1 ⨯ R2

ID Name ID Name Room Subject

1 Aung Aung 1 Aung Aung 1 Java Basic

2 Thidar 1 Aung Aung 2 Web Fundamental

2 Thidar 1 Java Basic

R2
Room Subject 2 Thidar 2 Web Fundamental

1 Java Basic

2 Web Fundamental
 Join operation is essentially a
cartesian product followed by a
selection criterion.

Join Operations Join operation also allows joining

variously related tuples from
Relational Algebra different relations.

1. Inner Join
2. Outer Join
Join Types
 In an inner join, only those tuples
that satisfy the matching criteria are
included, while the rest are

Inner Join excluded.

1. Natural join
Join Operations 2. EQUI join
3. Theta join
Natural Join (⋈)
SHIP SHIP ⋈ (AIRLINE)

Ship Fees Natural join can only be performed if there is a

common attribute (column) between the relations.
BKK 20 The name and type of the attribute must be same.

TOKYO 60 Ship Fees Air Fees

BKK 20 BKK 60
AIRLINE
BKK 20 TOKYO 150
Air Fees

BKK 60 TOKYO 60 BKK 60

TOKYO 150 TOKYO 60 TOKYO 150

Theta Join (⋈𝜃)
SHIP SHIP ⋈ [Link] < [Link] (AIRLINE)
The general case of JOIN operation is called a
Ship Fees Theta join. It is denoted by symbol θ.
BKK 20
Ship Fees Air Fees
TOKYO 60
BKK 20 BKK 60

AIRLINE TOKYO 60 TOKYO 150

Air Fees BKK 20 TOKYO 150

BKK 60

TOKYO 150
EQUI Join (⋈𝜃)
SHIP SHIP ⋈ [Link] = [Link] (AIRLINE)

Ship Fees When a theta join uses only equivalence

condition, it becomes a equi join.
BKK 20
Ship Fees Air Fees
TOKYO 60
BKK 20 BKK 60

AIRLINE TOKYO 60 TOKYO 150

Air Fees

BKK 60

TOKYO 150
 In an outer join, along with tuples
that satisfy the matching criteria,

Outer Join we also include some or all tuples

that do not match the criteria.

Join Operations 1. Left Outer Join

2. Right Outer Join
3. Full Join
Left Join (⟕)
SHIP SHIP ⟕ [Link] = [Link] (AIRLINE)

Ship Fees In the left outer join, operation allows keeping all tuple in the
left relation. However, if there is no matching tuple is found in
BKK 20 right relation, then the attributes of right relation in the join
result are filled with null values.
TOKYO 60
Ship Fees Air Fees
LONDON 90
BKK 20 BKK 60
AIRLINE
TOKYO 60 TOKYO 150
Air Fees
LONDON 90 NULL NULL
BKK 60

TOKYO 150

PARIS 180
Right Join (⟖)
SHIP SHIP ⟖ [Link] = [Link] (AIRLINE)

Ship Fees In the right outer join, operation allows keeping all tuple in the
right relation. However, if there is no matching tuple is found
BKK 20 in the left relation, then the attributes of the left relation in the
join result are filled with null values.
TOKYO 60
Ship Fees Air Fees
LONDON 90
BKK 20 BKK 60
AIRLINE
TOKYO 60 TOKYO 150
Air Fees
NULL NULL PARIS 180
BKK 60

TOKYO 150

PARIS 180
Full Join (⟗)
SHIP SHIP ⟗ [Link] = [Link] (AIRLINE)

Ship Fees In a full outer join, all tuples from both relations are included
in the result, irrespective of the matching condition.
BKK 20
Ship Fees Air Fees
TOKYO 60
BKK 20 BKK 60
LONDON 90
TOKYO 60 TOKYO 150
AIRLINE
LONDON 90 NULL NULL
Air Fees
NULL NULL PARIS 180
BKK 60

TOKYO 150

PARIS 180
Advantages
● A Relational data model in DBMS is simpler than the hierarchical and network model.
● The relational database is only concerned with data and not with a structure. This can improve the
performance of the model.
● The Relational model in DBMS is easy as tables consisting of rows and columns are quite natural
and simple to understand.
● It makes possible for a high-level query language like SQL to avoid complex database navigation.
● The Structure of Relational database can be changed without having to change any application.
● Regarding a number of records, or rows, and the number of fields, a database should be enlarged to
enhance its usability.
Disadvantages

● Few relational databases have limits on field lengths which can’t be exceeded.
● Relational databases can sometimes become complex as the amount of data
grows, and the relations between pieces of data become more complicated.
● Complex relational database systems may lead to isolated databases where
the information cannot be shared from one system to another.