LECTURE EIGHT: FREE WORD-GROUPS AND PHRASEOLOGICAL UNITS (PhU)

1. Basic features of word-groups. The largest two-facet lexical unit consisting of more than one word is the
word-group observed on the syntagmatic level. The degree of structural and semantic cohesion of word-
groups may be different. There exist free and non-free word-groups.

2. Lexical and grammatical valency. Words are used in certain lexical context, i.e. in combination with
other words. The aptness of a word to appear in various combinations is called lexical valency or
collocability. The range of the lexical valency is linguistically restricted by the inner structure of the English
word-stock. If words are habitually collocated, they tend to constitute a cliche. Words are used in
grammatical structures, that is in grammatical context. The aptness of the word to appear in specific
grammatical/syntactic structures is called grammatical valency.

3. Classification of word groups. Different scholars approach the classification of word-groups in various
ways.
Bloomfield’s classification is made by means of criteria of distribution, i.e. syntactic use. According to it
there are endocentric constructions (or word-groups) and exocentric constructions (or word-groups).
According to their syntactic pattern word-groups may be classified into predicative and non-predicative.

Semantically all word-groups may be classified into:

Fig. 9.

4. What is the subject of Phraseology? In English and American linguistics no such special brunch of
study exists, and the term “phraseology” is a stylistic one meaning mode of expression, peculiarities of
diction, i.e. choice and arrangement of words and phrases characteristic of some author or some literary
work. The term phraseology as a science was born in Soviet linguistics. There are two main schools treating
the problem of English phraseology, that of N.N. Amosova and that of A.V. Kunin. According to Amosova
a phraseological unit is a unit of constant context.

Kunin’s theory is based on the concept of specific stability at the phraseological level. A.I. Smirnitsky
takes as his guiding principle the equivalence of a phraseological unit (PU) to a word. Whatever the theory
the term phraseology is applied to stable combinations of words characterized by the integrity of meaning.

5. The problem of classification of phraseological units (PhU). Taking into account mainly the types of
motivation, phraseological units may be classified into three groups based on Vinogradov’s theory:
Phraseological Phraseological Phraseological collocations
fusions unities
are completely non- are partially motivated are motivated but they
motivated consist of words possessing
specific lexical valency
to kick the bucket to show one’s teeth to meet the demand, to bear
the grudge

Amosova’s approach to classification of PU is contextological; it is based on the principle of fixed context.

Thus she distinguishes between:
Phrasemes Idioms
In these word-groups one of In them the new meaning is created by the
the members has specialized whole, though every element may have its
meaning dependent on the original meaning weakened or completely
second component lost
small hours Motivated Demotivated
 to take the bull by the the mare’s nest
horns
Smirnitsky’s classification is based on a functional approach, as well as Kunin’s. According to them there
are:
 Nominal phrases: the root of the trouble
 Verbal phrases: to put one’s best foot forward
 Adjectival phrases: as good as gold
 Adverbial phrases: from head to foot
 Prepositional phrases: on the ground of
 Conjunctional phrases: as long as
 Interjectional phrases: Well, I never!

Within each of these classes a further subdivision is possible.

6. How to distinguish PU from free word-groups? There are two major criteria for distinguishing between
PU and free word-groups: semantic and structural. Semantic one is based on Kunin’s definition of PU. “A
phraseological unit is a stable word-group characterized by a completely or partially transferred meaning.”
Structural criterion recognizes structural invariability as an essential feature of PU that finds expression in
a number of restrictions.

PRACTICE EIGHT
I. Be ready to discuss and to write a test on the article by [Link] de Groot “Problems of
Classification of Word Groups”. (Readings in Modern English Lexicology, pp. 66-72.)

1. What each classification of word groups is intended to?

2. What is the purpose of making classifications according to Ries, Bloomfield and Trubetszkoy?
3. What criterion does Bloomfield use for classifying word groups?
4. What is a more logical way to distinguish word groups in William de Groot’s opinion?
5. How does W. de Groot characterize the terms endocentric and exocentric?
6. What is a syntactic unit?
7. What are the main types of syntactic distribution?
8. How can the sentence “Alas, Mary, John died” be analyzed?
9. What criterion helps to find out the number of independents?
10. How can the omission test be applied?
11. What word group does a head belong to?
12. What is fresh in the sentence “I have fresh milk”?
13. What is a conjunct in the word group “John ran”?
14. What kind of word groups is a coordinate a member of?
15. What does a coordinate word group consist of?
16. What does an adjunctive group consist of?
17. What does W. de Groot think about the classification according to meanings?
18. What should you consider when using meaning as a criterion for distinguishing between types of word
groups?
19. How is the expression of an attitude of the speaker to something called?
20. What does a referential meaning refer to?
21. How can the word group “dogs bark” be called?
22. What is typical for the word group “men, women and children (cried)”?
23. What does W. de Groot call “correlates of meaning”?
24. What are the indentificational features of word-groups?
25. When can two words have the same form but a different meaning?
26. What are completely reliable indicators of meaning?

II. Study the theoretical material and recommended additional literature and answer the following
questions.
1. What does the term idiomaticity mean?
Some linguists regard the term as lack of motivation from the point of view of one’s mother tongue or from
the point of view of native speakers (intralingual approach).

2. What approaches or criteria are used in different classifications of PhUs?

a) according to the degree of idiomaticity (semantic principle); b) criteria of stability; c) criteria of
function (structural principle) – there are several such classifications; d) from the contextual point of view
(principle of fixed context); e) according to their original content (thematic / etymological principle).

3. The place of proverbs, sayings, and familiar quotations in phraseology.

This problem is rather controversial. Give summary of the ways different scholars (V.V. Vinogradov, A.V.
Kunin, J. Casares, N.N. Amosova) approached the problem of the place of proverbs, sayings in phraseology.
How did they view familiar quotations?

4. Phraseology viewed diachronically.

It is assumed that almost all phrases can be traced back to free word-groups, which in the course of the
historical development may undergo the processes of grammaticalization or lexicalization.

III. Do the following exercises.

1. Analyze the following word combinations from the point of view of grammatical and lexical valency
of their components.

Teach well, badly, competently, skillfully; teach children, adults, a mixed class of boys and girls; teach smb
a good lesson; bring a present, his things, one’s luggage upstairs, chairs, spoons; bring an answer, good
news, a message; bring snow, rain, bad weather; bring him to see my point, bring them to see the wisdom of
his plan; bring smth home to smb.

2. Give your own examples of grammatical and lexical valency of English words.

3. Compare the valency of the following English words to that of their Russian correlates.
Face (the window, the terrace, the room, the house), face smb (the problem, the task that faced us), face the
danger, the future, enemy, death bravely, unflinchingly; love smb dearly, devotedly, love smth (sweets, ice-
cream, comfort, mountain-climbing), love to be praised, to be admired; reply (to a letter, a question, a
toast); wonder (at smb, smth, at your behavior, at her saying that); yield (to smth, to force, to pressure,
persuasion, temptation).

4. Make up two lists out of the following combinations of words — free combinations of words (FC)
and phraseological units (PhU).

At death’s door, at long last, beat about the bush, big house, bite off more than one can chew, black suit,
black sheep, by heart, dance around the room, draw a blank, draw the curtains, fall in love, fly high, going
strong, open wide, pass through the door, pay through the nose, red tape, smell a flower, smell a rat.

5. Classify the following phraseological units.

To follow one’s instructions to the letter, to throw light on the matter, to be a fish out of water, to be given a
sack, to knock smb down with a feather, a dead heat, to have a bee in one’s bonnet, to be wounded to the
quick, to keep a stiff upper lip, a light sleeper, to fall ill, to go bad, a bosom friend, to play gooseberry, to
keep minute.

6. Comment on the difference between phraseological fusions, phraseological unities and word
combinations.

a) To see the world through rosy l) To play the first fiddle.

spectacles. m) To find faults with somebody.
b) To show the white feather. n) The apple of one’s eye.
c) To kiss the hare’s foot. o) To dot the Is and cross the Ts.
d) To call a spade a spade. p) I am fed up with it!
e) To make friends. q) A pretty kettle of fish.
f) To take revenge. r) Let sleeping dogs lie.
g) A house of cards. s) To have all the trumps in one
h) To make up one’s mind. hand.
i) To shed crocodile tears. t) Between wind and water.
j) To commit suicide. u) To establish control.
k) Juda’s kiss. v) A hard nut to crack.

7. Pick out synonymous proverbs.

1) There is no place like home. 2) Accidents will happen in the best regulated families. 3) After death the
doctor. 4) Appearances are deceptive. 5) The apples on the other side of the wall are the sweetest. 6) As a
man lives, so shall he die. 7) East or West, but the home is best. 8) As a man sows, so shall he reap. 9) Good
health is above wealth. 10) Well begun is half done. 11) A good beginning makes a good ending. 12) As you
brew, so must you drink. 13) Beggars cannot be choosers. 14) Four eyes see more than two. 15) Two heads
are better than one. 16) Wealth is nothing without health. 17) Better an egg today than a hen tomorrow. 18)
Better a small fish than an empty dish. 19) As you make your bed, so you must lie on it.
20) A bird in the hand is better than two in the bush. 21) Catch the bear before you sell his skin. 22) Death
ends all things. 23) Every dog has his day. 24) Death is the great leveler. 25) Deeds, not words. 26)
Everything is good in its season. 27) Doing is better than saying. 28) Don’t boast until you see the enemy
dead. 29) Let sleeping dogs lie. 30) Don’t trouble trouble until trouble troubles you. 31) Dry bread at home
is better than roast meat abroad. 32) Don’t look a gift horse in the mouth. 33) He that would eat the fruit
must climb the tree. 34) No cross, no crown. 35) Every family has a black sheep. 36) A fair face may hide a
foul heart (soul). 37) first catch your hair, then cook him. 38) Forbidden fruit is sweet. 39) Half a loaf is
better than no bread. 40) In the evening one may praise the day. 41) It is no use crying over spilt milk.

8. Work in pairs. Match 1-12 to a-l to make common sayings. Discuss what they mean. Do you have
sayings in your language that express similar ideas?

1) When the going gets tough a) on the other side

2) When in Rome b) catches the worm
3) People in glass houses c) the tough get going
4) If you can’t beat them, d) has a silver lining
5) It takes all sorts e) in the mouth
6) The early bird f) shouldn’t throw shoes
7) Never look a gift horse g) to make a world
8) If it ain’t broke h) join them
9) Too many cooks i) before they hatch
10) Every cloud j) don’t fix it
11) The grass is always greener k) do as the Romans do
12) Don’t count your chickens l) spoil the broth
9. Match the following definitions with corresponding phraseological units. There are more
phraseological units than definitions.

a) Direct one’s attack, criticism or efforts to the wrong quarter.

b) Bear the main stress or burden (of a task, contest, etc.)
c) Talk around the point instead of coming direct to the subject.
d) Importunately thrust one’s presence upon somebody.
e) Fail to gain any information, or achieve any result.
f) Be docile; give no trouble, do whatever somebody wishes
g) Pay all the expenses incurred. Do something completely.
h) Remain mentally calm, and keep control of oneself in a difficult situation.
i) Know from experience the best way or method of doing something.
j) Draw an inference from given texts.
k) Be in agreement, hold similar view.
l) Ignore something, pretend not to see
m) Disclaim further responsibility or concern

1 Jump the queue, 2 bark up the wrong tree, 3 foot the bill, 4 let off steam, 5 see eye to eye, 6 air one’s
views, 7 lend a hand, 8 haul down one’s flag, 9 beat about the bush, 10 take to one’s heels, 11 eat out of
somebody’s hand, 12 mark time, 13 hit the nail on the head, 14 keep one’s head, 15 change hands, 16 turn a
blind eye to something, 17 put two and two together, 18 bear the brunt, 19 know the ropes, 20 have a good
mind to do something, 21 break one’s word, draw a blank, 22 go to the whole hog, 23 dog somebody’s
footsteps, 24 wash one’s hands of something.