Storage Analysis.

1. The flow in m3/s of R. Aswa for over 17 months each of 30 days was as given. What
reservoir capacity would be necessary to supply 15.2MW, continuously? What
volume of water will escape over the spillway in the above period? Use
i. Mass curve method

Q (m3/s) D (m3/s) ΣQ(m3/s) ΣD (m3/s)

1 6.7 73.36 6.70 73.36
2 16.8 73.36 23.50 146.73
3 77.1 73.36 100.60 220.09
4 102.4 73.36 203.00 293.45
5 238 73.36 441.00 366.82
6 247 73.36 688.00 440.18
7 216 73.36 904.00 513.55
8 63 73.36 967.00 586.91
9 26.3 73.36 993.30 660.27
10 20.6 73.36 1013.90 733.64
11 16.8 73.36 1030.70 807.00
12 6.5 73.36 1037.20 880.36
13 39.6 73.36 1076.80 953.73
14 68.8 73.36 1145.60 1027.09
15 145 73.36 1290.60 1100.45
16 216 73.36 1506.60 1173.82
17 162 73.36 1668.60 1247.18

1
 A plot of cumulative flow and cumulative demand (m3/s) against time (months)

1800

ΣQa, ΣD (m3/s) MASS CURVE

I
1600

1410 G
1400

Storage
1200
1120
H

1000
940 C
Mass flow curve
800 Mass demand curve

Spill
600

460
400
D B

220 E
200
158
A

0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
Time (months)

From the graph, the reservoir fills up at point D, during the 4th month i.e. July and storage AE
is required for the cycle.
At D it starts to spill and at C, it is depleted up to H. From H to I the reservoir begins filling
again. and the required storage is as follows

The volume of water that would escape over the spillway is calculated as

2
ii. Analytical method

Inflexion
Q (m3/s) D (m3/s) Q-D Σ(Q-D) points Storage
1 6.7 73.36 -66.66 -66.66 -66.66
2 16.8 73.36 -56.56 -123.23 -123.23 56.56
3 77.1 73.36 3.74 -119.49
4 102.4 73.36 29.04 -90.45
5 238 73.36 164.64 74.18
6 247 73.36 173.64 247.82
7 216 73.36 142.64 390.45 390.45 513.68
8 63 73.36 -10.36 380.09
9 26.3 73.36 -47.06 333.03
10 20.6 73.36 -52.76 280.26
11 16.8 73.36 -56.56 223.70
12 6.5 73.36 -66.86 156.84
13 39.6 73.36 -33.76 123.07
14 68.8 73.36 -4.56 118.51 118.51 271.95
15 145 73.36 71.64 190.15
16 216 73.36 142.64 332.78
17 162 73.36 88.64 421.42 421.42 302.91

3
iii. Flow duration curves

Q (m3/s) Number of times equalled or exceeded %age of time

247 1 5.88
238 2 11.76
216 4 23.53
216 4 23.53
162 5 29.41
145 6 35.29
102.4 7 41.18
77.1 8 47.06
68.8 9 52.94
63 10 58.82
39.6 11 64.71
26.3 12 70.59
20.6 13 76.47
16.8 15 88.24
16.8 15 88.24
6.7 16 94.12
6.5 17 100.00

4
 A Plot of Flow or the Demand (m3/s) against % time exceeded or equalled
250 (5.88,247)
FLOW DURATION CURVE
3
Flow, demand (m /s)

200

150

flow duration curve

A2
Demand line
100

(47.06,73.36)
(100,73.36)
(5.88,73.36)

50
A1

(100,6.5)
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
% time flow is exceeded or equalled

5
2. A dam is to be constructed to embark on large scale irrigation in the Kafu plains.
Given were the monthly minimum flows for R. Kafu, over a 15 month period.
Determine the reservoir capacity required
i. Mass curve method

Q(m3)×106 Q (m3/day)×106 Q (m3/s) 3

Q a (m /s)
3
D (m /s) ΣQ a (m3/s) ΣD (m3/s)
1 12 0.40 4.630 3.346 3.76 3.346 3.76
2 24 0.80 9.259 7.975 3.76 11.321 7.52
3 40 1.33 15.432 14.148 3.76 25.469 11.28
4 12 0.40 4.630 3.346 3.76 28.815 15.05
5 5 0.17 1.929 0.645 3.76 29.460 18.81
6 4 0.13 1.543 0.259 3.76 29.719 22.57
7 7 0.23 2.701 1.417 3.76 31.135 26.33
8 4 0.13 1.543 0.259 3.76 31.395 30.09
9 3 0.10 1.157 -0.127 3.76 31.268 33.85
10 3 0.10 1.157 -0.127 3.76 31.141 37.62
11 7 0.23 2.701 1.417 3.76 32.558 41.38
12 23 0.77 8.873 7.589 3.76 40.148 45.14
13 37 1.23 14.275 12.991 3.76 53.138 48.90
14 8 0.27 3.086 1.802 3.76 54.941 52.66
15 6 0.20 2.315 1.031 3.76 55.971 56.42
75.231

6
 A plot of flow rate, demand (m3/s) against time (months)

60
Flow, demand (m3/s)
55.5

50

40

32.5
30 mass flow curve
mass demand curve

20

10

0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 Time (months)

7
ii. Analytical method

Q (m3/s) Qa (m3/s) D (m3/s) Qa-D ΣQa-D Inflexion points. Storage

4.630 3.346 3.76 -0.416 -0.416 -0.416

9.259 7.975 3.76 4.214 3.798

15.432 14.148 3.76 10.387 14.184 14.184 14.600

4.630 3.346 3.76 -0.416 13.768

1.929 0.645 3.76 -3.117 10.652

1.543 0.259 3.76 -3.502 7.149

2.701 1.417 3.76 -2.345 4.804

1.543 0.259 3.76 -3.502 1.302

1.157 -0.127 3.76 -3.888 -2.586

1.157 -0.127 3.76 -3.888 -6.474

2.701 1.417 3.76 -2.345 -8.819 -8.819 23.003

8.873 7.589 3.76 3.828 -4.991

14.275 12.991 3.76 9.229 4.238 4.238 13.057

3.086 1.802 3.76 -1.959 2.279

2.315 1.031 3.76 -2.731 -0.452 -0.452 4.690

8
iii. Flow duration curve.

Adjusted mean monthly flows. Number of times equalled or exceeded %age of time
14.148
1 6.7
12.991
2 13.3
7.975
3 20.0
7.589
4 26.7
3.346
6 40.0
3.346
6 40.0
1.802
7 46.7
1.417
9 60.0
1.417
9 60.0
1.031
10 66.7
0.645
11 73.3
0.259
13 86.7
0.259
13 86.7
-0.127
15 100.0
-0.127
15 100.0

9
A Plot of Flow rate (m3/s) against % time exceeded or equalled.
16
Flow, demand (m3/s)

14

12

10

8
Flow duration curve
demand line
6

4
(38.8, 3.76) (100, 3.76)
A1
2

0 (100, -0.127)

0 20 40 60 80 100

-2 % time, flow is exceeded or

equalled.

10
iv. Sequent peak algorithm

Q (m3/s) Qa (m3/s) D (m3/s) Qa-D ΣQa-D Inflexion points.

1 4.630 3.346 3.76 -0.416 -0.416
2 9.259 7.975 3.76 4.214 3.798
3 15.432 14.148 3.76 10.387 14.184 (P1) 14.184
4 4.630 3.346 3.76 -0.416 13.768
5 1.929 0.645 3.76 -3.117 10.652
6 1.543 0.259 3.76 -3.502 7.149
7 2.701 1.417 3.76 -2.345 4.804
8 1.543 0.259 3.76 -3.502 1.302
9 1.157 -0.127 3.76 -3.888 -2.586
10 1.157 -0.127 3.76 -3.888 -6.474
11 2.701 1.417 3.76 -2.345 -8.819 (T1) -8.819
12 8.873 7.589 3.76 3.828 -4.991
13 14.275 12.991 3.76 9.229 4.238 (P2) 4.238
14 3.086 1.802 3.76 -1.959 2.279
15 2.315 1.031 3.76 -2.731 -0.452
16 4.630 3.346 3.76 -0.416 -0.868 (T2) -0.868
17 9.259 7.975 3.76 4.214 3.346
18 15.432 14.148 3.76 10.387 13.732 (P3) 13.732
19 4.630 3.346 3.76 -0.416 13.316
20 1.929 0.645 3.76 -3.117 10.200
21 1.543 0.259 3.76 -3.502 6.697
22 2.701 1.417 3.76 -2.345 4.352
23 1.543 0.259 3.76 -3.502 0.850
24 1.157 -0.127 3.76 -3.888 -3.038
25 1.157 -0.127 3.76 -3.888 -6.926
26 2.701 1.417 3.76 -2.345 -9.271 (T3) -9.271
27 8.873 7.589 3.76 3.828 -5.443
28 14.275 12.991 3.76 9.229 3.786 (P4) 3.786
29 3.086 1.802 3.76 -1.959 1.827
30 2.315 1.031 3.76 -2.731 -0.904

11
3. Which of the above methods do you think gives the most accurate results?
The Sequent Peak Algorithm method gives the most accurate results since no graphs are
used, hence less errors are likely as there is a limited number of approximations to
consider.
Closely related is Analytical the method, as this is a modification of the Sequent Peak
Algorithm method though only considers one flow period, which is unlike the sequent
peak algorithm method which considers two flow periods.

4. Mention the characteristics of a good reservoir site.

A good site for a reservoir should have the following characteristics:
a. Large storage capacity:
The topography of the site should be such that the reservoir has a large capacity to
store water.
b. Suitable site for the dam:
There should be good foundation for the dam and the reservoir basin should have a
narrow opening in the valley so that the length of the dam is so small. The cost of the
dam is often a controlling factor in the selection of a site for the reservoir.
c. Water tightness of the reservoir:
The geological conditions of the reservoir site should be such that the reservoir basin
is water tight. The reservoir sites having pervious rocks are not suitable. The reservoir
basin having shales, slates, gneiss, granite etc are generally suitable.
d. Good hydrological conditions:
The hydrological conditions of the river at the reservoir site should be such the runoff
is available for storage. The catchment area of the river should give high yield. There
should not be heavy losses in the catchment due to evaporation, transpiration and
percolation.
e. Deep reservoir:
The site should be such that a deep reservoir is formed in the construction of the dam.
A deep reservoir is preferred to a shallow one because in the former the evaporation
losses are small, the cost of land acquisition low and the weed growth less.
f. Small-submerged area:
The site should be such that the submerged area is minimum. It should not affect the
ecology of the region. Monuments of historical and architectural importance should
not be submerged.

12
 g. Low silt inflow:
The life of the reservoir is short if the river water at the site has a large quantity of
sediments. The reservoir site should be selected such that is excludes the water from
those tributaries which carry a high percentage of silt.
h. No objection minerals:
The soil and rock mass at the reservoir site should not contain any objectionable
soluble minerals which may contaminate the water. The stored water should be
suitable for its intended use.
i. Low cost of real estate:
The cost of real estate for the reservoir site, dam, dwellings, and roads should be low.

5. Define the power terms below:

i. Peak load.
The Peak Load is generally defined as that part of the load, which is carried out at
rate greater than 1.33 times the average load so as to supply the fluctuation portion
of the load or energy requirement. The average load is taken as the mean of the
load for the period considered.
ii. Net head.
The Net Head (effective head) is the head available for energy production after
deducting losses in friction, entrance and unrecovered velocity head in the draft
tube.
iii. Utilization factor.
The Utilization Factor is a measure of plant use as affected by the water supply,
more specifically, it is the ratio of the quantity of water actually utilized for power
generation to that available from river source.
When there is sufficient water to run the plant at capacity, the utilization factor is
the same as the capacity factor. However, depending upon the shortage of water
supply, output may be curtailed, which may either decrease or increase the
utilization factor, according to the plant load factor. It may, in practice, vary from
0.40 to 0.90.

13
6. What is entailed in the investigations for reservoir planning?
a) Engineering Surveys.
Engineering surveys are conducted for the dam, the reservoir and other associated
works. Generally, the topographic survey of the area is carried out and the contour
plan is prepared. The horizontal control is usually provided by triangulation
survey and the vertical control by precise levelling.
 Dam Site.
For the area in the vicinity of the dam site, a very accurate triangulation survey
is conducted. A contour plan to a scale of 1/250 or 1/500 is usually prepared.
The contour interval is usually 1m or 2m. The contour plan should cover an
area at least up to 200m upstream and 400m downstream and for adequate
width beyond the two abutments.
 Reservoir.
For the reservoir, the scale of the contour plan is usually1/15,000 with a
contour interval of 2m to 3m, depending upon the size of the reservoir. The
area-elevation and storage –elevation curves are prepared for different
elevations up to an elevation of 3 to 5m higher than the anticipated maximum
water level (MWL).

b) Geological Investigations.

Geological investigations for the dam and reservoir are done for the following purposes

i. Suitability of foundation for the dam;

The type and height of the dam mainly depend upon the type of foundation.
Subsurface explorations are carried out to determine the depth of the overburden to be
removed for laying the foundation of the dam, the type of rock, the nature and extent
of the fault zones, if any, present in the rock. Depending upon the location of the
bedrock, the following methods of sub-surface explorations are used.
• Excavation of open pits or trenches of suitable size.
• Drifting (or tunnelling) into the sides of the valley.
• Driving vertical inspection shafts into the rock.
• Core drilling to obtain the samples and to determine the configuration of the strata
If the hard rock lies far below the surface, the dam site may be suitable for a low
gravity dam or an earth dam. The dam in that case may have to be founded on soil

14
 foundations. Sub-surface investigations are done to determine the type of soil, the
properties of soil, the soil profile, and the location of the water table. The information
obtained from the geological investigations is used for determining a suitable
programme of foundation treatment and grouting, if necessary.

ii. Water tightness of the reservoir basin

The reservoir basin should be watertight so that the stored water is not wasted due to
seepage through the bed and banks; otherwise the very purpose of constructing the
reservoir would be defeated. Geological investigations are conducted to detect the
presence of cavernous rock formations, which have cavities and are porous. The
stored water may escape through such cavities into adjacent valleys. If such
formations exist in small areas, they may be treated and made watertight. However, if
they are widespread, the site may have to be abandoned.

iii. Location of quarry sites for the construction materials

Large quantities of construction materials such as stones, aggregates, sand, soil,
rockfill, etc. are required for the construction of a dam. Geological investigations are
conducted for location of suitable quarries for stones and burrow areas for soils. The
quantity and quality of the available construction materials are ascertained.

c) Hydrological Investigations.
Hydrological investigations are conducted for the following purposes:
i. To study the runoff pattern and yield
The most important aspect of reservoir planning is to estimate the quantity of
water likely to be available in the river from year to year and season to season.
For determination of the required storage capacity of a reservoir, the runoff
pattern of the river at the dam site is required. If the stream gauging has been
done for a number of years before the construction of the dam, the runoff pattern
will be available from the record. It is generally assumed that the runoff pattern
will be substantially the same in the future as well. The available record is used
for estimating the storage capacity. The inflow hydrographs of two or three
consecutive dry years when the discharge is low are frequently used for
estimating the required capacity. However, if the stream gauging records are not
available, the runoff and yield have to be estimated indirectly by other methods.
ii. To determine the flood discharge at the site.
The spillway capacity of the dam is determined from the inflow hydrograph for the

15
 worst flood when the discharge in the river is at maximum. Flood routing is done to
estimate the maximum outflow and the maximum water level reached during the worst
flood.

7. Explain the significance of the term pondage.

Pondage refers to a small storage at the back of a weir, in run-of river plants for
temporarily storing water during nonworking hours, idle days and low load demand.
For the sake of an increase in load demand, would necessitate an instantaneous increase
in the inflows to the turbines, which an be met by stored water available in the pond
created for that purpose or the excess natural inflows can be temporarily stored as
pondage to cater for increased water requirements of peak load demand.
Run of river plants are feasible for streams which have a minimum dry weather flow or
receive flow as regulated by any storage reservoir upstream.

16
Sedimentation.
1. Find the probable life of the reservoir with an initial reservoir capacity of 25 million cubic
meters, the average annual flood inflow is 50 million cubic meters and the average annual
sediment in flow is 150,000tons. Assume a specific weight of the sediment equal to 1.2
g/c.c. The usual life the reservoir will terminate when 80% of its initial capacity is filled
with sediments.

First Interval
Assuming 20% of the capacity i.e.20% of 25Mm3=5Mm3 is filled up with sediments in
the first interval

The capacity is reduced to

Therefore number of years during which 20%of the capacity i.e. 5Mm3shall be filled up
.

Second Interval

The capacity is reduced to

17
Therefore number of years during which 20%of the capacity i.e. 5Mm3shall be filled up
.

Third Interval

The capacity is reduced to

Therefore number of years during which 20%of the capacity i.e. 5Mm3shall be filled up
.

Fourth Interval

The capacity is reduced to

Therefore number of years during which 20%of the capacity i.e. 5Mm3shall be filled up
.
Total probable life till 80% capacity gets filled up with sediments:

18
% Capacity Capacity/inflow Trap Average Sediment Years
Vol col.(2) efficiency trap trapped per required to
=
[Link] 60 Mcum η efficiency year. Col 5x fill 20%
During average capacity (5M
the annual cum)
interval sediment =
inflow=Col
5x
(0.125)M.m3
100 25 0.5 0.96
0.9575 1.196875 417.8
80 20 0.4 0.955
0.9525 1.190625 41.99
60 15 0.3 0.95
0.94 1.175 42.55
40 10 0.2 0.93
0.9 1.125 44.44
20 5 0.1 0.87 Σ=
170.76years

2. Explain the following terms:

i. Trap efficiency.
The trap efficiency ( t ) is defined as the percent of the total inflow sediment, which is
retained in the reservoir.

Trap efficiency is of particular importance when determining the annual

sedimentation rate or capacity loss as expressed by the equation

Where:

C 1 = annual sedimentation rate

E = trap efficiency, in percentage

Y s = annual net sediment yield from the drainage area

C = original reservoir storage capacity in same units as Ys

As sediment is trapped, the reservoir storage capacity is decreased and in turn, the trap
efficiency decreases.

19
 ii. Capacity inflow ratio.
Capacity inflow ratio is the quotient of capacity of a reservoir formed behind a runoff
river or stream and the inflow of water into the runoff river or stream i.e. . This is
the measure of retention time. The greater the retention time, the lower is the average
transit velocity and associated turbulence and the greater the rate of deposition. The
shape of the reservoir determines the effective retention time and could cause "short
circuiting" in which the effective time becomes much less than the retention time as
determined by the capacity-inflow ratio. This means that, because of the shape of the
reservoir, portions of the pool have ineffective flow areas. Placement of bottom
outlets, particularly if they are timely opened to pass density currents (also referred to
as mud or gravity flows) out of the reservoirs, can reduce trap efficiency of clays.
Lowering of the pool elevation decreases the retention time which subsequently
decreases the trap efficiency. This can be very effective if done during periods of
higher flows with its high sediment concentrations. Sluicing and reservoir operations
are, however, limited by storage and environmental requirements.

The trap efficiency is dependant upon the capacity inflow ratio. Brune (1953)
developed an empirical relationship from the curves relating the trap efficiency and
the capacity inflow ratio, shown below;

In general, the greater the capacity inflow ratio, the greater the trap efficiency thus
sedimentation is higher in relatively larger reservoirs. The less well known but more
descriptive Churchill curves can also be used to predict trap efficiency.

Curves relating the trap efficiency and the capacity-inflow ratio (Source: Brune (1953))

20
3. How can we control reservoir sedimentation?
i. Minimising sediment input
This is by far the most effective measure and can be achieved by optimal choice of the
location of the reservoir, the prevention of erosion in the catchment by soil
conservation methods (afforestation, vegetation cover, terracing etc), the trapping of
sediment in traps/check dams or by vegetative screens on the tributaries upstream of
the reservoir, or by bypassing heavily laden flows during floods, from an upstream
diversion structure to downstream of the dam.
ii. Maximising sediment through flow
This requires flow regulation during floods and /or flushing during reservoir
drawdown. Under certain conditions the sediment laden inflow does not mix with the
water in the reservoir but moves along the old river bed as density current towards the
dam, where it can be drawn off by suitably located and operated outlets. In principle,
the development of density currents requires a significant difference between the
density of the incoming flow and the water in the reservoir, a large reservoir depth,
and morphological conditions (steep, straight old river bed).The formation and
sediment transport of density currents can be predicted and should be applied to all
reservoirs under various operational conditions. Turbidity sensors should be applied at
several elevations upstream of the dam wall for management of density currents by
releasing high sediment concentrations through low level outlets.
iii. Recovery of Storage
This can be achieved by flushing deposited sediment, a technique, which is very
effective when combined with a substantial reservoir drawdown, by siphoning or
dredging which involves use of either conventional methods, particularly a suction
dredger with a bucket wheel or special techniques can be used. Effective flushing
requires excess water, suitably large low level outlets, a steep narrow reservoir basin
and judicious operation. Dredging has been carried out only to a limited extent
worldwide, mainly because of the high costs and environmental problems associated
with the disposal of dredged sediments and as a result should be considered as a last
resort (Basson, 2004).
iv. Sedimentation Compensation Measures
There are a number of techniques which can be applied, which are discussed as
follows;

21
  Dam raising; this provides an economical solution to regain storage capacity
lost due to sedimentation. The raising options considered are fixed
uncontrolled spillways, crest radial gates, automatic crest gates of fuse gates.
 New dams; dam sites should be selected in regions with relatively low
sediment yields. The upper reaches have relatively high runoff, with low
sediment loads, however this is not always possible due to the location of
power demand centres and availability of dam sites.
 Design for sedimentation; designs should acknowledge the experience in
reservoir sedimentation, whereby 80% occurs in the live storage zones rather
than the current practice of designing for withdrawals from the dead storage
zones.
 Augmentation from adjacent catchments; regulation of runoff and
sedimentation control requirements in a reservoir are often in conflict.
Transfer of water from adjacent catchments can provide a solution to sediment
control if it is economically feasible and it can provide sufficient excess runoff
(Basson, 2004).
v. Simulation techniques
The Reservoir Conservation RESCON model is designed to assist in the selection of a
reservoir management strategy that is technically feasible, which maximizes the net
economic benefits of a reservoir using four explicit options of sediment management
namely: Flushing; Hydrosuction; Traditional Dredging and Tracking. In addition the
do nothing alternative (i.e. no sediment removal), where eventual decommissioning is
required is also analysed. The RESCON requires project specific technical and
economic data in addition to environmental and social safeguards parameters. The
important parameters with respect to flushing are representative flushing discharge;
duration of flushing events in addition to the parameters related to reservoir geometry,
outlet capacities, sediments and water flow. Before detailed calculations, the flushing
scenarios are checked for technical feasibility, by comparing the amounts of
sediments evacuated with respect to amount of sediments inflow in a year. The
tracking and dredging options are always considered as technically feasible. For the
baseline case for no sediment removal, the model assumes two alternatives: run of
river and eventual decommissioning. All options are taken through an optimization
routine to find economically viable options for each. The results are compared and
ranked for final decision by the user (Palmeri et al, 2003, Kawashima et al, 2003).
22
This model was applied to the Tarbela dam in Pakistan and it was found that the
reservoir can achieve a sediment balance ratio of more than 1 even with a flushing for
20 days in a year with a water depth of 417 m above mean sea level and a discharge
of 3,787 m3/s (Tinsanchi and Khan, 2006). An empirical reservoir classification
system was developed (Basson, 2004) based on a plot of the storage capacity- mean
annual runoff (MAR) against the capacity-sediment yield ratio gives some useful
results. Most reservoirs have a capacity- MAR ratio of between 0.2 to 3 and a life
span of 50 to 2000 years when considering reservoir sedimentation. When the
capacity- MAR ratio is less than 0.03 especially in semiarid regions, sediment sluicing
or flushing, should be carried out during the floods and through large bottom outlets.
When capacity – MAR ratios are however, larger than 0.2, not enough excess water is
available for flushing and the typical operational model is storage operation. The
operating rules for a reservoir need not be inflexible, but can change with different
stages of storage loss. Storage operation may be continued in reservoirs with large
capacities relative to the sediment loads, while sluicing/flushing operation can be
introduced once the loss of storage capacity reaches a certain stage. This is shown
below

Empirical reservoir classification system in terms of storage, runoff

and sediment yield (Basson 2004)

23
4. In a flow of the characteristics as described in the assignment paper, determine the
rate of sediment transport expected per meter width of flow.

In this case, thus the four dependant parameters n, m, A and c

Calculating the dimensionless F gr

We can calculate the shear velocity U * from the standard formula for parallel flow

24
 To express sediment transport;

5. Describe the process of sedimentation in the different stages of a river.

When the water reaches a reservoir in the vicinity of a dam, the velocity and the
turbulence are considerably reduced. The larger suspended particles and bed load (Bed
load is that part of the sediment load, which remains in contact with the bed when moving
with water. It consists largely of relatively coarser materials.) get deposited in the head
reaches of the reservoir and a delta is formed. Some very fine particles may remain in
suspension (Suspended load is that part of the sediment load that is held in suspension
against gravity by the vertical component of eddies of the turbulent flow. The suspended
load usually consists of fine material dispersed throughout the river cross section.) for a
much longer period and may finally escape from the dam along with water discharged
through the sluice gates, turbines, spillway, etc.
Sediment accumulation in a typical reservoir

Turbid
inflow Floating
Debris Water
Surface

Relatively
clear
water
Delta
Density
Current

Fine Sluiceways
sediments

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i. The youthful stage
 This is characterised by high potential energy, active degradation processes and
steep gradients giving rise to gorges or narrow steep sided valleys.
 It is also characterised by high velocity and turbulence with the fast moving
streams having little need to deposit their load.
 Most of the silt in this stage comes from the catchment due to soil erosion.
 This is known as the upper zone of sediment production/ source/ rocky stage.
ii. The Mature/boulder stage
 This is characterised by more gentle slopes and less active degradation. There is
equilibrium between erosion and sediment deposition.
 It is also characterised by high velocity but less than in the rocky stage, thus the
erosive power of the stream is reduced.
 During floods, the river transports boulders and shingles downstream but when the
flood recedes, sediments are deposited in the river bed.
 This is generally referred to as the middle zone (transfer), that is essentially in
equilibrium and is characterised by deeper and wider valleys.
iii. The old age/ tough/ alluvial/ deltaic stage
 This is characterised by low potential energy, and low velocity flows. This results
in high deposition and low rates of catchment denurdation.
 The river meanders in this stage and is mainly made of alluvial silt and sand.

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  The river is generally unable to carry sediments and consequently drops them and
gets divided into channels on either side of the deposited sediments and forms a
delta.
 This is also known as the sink/ deposition area.

6. What factors affect the amount of sediment load in a river?

i. Nature of soil in the catchment
If the soil in the catchment is loose and easily eroded, the sediment load is large. On
the other hand, if the soil is hard and non erodible, the sediment load is quite small.
ii. Vegetal cover
If the catchment area has no vegetal cover, the soil is easily eroded and the sediment
load is large.
iii. Topography of the catchment
In case of catchments having steep slopes, the sediment load is large because of high
velocity of water.
iv. Intensity of rainfall:
If the intensity of rainfall is high, the discharge in the river is increased and the sediment load
is large.
v. The size of a water body
has a strong implication for its hydrological and sedimentological characteristics. In
small lakes, wind-induced re-suspension is the only important sediment transport
mechanism, while in oceans current-mediate transport mechanisms assume an equally
important role to wind induced distribution mechanisms. A study of the pattern and
mechanisms of sediment distribution in Lake Victoria (Azza, 2006) suggests that for
large lakes, with relatively shallow basins, surface wave action together with currents
can predict the sediment distribution. He further suggested that morphometric,
hydrological and meteorological factors come together to mix and disperse sediments
via the epilimnion and produce alongshore and cross- isobath currents that transport
sediment northwards and northeastwards from the western shore. A related study
(Kimaro et al, 2006) carried out on the northern and southern fringes of Lake
Victoria, showed that the nature of field parcels and overall farming techniques has an
overall effect of protecting the soil structure against raindrop impact, encouraging
water infiltration, obstructing runoff and eventually minimizing soil loss from the
gardens. They further noted that the presence of settlements is associated with very
high sediment yield, indicating that future unchecked expansion is likely to contribute

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 to sedimentation of Lake Victoria. Although aquatic weeds are effective buffers,
excessive sedimentation is likely to reduce filtering capacity and therefore make the
lake more vulnerable.
The larger the water body, the higher the discharge, therefore a larger sediment load
results.

7. Why should land degradation be addressed in engineering designs?

It is because land degradation involves loss utility of potential utility or the reduction, loss
or changes of features or organisms which cannot be replaced.

It involves soil degradation i.e. soil erosion; considering that most civil engineering
projects are carried out on the land-soil this could be very detrimental if not addressed in
the engineering designs.

Land degradation also involves vegetation degradation which affects the hydrology and
hydraulics in an area as vegetation contributes to the precipitation, surface roughness and
other parameters which could affect the engineering design of structures like roads, dams,
etc.

Land degradation also is the main source of sediments which feed in the river channels
and reservoirs leading to reduction in the effective reservoir capacity thus reducing on the
volume of water available for supply to implement Engineering projects.

It exposes the bed rocks on which engineering projects are founded. This exposure leads
to weakening of the bed rocks hence increasing the cost of excavation to reach a firm
strata.

It makes the costs of engineering project maintenance high since regular de-silting and
de-sedimentation has to be carried out to protect the river channels and reservoirs on
projects such as dam construction.

It may lead to poor water quality in reservoirs since objectionable materials like lead may
be carried to the river channels. This calls for water treatment to improve the water
quality hence higher costs of the project.

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REFERENCES

 Lecture Notes by Dr. Albert Rugumayo

 Engineering Hydrology by E. Wilson, 3rd edition

 Hydrology for Engineers by Ray K. Linsley Jr; Max A Kohler, Joseph L.H. Paulhus
second edition

 Water Resources Engineering by Ray K. Linsley and Joseph B. Franzini , Third

Edition

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