Unit : 3

Joining Processes: Welding

Prof. Aniket [Link]

Mechanical Engineering Department
RAJARAMBAPU INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY, RAJARAMNAGAR
 Content
 Welding processes:

 Arc, TIG, MIG.

 Submerged arc welding.

 Resistance welding.
 Brazing and Soldering.

 Welding Defects.
 Welding
It is the process of joining two or more similar or dissimilar metals with or
without the application of heat, with or without the application of pressure, with
or without the application of filler materials.

WELDING
FUSION WELDING NON FUSION OR PRESSURE
GAS ARC CHEMICAL HOT COLD

GAS WELDING OXY – ACETYLENE, AIR - ACETYLENE

ARC WELDING TIG, MIG, SUBMERGED ARC, ELECTROSLAG WELDING

CHEMICAL THERMIT WELDING

HOT NON FUSION SOLDERING, BRAZING, RESSITANCE WELDING

COLD NON FUSION CRYOGENIC WELDING, COLD PRESSURE WELDING

 Welding
CLASSIFICATION BASED ON FILLER MATERIALS
AUTOGENEOUS No filler metal is added to the joint interface
EX – Electric Resistance Welding
HOMOGENEOUS Filler metal is added & it is similar to parent metal
EX – Arc Welding, Electron Beam Welding & Diffusion Welding
HETROGENEOUS Filler metal is added but it is different to parent metal
EX – Brazing & Soldering
 Welding
• FUSION WELDING – the metal at the joint is heated to molten state & it is
allowed to solidify.
• NON FUSION WELDING – the metal parts are heated to a plastic state &
they are pressed together to make joint.

ADVANTAGES
• Permanent Joint - Economical way of join components
• Welded joint can be stronger than the parent material if a filler metal is
used that has strong properties.
LIMITATIONS
• Most operations are performed manually – Skilled labor required
• It does not allow for convenient dis assembly
• Defects are difficult to detect.
 Welding
 Welding which is the process of joining two metallic components
for the desired purpose.
 Can be defined as the process of joining two similar or dissimilar
metallic components with the application of heat with or without
the application of pressure and with or without the use of filler
metal.
 Welding is used for making permanent joints.

 It is used in the manufacture of automobile bodies, aircraft frames,

railway wagons, machine frames, structural works, tanks, furniture,
boilers, general repair work and ship building.
 Weld ability of a Metal
 Metallurgical Capacity
Parent metal will join with the weld metal without formation of
deleterious constituents or alloys
 Mechanical Soundness
Joint will be free from discontinuities, gas porosity, shrinkage,
slag, or cracks
 Serviceability
Weld is able to perform under varying conditions or service
(e.g., extreme temperatures, corrosive environments, fatigue,
high pressures, etc.)
 Classification of Welding Processes

 Welding with or without filler material.

 Source of energy of welding.

 Arc and Non-arc welding.

 Fusion and Pressure welding

Types of Welding Joint
 Butt joint

 Lap Joint

 T joint

 Corner Joint

 Edge Joint
Types of Welding Joint
 WELDING EQUIPMENT

 GAS CYLINDERS
 PRESSURE REGULATORS
 PRESSURE GAUGES
 HOSES
 CHECK VALVE
 GOGGLES
 SPARK LIGHTER
 WELDING GLOVES
 WIRE BRUSH
 Fusion Welding Principle
 Fusion Welding It is defined as melting together and joining
metals by means of heat.
 It uses heat to melt the base metals and may add a filler metal.

 The thermal energy required for these operations is usually

supplied by chemical or electrical means.
 Filler metals may or may not be used.

 Heat is supplied by various means

– Oxyacetylene gas
– Electric Arc
– Plasma Arc
– Laser
 Oxyacetylene Welding (OAW)
 The oxyacetylene welding process uses a combination of oxygen and

acetylene gas to provide a high temperature flame.

 OAW is a manual process in which the welder must personally control the

torch movement and filler rod application.

 The term oxyfuel gas welding outfit refers to all the equipment needed to

weld.

 Cylinders contain oxygen and acetylene gas at extremely high pressure.

Typical Oxyacetylene Welding (OAW) Station
 Flame definition
 The neutral flame is produced when the ratio of oxygen to acetylene in
the mixture leaving the torch is almost exactly one-to-one. It’s termed
”neutral” because it will usually have no chemical effect on the metal
being welded. It will not oxidize the weld metal; it will not cause an
increase in the carbon content of the weld metal.
 The Carburizing flame as its name implies is created when the
proportion of acetylene in the mixture is higher than that required to
produce the neutral flame. Used on steel it will cause an increase in the
carbon content of the weld metal.
 The oxidizing flame results from burning a mixture which contains more
oxygen than required for a neutral flame. It will oxidize or ”burn” some
of the metal being welded.
Advantages:
 Portable and most versatile process.
 Better control over the temperature.
 Suitable to weld dissimilar matter.
 Low cost & maintenance.

Disadvantages:
 Not suitable for heavy section.
 Less working temperature of gas flame.
 Slow rate of heating.
 Arc Welding processes
 The welding in which the electric arc is produced to give heat for

the purpose of joining two surfaces is called electric arc welding.

 The joining by fusing of two or more pieces of metal together by

using the heat produced from an electric arc.

 The arc is like a flame of intense heat that is generated as the

electrical current passes through a highly resistant air gap.

 Arc Welding processes
 The work piece and the electrode are connected to the two
materials of the power source. The arc is started by momentarily
touching the electrode on to the work piece and then
withdrawing it to a short distance (a few mm) from the work
piece.
Arc welding Equipments
Arc Welding Setup
 Arc welding continues to be used extensively in the construction
of steel structures and in industrial fabrication.
 The process is used primarily to weld iron and steels (including
stainless steel) but aluminium, nickel and copper alloys can also be
welded with this method.
 It dominates other welding processes in the maintenance and
repair industry and though flux-cored arc welding is growing in
popularity
 Is popular because it can be used in the field without complicated
equipment and gases Arc Welding.
 Basic Steps of Arc Welding
 Prepare the base materials: remove paint and rust

 Choose the right welding process.

 Choose the right filler material.

 Assess and comply with safety requirements

 Use proper welding techniques and be sure to protect the molten

puddle from contaminants in the air

 Inspect the weld.

 Process
 Intense heat at the arc melts the tip of the electrode

 Tiny drops of metal enter the arc stream and are deposited on

the parent metal

 As molten metal is deposited a slag forms over the bead which

serves as an insulation against air contaminants during cooling.

 After a weld ‘pass’ is allowed the cool the oxide layer is removed

by a chipping hammer and then cleaned with a wire brush before

the next pass.

 Types of Electrodes
 The choice of electrode depends on a number of factors
including

The weld material

Welding position and

The desired weld properties.

1. Bare electrodes

2. Coated electrodes
 Requirement Coating of electrode

 To provide an envelope for the inert gas.

 To prevent brittleness.

 To promote arc stabilization.

 To improve arc concentration.

 Weld metal deposited rate.

 Advantages of arc welding

 Simple welding equipment

 Portable.
 Inexpensive power source
 Relatively inexpensive equipment.
 Welders use standard domestic current.
 Process is fast and reliable.
 Equipment can be used for multiple functions
 Electric arc is about 5,000 oC.
 Used for maintenance, repair, and field construction.
 Disadvantages of arc welding
 Not clean enough for reactive metals such as aluminum and

titanium.

 The deposition rate is limited because the electrode covering

tends to overheat and fall off.

 The electrode length is ~ 35 mm and requires electrode

changing lower the overall production rate.

Applications of Electric Arc Welding
 Tungsten Inert Gas (TIG)
 The arc may also be produced between non-consumable

tungsten electrode and the work piece. This process is known as

tungsten inert gas (TIG) welding. In TIG welding extra metal must

be supplied separately to fill the joint.

 TIG welding the shielding gas is usually argon or helium but for

MIG welding the inert gases can have additions of either oxygen or

carbon-di-oxide depending on the metal being welded.

 Tungsten Inert Gas (TIG)
 Tungsten electrode acts as a cathode
 A plasma is produced between the tungsten cathode and
the base metal which heats the base metal to its melting
point
 Filler metal can be added to the weld pool

TUNGSTEN
ELECTRODE
POWER (CATHODE)
TUNGSTEN SOURCE
ELECTRODE

++ ++
SHIELDING GAS ARC COLUMN ---

BASE METAL PUDDLE BASE METAL (ANODE)

Tungsten Inert Gas (TIG)
Gas tungsten Arc Welding
 Advantages of TIG
 Almost all the types of metals and alloys can be weld by this process with
suitable selection of power supply i.e., AC, DCSP, or DCRP.
 Smooth, clean and sound weld is obtained as required in food-processing
equipment’s.
 The joints produced by this process are stronger, more ductile and corrosive
resistant than produced by other process because inert gas pushes the air out
from the molten metal pool and prevents the oxidation.
The arc is transparent due to shielding of inert gas. This enables the welder to
clearly observe the work and electrode in the weld puddle.
 Both ferrous and non-ferrous metals can be welded easily.
 In some cases dissimilar metals can also be welded easily.
 Disadvantages of TIG
 Proper cleaning of work piece is required before welding as the inert gas does

not provide cleaning action.

 The cost of inert gas is quite high as compared to any other flux material used in

other welding process for protecting the weld against atmospheric oxygen and

nitrogen.

 Other side of the joint do not protected in this method.

 The process has relatively slow operation.

 Application of TIG
 Almost all metals and alloys having various thickness and types of joint can

be welded.

 It find its greatest application in the welding of alloy steels, stainless steels,

heat-resistance alloys, refractory metals, aluminum and alloys, magnesium and

alloys, titanium alloys.

 The process is recommended for welding very thin sheets, as this as 5 mm.

 This process is extensively used in the fabrication of missiles, air-crafts,

rockets and submarines.

 This process is used for welding commercially pure titanium.

 Metal Inert Gas (MIG)
 In gas shielded arc welding both the arc and the molten weld pool are shielded

from the atmosphere by a stream of gas. The arc may be produced between a

continuously fed wire and the work. This is known as metal inert gas (MIG) welding.

 MIG welding is a well established semi-automatic process. Continuous welding

with coiled wire helps high metal depositions rate and high welding speed.

 It can be used on nearly all metals including carbon steel, stainless steel, alloy

steel and aluminum.

The filler wire is generally connected to the positive polarity of DC source forming

one of the electrodes. The work piece is connected to the negative polarity.
 Metal Inert Gas (MIG)
 Inert gas usually argon, helium or a suitable mixture of these
is used to prevent the atmosphere from contacting the
molten metal and HAZ.
 Uses a consumable electrode (filler wire made of the base
metal)
 Inert gas is typically Argon
DRIVE WHEELS
CONSUMABLE
ELECTRODE

POWER
SOURCE

SHIELDING GAS ARC COLUMN

BASE METAL PUDDLE

Metal Inert Gas (MIG)
Gas metal Arc welding (GMAW)
 Advantages of MIG

 Higher welding speeds.

 Greater deposition rates.
 Less post welding cleaning (e.g. no slag to chip off weld).
 Better weld pool visibility.
 Low skill factor required to operate M.I.G / M.A.G.S welding
torch.
 The process is easily automated.
 Disadvantages of MIG
 Higher initial setup cost.

 Atmosphere surrounding the welding process has to be stable

(hence the shielding gasses), therefore this process is limited to

draught free conditions.

 Higher maintenance costs due to extra electronic components.

 The setting of plant variables requires a high skill level.

 Radiation effects are more severe.

 Applications

 MIG is best suited for fabrication of sheet metal.

 Generally all available metals can be weld through this process.

 It can be used for deep groove welding.

 Submerged Arc Welding Process

 Submerged arc welding also called as hidden arc welding.

 It is used consumable electrode like wire type.

 AC or DC Power source are used (200-1200 amp).

 This welding use Reverse Polarity (DCEP), electrode connect

positive and w/p connect negative.
 Granulas fusible material flux used ( silica+ iron oxide).

 The electrode wire is fed Automatically from a coil into the arc.
 Submerged Arc Welding Process
 The portion of the flux closest to the arc is melted, mixing with
the molten weld metal to remove impurities and then solidifying
on top of the weld joint to form a glass like slag.
 The slag and un-fused flux granules on top provide good
protection from the atmosphere and good thermal insulation for
the weld area, resulting in relatively slow cooling and a high-
quality weld joint, noted for toughness and ductility.
 The un-fused flux remaining after welding can be recovered and
reused. The solid slag covering the weld must be chipped away,
usually by manual means.
Submerged Arc Welding Process
Submerged Arc Welding Process
 Advantages
 Strong, sound welds are readily made.
 Minimal welding fume is emitted
 Minimal arc light is emitted.
Less distortion
 Deep weld penetration
 Minimal edge preparation
 High deposition rates are possible
 Thick materials may be welded
 At least half or more of the flux is recoverable
 Disadvantages
 The process is incomplete to some particular metals.

 The application is imperfect to direct seams vessels and pipes.

 The flux usage is hard.

 A health problem can be occurred due to the flux.

 Slag elimination is desirable after welding.

 Applications
 The Submerged Arc Welding can be used to weld pressure

vessels like boilers.

 A lot of structural outlines, pipes, earth moving tools,

shipbuilding, railroad construction, and locomotives.

 This type of welding can be used to repair machine parts.

 Resistance Welding
• Principle
 Both heat and pressure are used.

 Heat is generated by the electrical resistance of the work pieces

and the interface between them.
 Pressure is supplied externally and is varied throughout the weld
cycle.
 Due to pressure a lower temperature needed than oxy ‐fuel or arc
welding.
 Resistance Welding processes
 Resistance welding processes are pressure welding processes in which
heavy current is passed for short time through the area of interface of
metals to be joined.
 These processes differ from other welding processes in the respect that
no fluxes are used and filler metal rarely used.
 All resistance welding operations are automatic and therefore all
process variables are preset and maintained constant.
 Heat is generated in localized area which is enough to heat the metal
to sufficient temperature so that the parts can be joined with the
application of pressure.

 Pressure is applied through the electrodes.

H=I2RT

Where, H is heat generated

I is current in amperes
R is resistance of area being welded
T is time for the flow of current.
 Advantages
Very rapid.

Fully automation possible.

 Conserve material; no filler metal, shielding gases or flux is

required.

Skilled operators are not required.

Dissimilar metals can be easily joined.

High reliability and High reproducibility.

 Limitations
 High initial cost.

 Limitations to the type of joints (mostly lap joints).

 Skilled maintenance personnel are required:

 Special surface treatment needed

 Applications
 This type of welding can be widely used within

automotive industries, making of nut as well as a bolt.

 Seam welding can be utilized to generate leak prove joint

necessary within little tanks, boilers, etc.

 Flash welding can be used for welding tubes and pipes.

 Types of Resistance welding

 Resistance spot welding

 Resistance Seam Welding

 Resistance projection welding

 Resistance spot welding
 It is a resistance welding process in which overlapping sheets are
joined by local fusion at one or more spots by the heat generated by
resistance to the flow of electric current through work pieces
 Joining – Up to 3 mm thickness
 Current = 3,000 – 1,00,000 Amp. for few seconds as per the nature of
materials &its thickness
 Temperature = 815 - 930°C, H ∝ I2Rt
Resistance spot welding
 Resistance spot welding

ADVANTAGES – Low cost of the machine, Less skilled labor, Edge

preparation not required, Welding speed is high
APPLICATION – Used in Automobile & Aircraft industry
 Resistance Seam Welding
 It is a resistance welding process where coalescence at the surfaces is
produced by the heat obtained by resistance to the flow of electric current
through the work parts held together under the pressure of electrodes.
 It is a series of overlapping resistance spot welds made progressively
along a joint by rotating the circular electrode.
 The work piece is placed between the producing wheels(electrodes)
which serve as conductors for continuous welds.
 For increasing the speed of operation a coolant is applied to conserve
the electrodes & cool the
Resistance Seam Welding
Resistance Seam Welding
ADVANTAGES

 It can produce gas tight & liquid tight joints

 A single seam weld or several parallel seams may be

produced

DISADVANTAGES

 Performed only a straight or Uniform curved line

 Difficult to weld work pieces with thickness greater than

3 mm
 Resistance projection welding

• It is a resistance welding process where coalescence is produced by the

heat obtained from resistance to flow of electric current through the
workpiece parts held together under pressure by electrodes.
• The resulting welds are localized at predetermined points by
projections
• The flattening out these projections under pressureresults in good
welds at all points of contact.
Resistance projection welding
Resistance projection welding
 Brazing
 In brazing the joint is made by heating the base metal red hot
and filling the gap with molten metal whose melting
temperature is typically above 450°C but below melting
temperature of base metal.
 Brazing
 The filler metals are generally copper alloys.
 Cu-Zn and Cu-Ag alloys are used for brazing because they form
alloy with iron and have good strength.
 Brazing
 The joining of metals through the use of heat and a filler metal
whose melting temperature is above 450°C, but below the melting
point of the metals being joined.
 Comparison with welding and the brazing process
 The composition of the brazing alloy is significantly different
from that of the base metal.
 The strength of the brazing alloy is substantially lower than that of
the base metal.
 The melting point of the brazing alloy is lower than that of the
base metal, so the base metal is not melted.
 Capillary action or capillary attraction draws the molten filler
metal.
 Borax Flux used for Brazing Welding.
Brazing metals are typically alloys such as,

 Brazing brass (60% Cu, 40%Zn)

 Manganese bronze

 Nickel silver

 Copper silicon

 Silver alloys (with/without phosphorous)

 Copper phosphorous
 STEPS IN BRAZING
 The surfaces to be joined are cleaned(Rinsed & Dried) &
fitted closely together
 A flux is applied to all surfaces where the filler metal is to
flow
Used to prevent oxidation of the base metal & the filler
metal
Borax & Boric Acid
 The joint is heated to Brazing temperature, small amount of filler
material is added to fill the joint,
Filler metal is preplaced before heating or Applied after
reaching the brazing temp.
For capillary action to exist, Clearance between the parts
being joined
(0.03 to 0.05mm) – Wider clearance leads to reduced
strength.
STEPS IN BRAZING
 Advantages

 All metals can be joined.

 Suited for dissimilar metals.

 Quick and economical.

 Less defects
 Disadvantages
 The joints are not effective at higher temperatures. Because the
low melting point of filler material.
 The color of the joint is often different from that of the base
metal that create an aesthetic disadvantage.
 Weak joint as compared to welding.
 Need a flux during brazing and flux residue must be removed.
 The job size is limited - large plates of metal can't braze.
 Applications
 Brazing is a widely used joining process because it can join

almost all metal except aluminium and magnesium.

 It is used for electrical components, pipe fittings.

 Metals having uneven thickness can be joined by brazing.

 Brazing methods

 Torch brazing
 Dip brazing
 Furnace Brazing
 Induction Brazing
 Blow pipe Brazing
 Soldering

 Two Pieces of metal are joined with the help of filler metal called
as solder.
 Solder fills the closely fitted joints by capillary action
 No melting of work piece
 Soldering iron or gun is used for heating the solder
 Filler metal has a melting temperature below 450°C.
 Material of solder is a Tin and Lead.
 Common fluxes are ammonium chloride or resin acids
 Steps for soldering process
 Two parts are joined by the use of a molten filler metal whose
melting point is below the melting point (Solidus) of Base metal
(Below 427°C)
 Surface preparation involves cleaning them by chemically &
mechanically
 Fitting the surfaces closely to each other
 Covering the clean surface with Flux
 Clearance in joint – 0.05 – 0.20mm
 Flux - Corrosive – Zinc Chloride, Mixture of Zinc Chloride &
Aluminum
 Chloride – Washed off after Soldering
 Advantages of soldering
 This can be operated at low temperature.

 Base metal does not melt.

Any metals, non-metals can be joined by this process.

 This operation required low power.

 Less time required to join.

 This can be easily operated.

 Disadvantages of soldering
 Strength of joint is less.

 This is not useful when joint works under high temperature.

 It is not useful at Long length welding.

 Heavy metals cannot be welded by this operation.

There is a chance of toxic components at fluxes.

 JOINT of SOLDERING

a) Crimped lead wire PC board

b) Plated through hole on PC board to maximize solder contact
area
c) Hooked wire on flat terminals
JOINT DESIGNS IN SOLDERING
JOINT DESIGNS IN SOLDERING
 Welding Positions
INCREASING DIFFICULTY

FLAT

HORIZONTAL
OVERHEAD

VERTICAL
 Weld Defects
 Porous welds
 Poor penetration
 Warping
 Undercut & Under fill
 Distortion
 Cracked welds
 Poor appearance
 Poor fusion
 Brittle welds
 Spatter
 Weld stress
Porous welds
Causes
1. Short arc, with the exception of low hydrogen and stainless.
2. Insufficient puddling time.
3. Impaired base metal.
4. Poor electrodes

Cures
5. Check impurities in base metal.
6. Allow sufficient puddling time
for gases to escape.
7. Use proper current.
8. Weave your weld to
eliminate.
9. Use proper electrodes for job.
10. Hold longer arc.
Poor penetration
Causes
1. Speed too fast..
2. Electrodes too large.
3. Current too low.
4. Faulty preparation.

Cures
5. Use enough current to get desired penetration – weld slowly.
6. Calculate electrode penetration properly.
7. Select electrode according to welding groove size.
8. Leave proper free space at the bottom of weld.
Warping
Causes
1. Shrinkage of weld metal.
2. Faulty clamping of parts.
3. Faulty preparation.
4. Over heating at joint.

Cures
5. Peen joint edges before welding.
6. Weld rapidly.
7. Avoid excessive space between parts.
8. Clamp parts properly; back up to cool.
9. Adopt a welding procedure.
10. Use high – speed, moderate penetration electrodes.
Undercut/Underfill
Causes
1. Faulty electrode manipulation
2. Faulty electrode usage.
3. Current too high.

Cures
4. Use uniform weave in butt welding.
5. Avoid using an overly large electrode.
6. Avoid excessive weaving.
7. Use moderate current, weld slowly.
8. Hold electrode at a safe distance from vertical plane in
making horizontal fillet welds.
Distortion
Causes
1. Uneven heat
2. Improper sequence.
3. Deposited metal shrinks.

Cures
4. Tack or clamp parts properly.
5. Form parts before welding.
6. Dispose of rolling or forming strains before welding.
7. Distribute welding to prevent uneven heating.
8. Examine structure and develop a sequence.
Cracked welds
Causes
1. Wrong electrode.
2. Weld and part sizes unbalanced.
3. Faulty welds.
4. Faulty preparation.
5. Rigid joints.

Cures
6. Design structure and welding procedure to eliminate rigid joints.
7. Heat parts before welding.
8. Avoid weld in string beads.
9. Keep ends free to move as long as possible.
10. Make sound welds of good fusion.
11. Work with as low an amperage as possible
Poor fusion
Causes
1. Wrong speed.
2. Current improperly adjusted.
3. Faulty preparation.
4. Improper electrode size.
Cures
5. Adjust electrode and ‘V’ size.
6. Weave must be sufficient to melt sides of
joints.
7. Proper current will allow deposition and penetration.
8. Keep weld metal from curling away from plates.
Brittle welds

Causes
1. Wrong electrode.
2. Faulty preheating.
3. Metal hardened by air.
Cures
4. Preheat at 135 to 260º C if welding on medium-carbon steel
or certain alloy steel.
5. Make multiple-layer welds.
6. Anneal after welding.
7. Use stainless or low-hydrogen electrodes for increasing weld
ductility.
Spatter
Causes
1. Arc blow.
2. Current too high.
3. Arc too long.
4. Faulty electrodes.
Cures
5. Whitewash parts in weld area.
6. Adjust current to needs.
7. Adjust to proper arc length.
8. Lighten arc blow.
9. Pick suitable electrodes
Weld stress
Causes
1. Faulty welds.
2. Faulty sequence.
3. Rigid joints.
Cures
4. Allow parts to move freely as long as practical.
5. Make as few passes as possible.
6. Peen deposits.
7. Anneal according to thickness of weld.
8. Move parts slightly in welding to reduce stresses.
Example Welding Symbol

Geometry symbol for V-groove

One-sided welds are max 80% efficient

Two sided are 100% efficient

1/2

1/2

1/2” 1/2”
Weld Symbols (Butt Joints)

Backing
Weld Symbol (Fillet Joints)
Weld Symbol (Corner Joints)