Physics II: Electromagnetism
PH 102
Lecture 4
Bibhas Ranjan Majhi
Indian Institute of Technology Guwahati
[Link]@[Link]
January-May 2020
Orthogonal Curvilinear Coordinate System
Before dealing with more examples of line, surface and volume integrals, it is better to
understand how to convert an integral from one set of coordinates to another
Why different set of coordinates are necessary?
In Physics, symmetry plays a big role and often the symmetry of a problem screams at
you to change the coordinate system to another one where the problem becomes much
easier to handle
• Likely to be Plane (Cartesian), Spherical or Cylindrical polar coordinates
• But can be something more general like (u1 , u2 , u3 ) Curvilinear coordinates
just 2 examples, there are more
✓
r
s
z
Spherical polar Cylindrical polar
Applications
Cartesian Spherical Cylindrical
✓
r
Recap: Cartesian Coordinate
Recall Cartesian: ~r = xx̂ + y ŷ + z ẑ and d~r = dxx̂ + dy ŷ + dz ẑ, where x̂, ŷ, ẑ are
✓ ◆
constant unit vectors d~r =
@~
r
dx +
@~
r
dy +
@~
r
dz
@x @y @z
lines of constant x
Length scales properly match:pboth LHS and RHS has the
dimension of length: |d~r| = dx2 + dy 2 + dz 2
ŷ
ŷ
x̂ Unit vectors in Cartesian Coordinates:
ẑ
x̂
ẑ
x̂, ŷ, ẑ: constant in direction (direction of increase of x, y and z) an
in magnitudeconstant in magnitude
(norm 1). (norm=1)
lines of constant y
Orthogonality: x̂i .x̂j = ij
Remember also: x̂i ⇥ x̂j = ✏ijk xk .
Suppose we want to go to curvilinear coordinates from Cartesian: (x, y, z) ! (u1 , u2 , u3 )
Bad News: unlike Cartesian, length scales are screwed up!
~r 6= u1 û1 + u2 û2 + u3 û3 Think about u1 = r, u2 = ✓, u3 = ,
d~r 6= du1 û1 + du2 û2 + du3 û3 then the LHS has dimension of length,
q but RHS does not have the proper
|d~r| 6
= du21 + du22 + du23 dimension.
From Cartesian to Curvilinear: Transformations
Consider the position vector at some point P in space. In Cartesian coordinates:
~r = xx̂ + y ŷ + z ẑ z
u3-curve
Now assume, at this point, we have another orthogonal
coordinate system (u1 , u2 , u3 ), such that
u1 = c 1
x = x(u1 , u2 , u3 ), y = y(u1 , u2 , u3 ), z = z(u1 , u2 , u3 ) P
u2 = c 2
u3 = c 3 u2
Suppose, above eqns can be solved for u1 , u2 and u3 u1 -curve -curve
in terms of x, y, z: y
u1 = u1 (x, y, z), u2 = u2 (x, y, z), u3 = u3 (x, y, z) x
Given a point P with Cartesian coordinates (x, y, z), we can associate a unique
set of coordinates (u1 , u2 , u3 ) called Curvilinear Coordinates of P .
The surfaces u1 = c1 , u2 = c2 and u3 = c3 where c1 , c2 , c3 are constants =)
Coordinate surfaces Coordinate Surfaces
Each pair of these surfaces intersect at Coordinate Curves/lines
If Coordinate surfaces intersect at right angles =) Orthogonal Curvilinear
From Cartesian to Curvilinear: unit vectors
We have just seen x = x(u1 , u2 , u3 ), y = y(u1 , u2 , u3 ), z = z(u1 , u2 , u3 )
Therefore ~r = x(u1 , u2 , u3 )x̂ + y(u1 , u2 , u3 )ŷ + z(u1 , u2 , u3 )ẑ ...and d~
r = dxx̂ + dy ŷ + dz ẑ.
In order to define vector operators in this new coordinate system, we need to determine how the position
vector changes with a change in this new coordinate system.
@x @x @x @y @y @y @z @z @z
dx = du1 + du2 + du3 ; dy = du1 + du2 + du3 ; dz = du1 + du2 + du3
@u1 @u2 @u3 @u1 @u2 @u3 @u1 @u2 @u3
Hence,
✓ ◆ ✓ ◆ ✓ ⌘
◆
@x @x @x @y @y @y @z @z @z
d~r = du1 + du2 + du3 x̂ + du1 + du2 + du3 ŷ + du1 + du2 + du3 ẑ
@u1 @u2 @u3 @u1 @u2 @u3 @u1 @u2 @u3
✓ ◆ ✓ ◆ ✓ ◆
@x @y @z @x @y @z @x @y @z
= x̂ + ŷ + ẑ du1 + x̂ + ŷ + ẑ du2 + x̂ + ŷ + ẑ du3
@u1 @u1 @u1 @u2 @u2 @u2 @u3 @u3 @u3
@~r @~r @~r
du1 du2 du3
@u1 @u2 @u3
= h1 ê1 du1 + h2 ê2 du2 + h3 ê3 du3
where ê1 , ê2 , ê3 are unit vectors in the direction of increasing u1 , u2 , u3 .
h1 , h2 , h3 are called Scale Factors.
From Cartesian to Curvilinear: unit vectors
@~r @~r @~r ê3
d~r = du1 + du2 + du3 z
@u1 @u2 @u3 u3
= h1 ê1 du1 + h2 ê2 du2 + h3 ê3 du3
u1 = c 1
@~r @~r @~r P ê2
) h1 ê1 = ; h2 ê2 = ; h3 ê3 = u2 = c 2
@u1 @u2 @u3 u3 = c 3 u2
u1 ê1
Note that a tangent vector to u1 curve at P (for which
@~
u2 , u3 are constants) is @ur
. Then a unit tangent y
1
@~
r @~
r
vector in this direction is eˆ1 = @u 1
/| @u1 |. x
@~
r @~
r @~
r @~
r
Similarly ê2 = @u2 /| @u2 | and ê3 = @u3 /| @u3 |
@~
r @~
r @~
r
The scale factors are therefore: h1 = | @u1
|; h 2 = | @u2 |; h 3 = | @u3 |
: relate the actual displacement in a given coordinate direction to the change
of that coordinate.
Unit vectors here are analogous to the unit vectors in cartesian coordinates but are
unlike them in that they may change directions from point to point.
In a orthogonal curvilinear coordinate the unit vectors are orthogonal
(perpendicular) to each other.
Arc length, Volume element etc…
@~r @~r @~r u3
d~r = du1 + du2 + du3 = h1 ê1 du1 + h2 ê2 du2 + h3 ê3 du3
@u1 @u2 @u3
h3 du3 ê3
Di↵erential of arc length ds: ds2 = d~r.d~r (why?) P h2 du2 ê2
1
1 ê
Since êi .êj = ij , ds2 = h21 du21 + h22 du22 + h23 du23 . u2
du
u1
h1
Along a u1 curve, u2 and u3 are constants so that d~r = h1 du1 ê1 .
Hence, the di↵erential arc length ds1 along u1 curve at P is h1 du1 .
Similarly ds2 = h2 du2 and ds3 = h3 du3 along u2 and u3 at P.
Volume element:
Look at the parallelepiped formed out of the vectors h1 du1 ê1 , h2 du2 ê2 and
h3 du3 ê3 : the volume element is given by:
d⌧ = |(h1 du1 ê1 ).(h2 du2 ê2 ) ⇥ (h3 du3 ê3 )| = h1 h2 h3 du1 du2 du3 ,
since |ê1 .(ê2 ⇥ ê3 )|.
Gradient operator in Curvilinear coordinate
We have already seen that d~r = h1 ê1 du1 + h2 ê2 du2 + h3 ê3 du3
The scalar function T is now a function of curvilinear coordinates (u1 , u2 , u3 ).
~ (u1 , u2 , u3 ).d~r.
Therefore, dT (u1 , u2 , u3 ) = rT
@T @T @T
But, dT (u1 , u2 , u3 ) = du1 + du2 + du3 .
@u1 @u2 @u3
It follows that:
~ @T @T @T
rT.(h1 ê1 du1 + h2 ê2 du2 + h1 ê3 du3 ) = du1 + du2 + du3
@u1 @u2 @u3
The only way it can be satisfied for independent du1 , du2 and du3 is when
~ (u1 , u2 , u3 ) is curvilinear coordinates:
rT
~ 1 @T 1 @T 1 @T
rT (u1 , u2 , u3 ) = ê1 + ê2 + ê3 .
h1 @u1 h2 @u2 h3 @u3
Divergence, Curl and Laplacian in Curvilinear Coordinates
Proceeding in a similar manner, one can check, after a few lines of calculations:
1 ⇣ @(h h V ) @(h h V ) @(h h V ) ⌘
~ ~ 2 3 1 3 1 2 1 2 3
Divergence: r.V = + +
h1 h2 h3 @u1 @u2 @u3
h1 ê1 h2 ê2 h3 ê3
~ ⇥V
~ = 1 @ @ @
Curl: r @u1 @u2 @u3
h1 h2 h3
h1 V 1 h2 V 2 h3 V 3
" #
1 @ ⇣h h @T ⌘ @ ⇣h h @T ⌘ @ ⇣h h @ T⌘
2 3 3 1 1 2
Laplacian: r2 T = + +
h1 h2 h3 @u1 h1 @u1 @u2 h2 @u2 @u3 h3 @u3
Quick Check
For Cartesian coordinates, h1 = h2 = h3 = 1 and ê1 = x̂, ê2 = ŷ, ê3 = ẑ. This
reduces the above expressions to the familiar expressions in Cartesian coordinate
where (u1 , u2 , u3 ) are replaced by (x, y, z).
Specific examples:
Spherical Polar and Cylindrical Polar
z
Spherical Polar Coordinates
P
• Cartesian coordinate of P : (x, y, z) ~r
• Position vector of P : ~r u=✓
• Length of ~r: r = |~r| y
v=
• Polar angle (angle between z axis and ~r): ✓
• Azimuthal angle (angle between x axis and x
projection of ~r on xy plane):
• Spherical Polar Coordinate: (r, ✓, )⌘ (u1 , u2 , u3 )
• Range of r: 0 r < 1
• Range of ✓: 0 ✓ ⇡
• Range of : 0
< 2⇡
• Transformations: x = r sin ✓ cos , y = r sin ✓ sin ,
and z = r cos ✓
• ~r = r sin ✓ cos x̂ + r sin ✓ sin ŷ + r cos ✓ẑ
p ⇣y⌘
p x2 + y 2
1 1
• Inverse transformations: r = x2 + y 2 + z 2 , ✓ = sin p , = tan
x2 + y 2 + z 2 x
Spherical Polar Coordinates
Coordinate Surfaces:
Recall: coordinate surfaces were defined as surfaces obtained by keeping one of
the coordinates (either u1 or u2 or u3 constant) constant. Here (u1 , u2 , u3 ) =
(r, ✓, ).
The coordinate surfaces are:
r = c1 , spheres having centre at the origin
✓ = c2 , cones having vertex at origin (line if c2 = 0 or ⇡, xy plane if c2 = ⇡/2)
= c3 , planes through z axis
z
Spherical Polar Coordinates
Coordinate Curves:
Recall: coordinate curves were obtained by keeping two
coordinates fixed (intersection of u1 = c1 or u2 = c2 or
u3 = c3 surfaces).
x y
Intersection of r = c1 and ✓ = c2 ( curve) is a circle
Intersection of r = c1 and = c3 (✓ curve) is a semi circle
Intersection of ✓ = c2 and = c3 (r curve) is a line
Constant
lines Constant
r lines
• Lines of constant : Longitude
• Lines of constant ✓ : Lattitude
Constant
✓ lines
Spherical Polar Coordinates: Unit vectors and Scale factors
z
• ~r = r sin ✓ cos x̂ + r sin ✓ sin ŷ + r cos ✓ẑ r̂
Recall that êi = 1 @~r @~
r
where hi = | @u |. ˆ
hi @ui , i
Hence h1 ⌘ hr = | @~@r
r
| = 1, h 2 ⌘ h ✓ = | @~
r
@✓ | = r, ✓ˆ
h3 ⌘ h = | @@~r | = r sin ✓ x
y
Unit vectors:
@~
r
@r
ê1 ⌘ r̂ = @~
r
= sin ✓ cos x̂ + sin ✓ sin ŷ + cos ✓ẑẑ
@r
@~
r
ê2 ⌘ ✓ˆ = @✓
@~
r
= cos ✓ cos x̂ + cos ✓ sin ŷ sin ✓ẑ
@✓
@~r
ˆ= @
ê3 ⌘ = sin x̂ + cos ŷ
@~r
@
This shows that the unit vectors in spherical polar coordinates are dependent on position
The unit vectors r̂, ✓ˆ and ˆ are in the directions of increasing r, ✓ and
respectively.
Spherical Polar: Line, Volume and Surface elements
@~r @~r @~r
d~r = du1 + du2 + du3 = h1 ê1 du1 + h2 ê2 du2 + h3 ê3 du3
@u1 @u2 @u3
Therefore, for spherical polar d~r = r̂dr + rd✓✓ˆ + r sin ✓d ˆ 6= drr̂ + d✓✓ˆ + d ˆ
r d~r Scale factors take care of
the length scale
Volume element: d⌧ = hr h✓ h drd✓d = r2 sin ✓drd✓d .
Surface element: No general expression. Depend on orientation of the surface:
2 ✓
dar = h✓ h d✓d r̂ = r sin ✓d✓d r̂ (r constant surface)
da✓ = hr h drd ✓ˆ = r sin ✓drd ✓ˆ (✓ constant surface)
da = hr h✓ drd✓ ˆ = rdrd✓ ˆ ( constant surface)
r sin ✓d
r rd✓ ✓ r
d✓ d
r sin ✓
Find out the expressions for the gradient, divergence, curl and the Laplacian in
the spherical polar coordinate using the general form in curvilinear coordinate.
Cylindrical Polar Coordinates z
• Cartesian coordinate of P : (x, y, z)
• Distance of P from z axis: s
s
• Height: z (same as Cartesian)
• Azimuthal angle: (same as spherical polar)
y
x
• Cylindrical Polar Coordinate: (s, , z) ⌘ (u1 , u2 , u3 )
• Range of s: 0 s < 1
• Range of : 0
< 2⇡
• Range of z: 1<z<1
• Transformations: x = s cos , y = s sin , z = z
p y
1
• Inverse transformations: s = x2 + y 2 , = tan x , z=z
• Coordinate surfaces and curves: Find out!
Cylindrical Polar Coordinates
ẑ
ˆ
ŝ As usual, the scale factors are given by:
h1 ⌘ hs = 1, h2 ⌘ h = s, h3 ⌘ hz = 1.
The unit vectors are:
ŝŝ =
= cos x̂ + sin
sin ŷŷ
ˆˆ =
= sin x̂ + cos
cos ŷŷ
ẑ = ẑ
Line element: d~r = hs ŝds + h ˆd + hz ẑdz = dsŝ + sd ˆ + dz ẑ
Surface element: d~as = h hz d dzŝ = sd dzŝ (for s constant surface)
Volume element: d⌧ = hs h hz dsd dz = sdsd dz
Example
Example
Example
What did we learn today:
Symmetry of a problem decides what coordinate to choose.
We introduced the idea of orthogonal curvilinear coordinates.
We realised that the scale factors were necessary to relate changes in arbitrary coordinate to
a length scale.
We calculated the line, surface and volume elements in general in orthogonal curvilinear
coordinates and specialised them to spherical and cylindrical polar coordinates.
Unlike Cartesian, the unit vectors are in general position dependent, which is a crucial point to
note.
