PRE-LECTURE SIMPLE

HARMONIC MOTION (SHM)

PERIODIC MOTIONS
• Our Universe is full of examples of motions that are periodic or
harmonic

• They repeat the same motion after an amount of time called the
period (T)
• Mathematically this means

• 𝑥 𝑡 + 𝑛𝑇 = 𝑥 𝑡

• 𝑣 𝑡 + 𝑛𝑇 = 𝑣 𝑡

• 𝑎 𝑡 + 𝑛𝑇 = 𝑎 𝑡
• When the motion can be
described by either a sine or
cosine function the motion is
called simple harmonic motion
(SHM)

• The horizontal displacement of a

mass of a spring is shown in the
graph at the right
• We can see that the displacement can be described by either a
sine function or a cosine function.( More generally it can be
described by the sum of the two.)

• We recall that sine are cosine are identical in shape but just phase
𝜋 𝜋
shifted by 90o or i.e. cos 𝜃 − = 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
2 2

Phase shift
cosine

sine
• Note that both degrees and radians are
dimensionless units

• You should be comfortable working with

both and with the CAST rule
• We will generally use the cosine function to represent SHM in the
following form

• 𝑥 𝑡 = 𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜔𝑡 + 𝜙

• 𝐴 is the amplitude which is the maximum displacement of the

object from its equilibrium position

• The entire bracket is called the phase

• 𝜔 is called the angular frequency

• Since the phase must be dimensionless the unit of 𝜔 is radians/s

• Consider an object undergoing circular motion. If 𝜔 = 2𝜋 𝑟𝑎𝑑/𝑠 the object is

completing one full cycle each second.

2𝜋
• 𝜔 is related to the frequency 𝑓 and period 𝑇 by 𝜔 = 2𝜋𝑓 =
𝑇
• 𝜙 is the phase constant and ONLY depends on the initial condition
of the object undergoing SHM

• The phase constant does NOT change with time, but the phase
(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜙) does
GRAPHING SHM TIME PLOTS

• To sketch the graph, we use a few key points

• The maximum and the minimum values are determined by the

amplitude
• The x intercept ( t = 0 )

• The period will also be helpful

• The zeros or time intercepts ( at least one ) are also useful

• We will go through an example during lecture

MASS ON A SPRING

• Let’s consider a mass 𝑚 on a frictionless horizontal surface

attached to a spring with a constant 𝑘. The mass is pulled a
distance 𝐴 from its equilibrium position and released. Express its
angular frequency in terms of 𝑚 and 𝑘
• 𝑥 𝑡 = Acos(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜙)

• Since 𝑥 0 = 𝐴

• 𝐴 = 𝐴cos(0 + 𝜙)

• 1 = cos(𝜙)
• 𝜙 = 0 since 𝑐𝑜𝑠0 = 1

• 𝑥 𝑡 = 𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝜔𝑡)
• We know from Hooke’s law that 𝐹 = −𝑘𝑥 ( force and extension are
always in opposite directions)

• From Newton’s 2nd law we know that 𝐹 = 𝑚𝑎 = 𝑚𝑥ሷ ( remember that

acceleration is just the second derivative of position)

• Combining these yields 𝑚𝑥ሷ = −𝑘𝑥 this is an example of a 2nd order

differential equation
• Taking the first derivative of our position equation yields velocity

• 𝑣 𝑡 = 𝑥ሶ = −𝜔Asin(𝜔𝑡)

• Taking the second derivative yields our acceleration

• 𝑎 𝑡 = 𝑥ሷ = −𝜔2 Acos(𝜔𝑡)
• Substituting into our force equation yields

• 𝑚 −𝜔 2 𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜔𝑡 = −𝑘 𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜔𝑡

2 𝑘 𝑘
• 𝜔 = 𝜔= note a negative frequency has no physical
𝑚 𝑚
meaning
• This same relation applies to masses on vertical springs

• In the case of the vertical spring the force of gravity is NOT time
dependent so cannot result in a time dependent acceleration
 PRE-LECTURE
SPRINGS AND PENDULUMS
ENERGY AND SPRINGS

• Consider a mass 𝑚 being attached to a

vertical spring with a constant 𝑘

• When the mass is added we say that gravity

does work on the spring stretching it and
increasing its elastic potential energy
• The mass spring system reaches a new
equilibrium position after stretching the
spring by 𝑥𝑜

• This means it now has an energy 𝑈 =

1
𝑘𝑥𝑜2
2
• The mass is then pulled down an
additional distance 𝑥1 from the
new equilibrium position and
released

• What is the speed of the mass

when it passes this new
equilibrium position?
ENERGY MUST BE CONSERVED

• At the lowest point we will define our height to be zero, so our

gravitational energy is also zero

• Since the mass is released from rest its kinetic energy is also zero

1
• 𝐸1 = 𝑘(𝑥𝑜 + 𝑥1 )2
2
• At the new equilibrium position the height of the mass is 𝑥1

1 1
• 𝐸2 = 𝑘𝑥𝑜2 + 𝑚𝑔𝑥1 + 𝑚𝑣 2
2 2

• Let’s consider the forces involved

• When the mass was initially added the force due to the
spring balanced the force of gravity

• 𝑘𝑥𝑜 = 𝑚𝑔 (Hooke’s law)

• let’s substitute this into our energy equation

1 1
• 𝐸2 = 𝑘𝑥𝑜2 + 𝑘𝑥𝑜 𝑥1 + 𝑚𝑣 2
2 2
• Now let’s expand out the bracket for our expression for 𝐸1

1 1 1
• 𝐸1 = 𝑘 𝑥𝑜2 + 2𝑥𝑜 𝑥1 + 𝑥12 = 𝑘𝑥𝑜2 + 𝑘𝑥𝑜 𝑥1 + 𝑘𝑥12
2 2 2
• Now let’s equate our energies

1 1 1 1
• 𝑘𝑥𝑜2 + 𝑘𝑥𝑜 𝑥1 + 𝑘𝑥12 = 𝑘𝑥𝑜2 + 𝑘𝑥𝑜 𝑥1 + 𝑚𝑣 2
2 2 2 2

1 1
• 𝑘𝑥12 = 𝑚𝑣 2
2 2

• The kinetic energy of the mass at the new equilibrium solely

depends on the additional elastic energy added when it is
pulled down from this new equilibrium
 2 𝑘
• Sometimes we write the elastic energy using 𝜔 = 𝑜𝑟 𝑘 =
𝑚
𝑚𝜔2 thus

1
• 𝑈 = 𝑚𝜔2 𝑥 2
2
LET’S EXAMINE A PENDULUM
• Amplitude is a measure of how far
𝜃
the pendulum is pulled from its
equilibrium position

• When considering the motion of

the pendulum we will often use
the small angle approximation amplitude
 𝜋
• Each degree is 180 = 0.01745 rad

• The sine of 1o is also 0.01745

• 2o is 0.03491 rad

• The sine of 2o is 0.03490

• The same is true for the tangent ratio

 𝜋
• For angles of or the small angle approximation means that
6o
30
we can state that

• 𝜃 ≈ 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 and 𝜃 ≈ 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃

LET’S SAY OUR PENDULUM STARTS AT AN ANGLE 𝜃
WITH RESPECT TO THE VERTICAL

• The pendulum travels along the arc a small amount 𝑑𝑠

𝜃
𝑑𝑠 −𝑑𝜃
• = tan 𝑑𝜃 = 𝑑𝜃 ( 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑑𝜃 𝑖𝑠 𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑦 𝑠𝑚𝑎𝑙𝑙)
𝐿

• When we get 𝑑𝑠 by itself we include a negative sign

because the angle is decreasing

𝑑𝑠 = −𝐿𝑑𝜃
LET’S CONSIDER THE FORCES

Fg
90 − 𝜃
• The force that results in the acceleration in the direction of the arc
is the x component of the force of gravity

• 𝐹 = 𝑚𝑔𝑐𝑜𝑠 90 − 𝜃 = 𝑚𝑔𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃

• Using Newton’s 2nd we have

• 𝐹 = 𝑚𝑎 or 𝑚𝑔𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 = 𝑚𝑎

𝑑2𝑠
• 𝑔𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 = 𝑎 where 𝑎 =
𝑑𝑡 2

• Since 𝑑𝑠 = −𝐿𝑑𝜃 and 𝐿 is constant

𝑑𝑠 𝑑𝜃
• = −𝐿
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
• Taking the second derivative yields

𝑑2𝑠 𝑑2𝜃
• = −𝐿
𝑑𝑡 2 𝑑𝑡 2

• Substituting into our acceleration equation yields

𝑑2𝜃
• −𝐿 = 𝑔𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
𝑑𝑡 2
• In the small angle approximation this becomes

𝑑2𝜃 𝑔
• =− θ
𝑑𝑡 2 𝐿

• This is again a second order differential equation

• We have a function whose second derivative is only different from
the original function by a constant

• There are two types of functions that behave that way

• 1) exponentials
• 2) trig functions ( specifically sine or cosine functions)
• Though all will, work we will use the cosine function

• 𝜃 = 𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜔𝑡 + 𝜙

𝑑2𝜃 2 𝑔
• = −𝐴𝜔 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜔𝑡 + 𝜙 = − 𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜔𝑡 + 𝜙
𝑑𝑡 2 𝐿

2 𝑔
• for the small angle approximation, we that 𝜔 =
𝐿
 𝑔 𝑔
• 𝜔= 𝐿
or 𝑓 = 2𝜋 𝐿

• This means that ( for small angles) the frequency of a pendulum

depends ONLY on

• 1) the gravitational field intensity

• 2) the length of the pendulum

PRE-LECTURE PENDULUMS
AND DAMPED SHM
 ENERGY AND THE PENDULUM
𝜃𝑜

yo

• If a pendulum with length L is pulled to an angle 𝜃0 and released

from rest, what is its speed as a function of its angle?
 𝜃𝑜
𝐿𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃𝑜
• We define y=0 at the lowest point 𝐿

• 𝐸𝑜 = 𝑚𝑔𝑦𝑜 yo

• 𝑦𝑜 = 𝐿 − 𝐿𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃𝑜
• In general, the height of the pendulum is given by 𝑦 = 𝐿(1 −
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 )

• Using conservation of energy 𝐸𝑜 = 𝐸 or 𝑈𝑜 = 𝑈 + 𝐸𝐾

1
• 𝑚𝑔𝐿 1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃𝑜 = 𝑚𝑔𝐿 1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 + 𝑚𝑣 2
2
 1
• 𝑔𝐿 − 𝑔𝐿𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃𝑜 − 𝑔𝐿 + 𝑔𝐿𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 = 𝑣 2
2

• 2𝑔𝐿(𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃𝑜 ) = 𝑣 2

• 2𝑔𝐿(𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃𝑜 ) = 𝑣
• Note that this equation is not limited by the small angle
approximation
DAMPING

• Damping is reduction of the amplitude of an oscillation as the

result of viscous friction

• In the case of a vibrating spring this effect depends on the speed

of the mass moving through a fluid ( air is a fluid)

• 𝐹𝐷 = −𝑏𝑣 where b is a constant related to the viscosity

• Oscillations are often unwanted, and engineers use viscous drag to
damp them out safely
• Some examples are

• 1) Vibrations in buildings or bridges due to wind or earthquakes

• 2) Vibrations in cars that result from bumps in the road
BUILDING DAMPING

[Link]
AUTOMOBILE SHOCK ABSORBERS
Cut open to show where
viscous fluid would go

[Link]
 DAMPING SIMULATION
• Go to [Link]
IF YOU HAVE TIME, TRY THE SIMULATION BELOW

• Select lab
• Select about 1/4 on the damping slider
• Select period tracer
• Examine the effect that mass has on how quickly an oscillation is damped out
• Examine the effect that the amount of damping has on how quickly an oscillation is damped out for a
fixed mass
• Examine what happens to the energy of the system due to damping
• For a vertical spring-mass system like
that show at the right we have two
time-dependent forces

• Hooke’s law 𝐹 𝑡 = −𝑘𝑦 𝑡

• (note the we are using 𝑦 instead of 𝑥)

• Viscous drag 𝐹 𝑡 = −𝑏𝑣(𝑡)

• Newton’s 2nd law yields

• 𝑚𝑎 𝑡 = −𝑏𝑣 𝑡 − 𝑘𝑦 𝑡

• 𝑚𝑦ሷ = −𝑏𝑦ሶ − 𝑘𝑦
• A solution to this second order differential equation is

𝑏
− 𝑡
• 𝑦 𝑡 = 𝐴𝑜 𝑒 2𝑚 sin(𝜔𝐷 𝑡 + 𝜙)

• Where 𝜔𝐷 is called the damped frequency

UNDERDAMPED

• This solution is called underdamped SHM

• Such situations results in the mass

undergoing several oscillations before all
the energy is dissipated as heat

• The graph at the right shows how the

amplitude ( but not the frequency )
changes with time
CRITICALLY DAMPED

• Another solution to the differential equation results in what is

called critical damping

• When critically damped no oscillations are observed and the

exponential dominates
DAMPING FREQUENCY

• It can be shown that

𝑏2 𝑘
• 𝜔𝐷 = 𝜔2 − since 𝜔 = this becomes
4𝑚2 𝑚

𝑘 𝑏2
• 𝜔𝐷 = −
𝑚 4𝑚2
CRITICAL DAMPING

• At critical damping, the frequency goes to zero ( we only see

exponential behavior)

𝑘 𝑏2
• This occurs when − =0
𝑚 4𝑚2

• i.e., when 𝑏 = 2 𝑚𝑘
• Watch this example of underdamped and critically damped
oscillations

• [Link]
OVERDAMPING, CRITICAL DAMPING AND
UNDERDAMPING

• Overdamping ( rapid exponential decay) occurs when 𝑏 > 2 𝑚𝑘

• Critical damping occurs when 𝑏 = 2 𝑚𝑘

• Underdamping ( oscillations which damp out over time ) occurs

when 𝑏 < 2 𝑚𝑘