7 Automatic Direction Finder (ADF)

Chapter

7
Automatic Direction Finder (ADF)

Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85

7
Non-directional Beacon (NDB) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85

Automatic Direction Finder (ADF)

Principle of Operation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
Frequencies and Types of NDB . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
Aircraft Equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
Emission Characteristics and Beat Frequency Oscillator (BFO) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
Presentation of Information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
Uses of the Non-directional Beacon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
Plotting ADF Bearings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
Track Maintenance Using the RBI . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
Homing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
Tracking Inbound . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
Tracking Outbound . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
Drift Assessment and Regaining Inbound Track . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
Drift Assessment and Outbound Track Maintenance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
Holding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
Runway Instrument Approach Procedures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
Factors Affecting ADF Accuracy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
Factors Affecting ADF Range . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
Accuracy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
ADF Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
Answers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108

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Introduction The polar diagram formed is a figure of eight as shown below (Figure 7.2). It can be seen that
there are two null positions and that by rotating the loop until a null is reached the direction of
Automatic Direction Finder (ADF) equipment in the aircraft is used in conjunction with a simple the beacon can be determined. This is fine if the approximate direction of the beacon is known,
low and medium frequency non-directional beacon (NDB) on the ground to provide an aid for but if that is not the case then there are two possible choices. Furthermore, if equipment is to
navigation and for non-precision approaches to airfields. However, it was due to be phased automatically determine position, then with only the single loop it would have an insoluble
out in 2005, but still continues in use. Indeed, many UK aerodromes still have NDB instrument problem.
approach procedures, and it is the only instrument approach procedure available at some
aerodromes. LOOP DIPOLE

Non-directional Beacon (NDB)

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The Non-directional Beacon (NDB) is a ground based transmitter which transmits vertically
polarized radio signals, in all directions (hence the name), in the Low Frequency (LF) and

Automatic Direction Finder (ADF)

Automatic Direction Finder (ADF)
Medium Frequency (MF) bands.
NULL
When an aircraft’s Automatic Direction Finding (ADF) is tuned to an NDB’s frequency and its
call sign identified, the direction of the NDB will be indicated.

A ‘cone of silence’ exists overhead the NDB transmitter during which the aircraft does not
receive any signals. The diameter of the cone increases with aircraft height.

Principle of Operation
The ADF measures the bearing of an NDB relative to the fore/aft axis of the aircraft.
NULL
If a loop aerial is placed in the plane of the transmitted radio frequency a voltage will be
generated in the vertical elements of the loop because of the phase difference of the wave in Figure 7.2 Polar diagrams of loop & dipole aerials
each of the vertical elements. As the loop is rotated the voltage induced will decrease until
it becomes zero when the loop is perpendicular to the radio wave. As the loop continues to To resolve this ambiguity a simple dipole aerial, called a sense aerial, is added. The polar
rotate a voltage will be induced in the opposite sense etc. diagram of the sense aerial is circular. The currents generated are combined electronically as if
the sense aerial was in the middle of the loop aerial (Figure 7.3). The relative signal strengths
of the two signals are shown.

Figure 7.3
Figure 7.1 A Loop Aerial

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It is arranged for the field from the sense aerial to be in phase with one element (the left In reality it is not feasible to have a rotating loop outside the aircraft, so the loop is fixed
hand element shown in diagram) of the loop aerial (Figure 7.4). The resultant polar diagram and has four elements, two aligned with the fore-aft axis of the aircraft with the other two
is known as a CARDIOID. The cardioid has a single null which as can be seen is ill-defined and perpendicular to the fore-aft axis. The electrical fields are transmitted to a similar four elements
would not in itself provide an accurate bearing. However, the correct null in the loop aerial in a goniometer reproducing the electro magnetic field detected by the aerial. The signal from
can be defined by introducing a logic circuit which defines the correct null as being that null, in the sense aerial is also fed to the goniometer where a search coil detects the unambiguous
the loop aerial which, when the loop aerial is rotated clockwise, produces an increase in signal direction. The principle employed within the goniometer is as described above.
strength in the cardioid.

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Automatic Direction Finder (ADF)
Automatic Direction Finder (ADF)
Figure
Figure 7.4 4.4

The resultant null with a single cardioid is not precise enough to meet the ICAO accuracy
requirement of +/-5°. To improve the accuracy to meet the requirements, the polarity of the
Figure 7.6 Fixed Loop ADF
sense aerial is reversed to produce a right hand cardioid. Then by rapidly switching (about 120
Hz) between the two cardioids, the null is more precisely defined and hence the accuracy is
improved. Frequencies and Types of NDB
The allocated frequencies for NDBs are 190 - 1750 kHz in the LF and MF bands. Since the mode
CORRECT of propagation used is surface wave, most NDBs will be found between about 250 and 450
NULL kHz. There are two types of NDB in current use:

Locator (L). These are low powered NDBs used for airfield or runway approach procedures
or are co-located with, and supplement, the outer and middle markers of an ILS system. They
normally have ranges of 10 to 25 NM and may only be available during an aerodrome’s
published hours of operation.

En route NDBs. These have a range of 50 NM or more, and where serving oceanic areas may
have ranges of several hundred miles. They are used for homing, holding, en route and airways
navigation.

Figure 7.5

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Aircraft Equipment Presentation of Information

The aircraft equipment comprises: The information may be presented on a relative bearing indicator (RBI) or a radio magnetic
indicator (RMI). In either case the information being presented is relative bearing.
• A loop aerial

• A sense aerial

• A control unit

• A receiver

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• A display

Automatic Direction Finder (ADF)

Automatic Direction Finder (ADF)
ADF BFO FRQ FLT /
ET
SET
/RST

Figure
Figure 4.8 RBI
7.8 RBI Figure
Figure4.9 RMI
7.9 RMI

The RBI has a standard compass rose where 360° is aligned with the fore-aft axis of the aircraft,
although with some RBIs it is possible to manually set heading to directly read the magnetic
bearing. In the diagram the aircraft is heading 300°(M), the RBI is showing a relative bearing of
136°, thus the magnetic bearing is 300° + 136° - 360° = 076°. The information from the ADF to
ADF ANT BFO the RMI is still relative, but the RMI compass card is fed with magnetic heading, so the bearing
shown is the magnetic bearing of the NDB.

The needle always points to the beacon (QDM) and the tail of the needle gives the QDR.

Figure 7.7 Two ADF Receivers

Emission Characteristics and Beat Frequency Oscillator (BFO)

The NDBs have a 2 or 3 letter identification and there are two types of emission:

N0NA1A N0NA2A

The N0N part of the emission is the transmission of an unmodulated carrier wave, which
would not be detectable on a normal receiver, so a BFO is provided on ADF equipment. When
selected, the BFO produces an offset frequency within the receiver which when combined with
the received frequency produces a tone of say 400 or 1020 Hz.

The A1A part is the emission of an interrupted unmodulated carrier wave which requires the
BFO to be on for aural reception. A2A is the emission of an amplitude modulated signal which
can be heard on a normal receiver.

Hence, when using N0NA1A beacons, the BFO should be selected ON for (manual) tuning,
identification and monitoring. N0NA2A beacons require the BFO ON for (manual) tuning but
OFF for identification and monitoring. (The BFO may be labelled TONE or TONE/VOICE on
some equipments).

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Uses of the Non-directional Beacon Figure 7.11 shows an aircraft maintaining a relative bearing of 360°, with a crosswind from the
left. As a result a curved track will be followed.
• En route navigational bearings.

• Homing to or flying from the NDB when maintaining airway centre lines.

• Holding overhead at an assigned level in a race-track pattern.

• Runway instrument approach procedures.

Plotting ADF Bearings

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The plotting of ADF bearings is dealt with in depth in the Navigation General syllabus. At

Automatic Direction Finder (ADF)

Automatic Direction Finder (ADF)
this stage it is sufficient to remind the reader that the bearing is measured at the aircraft so
variation to convert to a true bearing must be applied at the aircraft. Account will also need to Figure 7.11 Homing Making no Allowance for Drift
be taken of the convergency between the aircraft and beacon meridians.
Tracking Inbound
Track Maintenance Using the RBI
To achieve a required track inbound to an NDB, with a crosswind, the correct method is to allow
An aircraft is required to maintain track(s): for the anticipated drift therefore maintaining a constant track. In Figure 7.12, 20° Starboard
drift is anticipated, so 20 is Subtracted from track. The aircraft is heading 060° with a relative
• When flying airway centre line between NDBs. bearing of 020°.

• When holding over an NDB or Locator.

• When carrying out a let-down procedure at an airfield based solely upon NDB(s)/Locator(s)
or NDB(s)/Locators combined with other navaids.

• When requested by ATC to intercept and maintain a track or airway centre line.

• When carrying out interceptions.

Homing
Figure 7.10 shows an aircraft maintaining 360° relative bearing, in zero wind (zero drift). The
Figure 7.12
aircraft is heading 077° and therefore will track inbound on 077°.
In Figure 7.13, 28° Port drift is anticipated, so this is added (Plus) to the track value. The aircraft
is heading 108° with a relative bearing of 332°.

Figure 7.10 Homing in Zero Drift

Figure 7.13

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Tracking Outbound Drift Assessment and Regaining Inbound Track

Figure 7.14 shows an aircraft maintaining the required track outbound from an NDB in zero
wind (zero drift) conditions. The aircraft is heading 260° and has a relative bearing of 180°.

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Automatic Direction Finder (ADF)
Automatic Direction Finder (ADF)
Figure 7.17 Assessing Drift Inbound

Initially, fly the aircraft on the required track with the beacon dead ahead (000° rel.).
Figure 7.14
Maintain the aircraft heading and watch the relative bearing indicator. If the relative bearing
Figure 7.15 shows an aircraft maintaining a track of 100° in crosswind conditions where the drift increases the aircraft is experiencing port drift.
is known. 23° of Starboard drift is anticipated, this is Subtracted from the track, therefore the
heading is 077° with a relative bearing of 203° from the NDB. Alter heading, say 30° starboard, to regain track. The relative bearing will become 330° when
track is regained.

Assume a likely drift (say 10° port) and calculate a new heading to maintain track. When this
heading has been taken up, the relative bearing will become 350°.

If the drift has been correctly assessed this relative bearing will be maintained until overhead
the NDB. If the relative bearing changes however, further heading alterations and a new
assessment of drift will be necessary.

Figure 7.15

In Figure 7.16 20° Port drift is anticipated, this is added (Plus) to track giving an aircraft heading
of 110° with a relative bearing of 160°.

Figure 7.16

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Drift Assessment and Outbound Track Maintenance Holding

When density of traffic or bad weather delay an aircraft’s landing at an airport, the air traffic
controller directs it to a Holding Area. The area, also known as a ‘stack’, is organized over a
‘radio’ beacon where each waiting aircraft flies a special circuit separated vertically from other
aircraft by a minimum of 1000 ft. An aircraft drops to the next level as soon as it is free of other
traffic, until it finally flies from the stack and comes in to land.

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Automatic Direction Finder (ADF)
Automatic Direction Finder (ADF)
Figure 7.18 Drift Assessing Outbound

In Figure 7.18 it can be seen that with zero drift the RBI indicates 180° relative. With 10°
starboard drift, the relative bearing increases to 190°, and with 10° port drift the relative
bearing decreases to 170°. To assess drift by this means the aircraft must maintain a steady
heading from directly overhead the beacon.

When the drift has been assessed, alter heading port or starboard, by say 30°, to regain track,
until the correct relative bearing of 210° or 150° is obtained. The aircraft is now back on track.
The heading must now be altered to take into account the original assessment of drift. Figure 7.20 The holding system

Figure 7.19 Determining Drift and Maintaining Track away from an NDB

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Runway Instrument Approach Procedures Factors Affecting ADF Accuracy

Most aerodromes have NDB runway instrument approach procedures. The pilot flies the Designated Operational Coverage (DOC)
published procedure in order to position the aircraft in poor weather conditions for a visual The DOC of NDBs is based upon a daytime protection ratio (signal/noise ratio of 3:1) between
landing. The NDB may also be used in conjunction with other runway approach aids for the wanted and unwanted signals that permits the required level of bearing accuracy. At ranges
same purpose. greater than those promulgated, bearing errors will increase. Adverse propagation conditions
particularly at night will also increase bearing errors.

Static Interference
There are two types of static interference that can affect the performance of ADF:

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Precipitation static is generated by the collision of water droplets and ice crystals with the
aircraft. It causes a reduction in the signal/noise ratio which affects the accuracy of the bearings

Automatic Direction Finder (ADF)

Automatic Direction Finder (ADF)
and can, in extreme circumstances completely mask the incoming signal. The indications on
the RMI/RBI will be a wandering needle and the audio will have a background hiss, which is
also likely to be present on VHF frequencies.

Thunderstorms have very powerful discharges of static electricity across the electromagnetic
spectrum including LF and MF. These discharges cause bearing errors in the ADF. A static
discharge in a cumulonimbus cloud (Cb) will be heard as a loud crackle on the audio and the
needle will move rapidly to point to the Cb. When there are several active cells close together,
it is possible for the needle to point to them for prolonged periods. Care must be taken in
the use of ADF when Cb activity is forecast. It has been said that during Cb activity the only
sensible use of the ADF is to indicate where the active cells are.

Night Effect
By day the D-region absorbs signals in the LF and MF bands. At night the D-region disappears
allowing sky wave contamination of the surface wave being used. This arises for two reasons:
phase interference of the sky wave with the surface wave because of the different paths and
the induction of currents in the horizontal elements of the loop aerial. The effect is reduced
by the aerial design having very short vertical elements and by screening the aerial above and
below, but the contamination is not eliminated. The effect first becomes significant at 70 -
100 NM from the NDB. The effect is manifest by fading of the audio signal and the needle
‘hunting’ and is worst around dawn and dusk, when the ionosphere is in transition.

If ADF is to be used at night:

• Positively identify the NDB call sign.

• Continue to check the tuning and the identification.

• Avoid use of the equipment within 1 hour of sunrise or sunset.

• Use NDBs within their promulgated range which is valid during daytime only.

• Treat bearings with caution if the needle wanders and the signal fades.

• Cross-check NDB bearing information against other navigation aids.

Figure 7.21 Example of an NDB instrument approach

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Station Interference Quadrantal Error

Due to congestion of stations in the LF and MF bands, the possibility of interference from The theoretical reception polar diagram of the loop aerial is distorted by the airframe which
stations on or near the same frequency exists. This will cause bearing errors. By day, the use produces a strong electrical field aligned fore and aft. Incoming NDB signals are thus refracted
of an NDB within the DOC will normally afford protection from interference. However, at towards the fore and aft airframe axis. The maximum refraction occurs in the quadrants (i.e.
night, one can expect interference even within the DOC because of sky wave contamination on relative bearings of 045°, 135°, 225° & 315°.) Older ADF systems are regularly ‘swung’
from stations out of range by day. Therefore positive identification of the NDB at night should to assess the value of quadrantal error. In modern aircraft the error is determined by the
always be carried out. manufacturer and corrections are put into the equipment to reduce the effect to a minimum.

Mountain Effect Angle of Bank (dip)

Mountainous areas can cause reflections and diffraction of the transmitted radio waves to A loop aerial is designed to use vertically polarized waves for direction finding. If the incoming
produce errors in ADF systems. These errors will increase at low altitude and can be minimized wave has any horizontal component of polarization it will induce currents in the top and

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by flying higher. bottom horizontal members of the loop resulting in a circulating current. This would destroy
the nulls of polar diagram (similar to night effect) and reduce the accuracy of the bearings.

Automatic Direction Finder (ADF)

Automatic Direction Finder (ADF)
Coastal Refraction The angle of bank during a turn causes currents to be induced in the horizontal elements of
Radio waves speed up over water due to the reduced absorption of energy (attenuation) the loop thereby leading to a bearing error which is referred to as dip error. This error is only
compared to that which occurs over land. This speeding up causes the wave front to bend present when the aircraft is not in level flight.
(refract) away from its normal path and pull it towards the coast. Refraction is negligible at 90°
to the coast but increases as the angle of incidence increases. Lack of Failure Warning System
False indications due to a failure in the system are not readily detectable because of the
absence of failure warning on most ADF instruments. Particular care should therefore be
exercised in identifying and monitoring the NDB and independent cross-checks made with
other navigational aids where possible. It is essential that when using the ADF as the primary
navigation aid, for example for a runway approach procedure, that it is continuously monitored
to detect any failure.

Factors Affecting ADF Range

The major factors which affect the range of NDB/ADF equipment are listed below:

NDB transmission power; the range is proportional to the square root of the power output i.e.
to double the NDB range, quadruple the power output of the transmitter.

NDB range is greater over water:

3 × √P (W) over water

Figure 7.22 Coastal refraction 2 × √P (W) over land

For an aircraft flying over the sea the error puts the aircraft position closer to the coast than its
actual position. Note: Using ranges calculated by these formulae does not guarantee that the aircraft will be
within the DOC.
The effect can be minimised by:
The lower the frequency, the greater the surface wave (greater diffraction, lower attenuation).
• Using NDBs on or near to the coast.
All precipitation, including falling snow, reduces the effective range and accuracy of ADF
• Flying higher. bearings.

• Using signals that cross the coast at or near to 90° N0NA1A NDBs have greater ranges than N0NA2A. But note that ICAO Annex 10 recommends
the use of N0NA2A for long range beacons.

Receiver quality.

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Accuracy
The accuracy of ADF is +/-5° within the designated operational coverage, by day only. This
refers to the measured bearing and does not include any compass error.

ADF Summary

NDB Ground transmitter in LF or MF band (190 - 1750 kHz)

Types of NDB: Locator (L) - airfield let-down (10 - 25 NM)

En Route - Nav-aid (50 NM or more)

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Automatic Direction Finder (ADF)
Automatic Direction Finder (ADF)
Range (NM): 3 × √P (W) over water

2 × √P (W) over land

ADF Airborne equipment - aerials, receiver, control unit,

indicator (RBI / RMI)
Principle of operation (Relative) Bearing by switched cardioids
Frequencies 190 - 1750 kHz (LF & MF)
Emission characteristics N0NA1A - BFO ON for tuning, identification and monitoring

N0NA2A - BFO ON for tuning, OFF otherwise

Presentation RBI or RMI
Uses of NDB Homing, Holding, Approach, En route nav-aid
Errors Static interference (precipitation and thunderstorms)

Station interference

Night effect

Mountain effect

Coastal refraction

Quadrantal error

Bank angle (dip)

Lack of failure warning

Accuracy (Day Only) +/- 5° within the DOC
Figure 7.23

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 Questions
7 7 Questions

Questions 7. An aircraft is tracking away from an NDB on a track of 023°(T). If the drift is 8° port
and variation 10° west, which of the RMIs illustrated below shows the correct
1. The phenomenon of coastal refraction which affects the accuracy of ADF bearings: indications?

a. is most marked at night

b. can be minimized by using beacons situated well inland
c. can be minimized by taking bearings where the signal crosses the coastline at
right angles
d. is most marked one hour before to one hour after sunrise and sunset

2. An aircraft is intending to track from NDB ‘A’ to NDB ‘B’ on a track of 050°(T), heading
060°(T). If the RBI shows the relative bearing of ‘A’ to be 180° and the relative bearing

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of ‘B’ to be 330° then the aircraft is:

Questions
Questions
a.
b.
port of track and nearer ‘A’
port of track and nearer ‘B’ a b
c. starboard of track and nearer ‘A’
d. starboard of track and nearer ‘B’

3. ADF quadrantal error is caused by:

a. static build up on the airframe and St. Elmo’s Fire

b. the aircraft’s major electrical axis, the fuselage, reflecting and re-radiating the
incoming NDB transmissions
c. station interference and/or night effect
d. NDB signals speeding up and bending as they cross from a land to water
propagation path

4. The overall accuracy of ADF bearings by day within the promulgated range (DOC) is: c d
a. ± 3°
b. ± 5°
c. ± 6° 8. The BFO facility on ADF equipment should be used as follows when an NDB having
d. ± 10° N0NA1A type emission is to be used:

5. In order to Tune, Identify and Monitor N0NA1A NDB emissions the BFO should be a. BFO on for tuning and identification but may be turned off for monitoring
used as follows: b. BFO on for tuning but can be turned off for monitoring and identification
purpose
Tune Identify Monitor c. BFO off during tuning, identification and monitoring because this type of
a. On On Off emission is not modulated
b. On On On d. BFO should be switched on for tuning, ident and monitoring
c. On Off Off
d. Off Off Off 9. The protection ratio of 3:1 that is provided within the promulgated range/designated
operational coverage of an NDB by day cannot be guaranteed at night because of:
6. The magnitude of the error in position lines derived from ADF bearings that are
affected by coastal refraction may be reduced by: a. long range sky wave interference from other transmitters
b. sky wave signals from the NDB to which you are tuned
a. selecting beacons situated well inland c. the increased skip distance that occurs at night
b. only using beacons within the designated operational coverage d. the possibility of sporadic E returns occurring at night
c. choosing N0NA2A beacons
d. choosing beacons on or near the coast

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10. An aircraft has an RMI with two needles. Assume that: 13. In order to resolve the 180° directional ambiguity of a directional LOOP aerial its
polar diagram is combined with that of a SENSE aerial ................................ to produce
i) The aircraft is outbound from NDB Y on a track of 126°(M) drift is 14° Port a .............. whose single null ensures the ADF needle moves the shortest distance to
ii) A position report is required when crossing a QDR of 022 from NDB Z indicate the correct...............

Which of the diagrams below represents the RMI at the time of crossing the reporting a at the aircraft, cardioid, radial
point? b. at the transmitter, limacon, bearing
c. at the aircraft, limacon, bearing
d. at the aircraft, cardioid, bearing

14. The protection ratio afforded to NDBs in the UK within the promulgated range (DOC)
applies:

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a. by day only

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b. by night only
c. both day and night
d. at dawn and dusk

15. The phenomena of coastal refraction affecting ADF bearings is caused by the signal
a b ............... when it reaches the coastline and bending ................ the normal to the
coast:

a. accelerating towards
b. decelerating towards
c. accelerating away from
d. decelerating away from

16. In an ADF system, night effect is most pronounced:

a. during long winter nights

b. when the aircraft is at low altitude
c. when the aircraft is at high altitude
d. at dusk and dawn
c d
17. When the induced signals from the loop and the sense antenna are combined in an
ADF receiver, the resultant polar diagram is:

a. a limacon
11. Each NDB has a range promulgated in the COMM section of the AIP. Within this b. a cardioid
range interference from other NDBs should not cause bearing errors in excess of: c. figure of eight shaped
d. circular
a. day ± 5°
b. night ± 10° 18. When flying over the sea and using an inland NDB to fix position with a series of
c. day ± 6° position lines, the plotted position in relation to the aircraft’s actual position will be:
d. night ± 5°
a. further from the coast
12. The range promulgated in the AIP and flight guides for all NDBs in the UK is the b. closer to the coast
range: c. co-incident
d. inaccurate due to the transmitted wave front decelerating
a. within which a protection ratio of 3:1 is guaranteed by day and night
b. up to which bearings can be obtained on 95% of occasions
c. within which bearings obtained by day should be accurate to within 5°
d. within which protection from sky wave protection is guaranteed

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19. An aircraft on a heading of 235°(M) shows an RMI reading of 090° with respect to an
NDB. Any quadrantal error which is affecting the accuracy of this bearing is likely to
Answers
be:
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
a. a maximum value c d b b b d d d a a a c
b. a very small value
c. zero, since quadrantal error affects only the RBI
d. zero, since quadrantal error affects only the VOR 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21
d a c d b b a b a
20. The principal propagation path employed in an NDB/ADF system is:

a. sky wave
b. surface wave

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c. direct wave

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Answers
d. ducted wave

21. The ADF of an aircraft on a heading of 189°(T) will experience the greatest effect due
to quadrantal error if the NDB bears:

a. 234°(T)
b. 279°(T)
c. 225°(T)
d. 145°(T)

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