FUNDAMENTALS OF

FLUID MECHANICS
Chapter 8 Pipe Flow

Jyh-Cherng Shieh
Department of Bio-Industrial Mechatronics Engineering
National Taiwan University
12/21/2009
1
MAIN TOPICS
™ General Characteristics of Pipe Flow
™ Fully Developed Laminar Flow
™ Fully Developed Turbulent Flow
™ Dimensional Analysis of Pipe Flow
™ Pipe Flow Examples
™ Pipe Flowrate Measurement

2
 定義Internal flows：流體完全被solid
Introduction surface包圍的流動
依solid surface形狀可分成 pipes、 ducts（非圓）、nozzle、…等等
™ Flows completely bounded by solid surfaces are called INTERNAL
FLOWS which include flows through pipes (Round cross section),
ducts (NOT Round cross section), nozzles, diffusers, sudden
contractions and expansions, valves, and fittings.
™ The basic principles involved are independent of the cross-sectional
shape, although the details of the flow may be dependent on it.
™ The flow regime (laminar or turbulent) of internal flows is primarily
a function of the Reynolds number.
分類

BLaminar flow: Can be solved analytically.

BTurbulent flow: Rely heavily on semi-empirical theories and
experimental data. Internal flow的基本原理與截面形狀無
關，但流場的細節分佈則與截面形狀有關 3

如此分類的意義？務實，便於分析。分類的依據，指標？如何界分？
General Characteristics of
Pipe Flow

先談談管流的一般特徵…

4
 號稱管系統，含括？
Pipe System
管系：管本身與管配件

™A pipe system include the pipes themselves

(perhaps of more than one diameter), the various
fittings, the flowrate control devices valves , and
the pumps or turbines.

5
Pipe Flow vs. Open Channel Flow
相對pipe flow，有所謂open-channel flow
™ Pipe flow: Flows completely filling the pipe. (a)
The pressure gradient along the pipe is main driving force.
™ Open channel flow: Flows without completely filling the
pipe. (b)
The gravity alone is the driving force.
沒有填滿管子的『管流』就非管流
Open channel flow

Pipe flow 流體一部分與大氣接觸

6
Laminar or Turbulent Flow 1/2
管流依？標準如此分類
™ The flow of a fluid in a pipe may be Laminar ?
Turbulent ? 會有後續的分類，來自Reynolds
™ Osborne Reynolds, a British scientist and mathematician,
was the first to distinguish the difference between these
classification of flow by using a simple apparatus as
shown. Reynolds先進行觀察
調節流率大
小，觀察染
料的崩裂情
形

7
Laminar or Turbulent Flow 2/2
當flowrate很低、中度到很大…，染料的崩裂情況不同！
>For “small enough flowrate” the dye streak will remain as a
well-defined line as it flows along, with only slight blurring due
to molecular diffusion of the dye into the surrounding water.
>For a somewhat larger “intermediate flowrate” the dye
fluctuates in time and space, and intermittent bursts of irregular
behavior appear along the streak.
>For “large enough flowrate” the dye streak almost
immediately become blurred and spreads across the entire pipe in
a random fashion.
染料分子擴散到附近，並出現輕微的模糊現象Æ染料隨時空波動，
沿著streak出現間歇性的、不規則的崩裂Æ染料開始Random的崩
裂，並逐漸擴散充滿整個管子 8
Time Dependence of
Fluid Velocity at a Point
在某一位置記錄速度變動

流
率

9
Indication of 剛剛提到分類的標準？指標？

Laminar or Turbulent Flow

™ The term flowrate should be replaced by Reynolds
number, R e = ρ VD / μ ,where V is the average velocity in
the pipe. 有共識的指標
™ It is not only the fluid velocity that determines the
character of the flow – its density, viscosity, and the pipe
size are of equal importance. 該指標內涵不只是速度而已，還
包括流體的黏度…
™ For general engineering purpose, the flow in a round pipe
>Laminar R e < 2100
>Transitional 一般工程應用的角度
>Turbulent R e＞4000
10
 Reynolds Number 1/2
ρVl Vl
Re = = 紀念Osborne Reynolds
μ υ 是一個衡量inertial force / viscous force的指標
™ In honor of Osborne Reynolds (1842~1912), the British engineer
who first demonstrated that this combination of variables could be
used as a criterion to distinguish between laminar and turbulent flow.
™ The Reynolds number is a measure of the ration of the inertia forces
to viscous forces.
™ If the Reynolds number is small (Re<<1), this is an indication that
the viscous forces are dominant in the problem, and it may be
possible to neglect the inertial effects; that is, the density of the fluid
will no be an important variable.
物理意義
當Re << 1表示viscous forces為主，inertial force重要性低，可以
忽略，流體的密度不是一個至重要的變數 11
Reynolds Number 2/2
是一個衡量inertial force / viscous force的指標
™ Flows with very small Reynolds numbers are commonly referred to
as “creeping flows”. Reynolds number很低的flow稱為creeping flows
™ For large Reynolds number flow, the viscous effects are small
relative to inertial effects and for these cases it may be possible to
neglect the effect of viscosity and consider the problem as one
involving a “nonviscous” fluid.
™ Flows with “large” Reynolds number generally are turbulent. Flows
in which the inertia forces are “small” compared with the viscous
forces are characteristically laminar flows.
Re>>1，表示inertial force為主，viscous force重要性很低，viscous
effect可以忽略，此種流體可考慮被歸類為無黏性流體

Reynolds number大的流體一般為turbulent flow，

inertial force<viscous force則為laminar flow的主要特徵之一 12
Example 8.1 Laminar or Turbulent Flow

z Water at a temperature of 50℉ flows through a pipe of diameter D

= 0.73 in. (a) Determine the minimum time taken to fill a 10-oz
glass (volume= 0.125ft3) with water if the flow in the pipe is to be
laminar. (b) Determine the maximum time taken to fill the glass if
the flow is to be turbulent. Repeat the calculation if the water
temperature is 140℉.

13
Example 8.1 Solution
™ If the flow in the pipe is to maintain laminar, the minimum time to
fill the glass will occur if the Reynolds number is the maximum
allowed for laminar flow, typically Re=2100. Thus
V = 2100 μ / ρ D = 0 .486 ft / s

V V
t= = = .... = 8 .85 s
Q (ρπ / 4 ) D V
2

14
 流體在管內的發展歷程？
從進口處開始…
How flowing fluid developed within pipe

15
Entrance Region and
Fully Developed Flow 1/5 總要有..開始

™ Any fluid flowing in a pipe had to enter the pipe at some

location. 由進口端開始說明管流的發展
™ The region of flow near where the fluid enters the pipe is
termed the entrance region. 稱為進口區

16
Entrance Region and 在進口處…幾乎可以看成
uniform flows，但稍微
Fully Developed Flow 2/5 前進之後…

™ The fluid typically enters the pipe with a nearly uniform

velocity profile at section (1).
™ The region of flow near where the fluid enters the pipe is
termed the entrance region.
™ As the fluid moves through the pipe, viscous effects cause
it to stick to the pipe wall (the no slip boundary
condition).
一開始幾乎是uniform flow，不受管的影響，但由
於No slip boundary condition的存在，管壁開
始影響，即viscous effect開始浮現
17
Entrance Region and
Fully Developed Flow 3/5
™ A boundary layer in which viscous effects are important is
produced along the pipe wall such that the initial velocity
profile changes with distance along the pipe,x , until the
fluid reaches the end of the entrance length, section (2),
beyond which the velocity profile does not vary with x.
™ The boundary layer has grown in thickness to completely
fill the pipe. ??? 有時候邊界層不見得厚到填滿整個pipe！
受到viscous effect影響的範圍稱為boundary layer，在層內，流
體速度由管壁的ZERO（no slip condition）向管中心增加
NOTE: velocity profile順著管流方向改變，到某一位置（進口區結
束）就維持穩定不再改變：換言之，Boundary layer厚度一直有變化，
到某一位置（進口區結束）就不再改變 18
 Entrance Region and
BL內外，viscous effect重
Fully Developed Flow 4/5 要程度不同！

™ Viscous effects are of considerable importance within the

boundary layer. Outside the boundary layer, the viscous
effects are negligible. 前一頁提到BL不見得填滿整個PIPE..依流況而定
™ The shape of the velocity profile in the pipe depends on
whether the flow is laminar or turbulent, as does the length
回頭說到進口區有多長？

of the entrance region, ll . 進口區長度？

For laminar flow For turbulent flow
ll ll
= 0.06R e = 4.4R e
1/ 6

D D
Dimensionless entrance length
19
Entrance Region and 發展過程結束，velocity
profiles不再改變！
Fully Developed Flow 5/5
™ Once the fluid reaches the end of the entrance region,
section (2), the flow is simpler to describe because the
velocity is a function of only the distance from the pipe
centerline, r, and independent of x.
™ The flow between (2) and (3) is termed fully developed.

進口區之後稱為「完全發展區」，在「完全發展
區」內velocity profile已經定型

此階段的velocity profiles只是function of r 20
從pressure distribution來看
管流的發展過程

21
 Pressure Distribution along Pipe
In the entrance region of a pipe, the fluid 從壓力降的觀點來看管流變化
accelerates or decelerates as it flows. There is
a balance between pressure, viscous, and The magnitude of the
inertia (acceleration) force. pressure gradient is
constant.
參與角力者
眾多…

∂p
還在變動中..
∂x ∂p Δp
= < 0 已經固定
The magnitude of the ∂x l
pressure gradient is larger
此區壓力降梯度
than that in the fully
大於完全發展區
developed region.
22
 局限於完全發展區且區內為Laminar flow
先討論流況被歸類為Laminar flow者……

Fully Developed Laminar Flow

There are numerous ways to derive important
results pertaining to fully developed laminar flow:
DFrom F = ma applied directly to a fluid element.
DFrom the Navier-Stokes equations of motion
DFrom dimensional analysis methods

不同的切入方法Æ求解管流的velocity distribution
23
F = ma 切入
z 先討論Force balance（無關流況）－剪力、壓力
與重力Æ ma。
z 再面對不能迴避的問題：剪應力與速度的關係？
Laminar flow或Turbulent flow，其剪應力與速
度關係不同！
z Laminar flow者，剪應力與速度關係比較簡單，
這也就是何以先集中火力討論Laminar flow。
z 可以想像者，Turbulent flow比較複雜！後頭再
討論。
24
From F=ma 1/8

™Considering a fully developed axisymmetric laminar flow

in a long, straight, constant diameter section of a pipe.
™ The Fluid element is a circular cylinder of fluid of length
l and radius r centered on the axis of a horizontal pipe of
diameter D. 在管流中選一個fluid element
先忽略重力項

25
 因為velocity非uniform，因此從t發展到
From F=ma 2/8 t+δt，fluid element移動新位置時形狀也有
改變

™Because the velocity is not uniform across the pipe, the

initially flat end of the cylinder of fluid at time t become
distorted at time t+δt when the fluid element has moved to
its new location along the pipe.
™If the flow is fully developed and steady, the distortion on
each end of the fluid element is the same, and no part of
the fluid experiences any acceleration as it flows.
r
∂ V r r ∂u
Steady =0 Fully developed V ⋅ ∇V = u i = 0
∂t ∂x
因為在完全發展區，fluid element兩端的形狀改變
26
是相同的，且在區內的加速度為零
From F=ma 3/8
先忽略重力項
Apply the Newton’s second Law to the cylinder of fluid
Fx = ma x 力已平衡且
加速度為0
The force balance
Δp 2 τ
p1πr − (p − Δp )πr − τl(2πr ) = 0 ⇒
2 2
= 力平衡維持等速度移動
l r
Basic balance in forces needed to drive each fluid particle
along the pipe with constant velocity
左 Not function of r Independent of r，要如何才能做到？
邊 2τ w r
與 Δp 2 τ
= τ ? ⇒ τ = Cr τ=
r
無 l r B.C. r=0 τ=0 由B.C.求常數 D
關 Not function of r r=D/2 τ= τw 27
From F=ma 4/8
物理意義：在完全發展區內壓力降與管壁剪應力平衡

The pressure drop and wall shear stress are related by

2τ r Δp 2 τ 4 lτ w
τ= w = Δ p = 注意沒有放入『重力』
D l r D 因為水平擺放
Valid for both laminar and turbulent flow.
到目前為止，無關流體為
Laminar或Turbulent flow

開始假設是Laminar flow

Laminar
du
Turbulent flow？剪應力關係不單純！
τ = −μ
後頭再討論 dr 28
From F=ma 5/8 切記：因為有假設Laminar flow

du du ⎛ Δp ⎞
Since τ = − μ = − ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ r
dr dr ⎝ 2μ l ⎠
Δp ⎛ Δp ⎞ 2
∫ du = − 2μl ∫ rdr ⇒ u = − ⎜⎜⎝ 4μl ⎟⎟⎠ r + C1
因為存在這個關係讓後續變得可為，若是Turbulent flow，就沒這麼簡單
With the boundary conditions: u=0 at r=D/2
Δ pD 2
C1 = −
16 μ l Δ pD 2 ⎡ ⎛ 2r ⎞2 ⎤ ⎡ ⎛ 2r ⎞2 ⎤
u(r) = ⎢1 − ⎜ ⎟ ⎥ = VC ⎢1 − ⎜ ⎟ ⎥
16 μ l ⎢⎣ ⎝ D ⎠ ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ ⎝ D ⎠ ⎥⎦
Velocity distribution
τ w D ⎛⎜ ⎛ r ⎞ ⎞⎟
2

4 lτ w u(r) =
⎜
1− ⎜ ⎟
Δp = 4μ ⎝ ⎝ R ⎠ ⎟⎠
D 目標達成 29
From F=ma 6/8

™ The shear stress distribution

du rΔ p
τ=μ =
dr 2l
™ Volume flowrate
r R π R 4 VC
Q = ∫ u ⋅ d A = ∫ u ( r ) 2 π rdr = ..... =
A
0 2
πD 4 Δp
Q= Poiseuille’s Law
128 μ l
Valid for Laminar flow only
30
From F=ma 7/8

™ Average velocity
Q Q Δ pD 2
Vaverage = = =
A πR 2
32 μ l

™ Point of maximum velocity

du
= 0 at r=0
dr
R 2Δp
u = u max =U=− = 2 Vaverage
4μ l
31
 8/8 重力項考慮進來……
From F=ma
當管流不是水平時 Δ p → Δ p − γl sin θ
™ Making adjustment to account for nonhorizontal pipes
θ>0 if the flow is uphill
Δ p → Δ p − γl sin θ θ<0 if the flow is downhill

Δp − γl sin θ 2τ π(Δp − γl sin θ)D 4

= Q=
l r 128μl

Vaverage =
(Δp − γl sin θ)D 2
32μl

32
Example 8.2 Laminar Pipe Flow
z An oil with a viscosity of μ= 0.40 N·s/m2 and density ρ= 900
kg/m3 flows in a pipe of diameter D= 0.20m . (a) What pressure
drop, p1-p2, is needed to produce a flowrate of Q=2.0×10-5 m3/s if
the pipe is horizontal with x1=0 and x2=10 m? (b) How steep a hill,
θ,must the pipe be on if the oil is to flow through the pipe at the
same rate as in part (a), but with p1=p2? (c) For the conditions of
part (b), if p1=200 kPa, what is the pressure at section, x3=5 m,
where x is measured along the pipe?

33
Example 8.2 Solution1/2
R e = ρ VD / μ = 2 .87 < 2100
Q
V= = 0 .0637 m / s
A

The flow is laminar flow

128 μ l Q
Δ p = p1 − p 2 = = ... = 20 .4 kPa
πD 4

If the pipe is on the hill of angle θ with Δp=0

128μlQ
sin θ = − = ... ⇒ θ = −13.34°
πρgD 4

34
Example 8.2 Solution2/2
With p1=p2 the length of the pipe, l, does not appear in the flowrate
equation
Δp=0 for all l

p1 = p 2 = p 3 = 200 kPa

35
從Navier Stokes equation切入
透過合理假設，簡化……

36
From the Navier-Stokes Equations 1/3

™ General motion of an incompressible Newtonian fluid is

governed by the continuity equation and the momentum
equation 不可壓縮的牛頓流體 Æ簡化Navier-Stokes equation
r r
∇⋅V = 0 r
g = −gk
r
∂V r r − ∇p r 2
r
+ V ⋅ ∇V = + g + ν∇ V
∂t ρ 由簡化的momentum equation
Steady flow 加速度為0 與連續方程式來描述
在完全發展區內
For steady, fully developed flow in a pipe, the velocity
contains only an axial component,
r rwhich is a function of
only the radial coordinate V = u ( r ) i 速度僅與r有關 37
 Equation of Motion chapter 6
δFx = δma x δFy = δma y δFz = δma z 微分型式的
運動方程式
∂σ xx ∂τ yx ∂τzx ⎛ ∂u ∂u ∂u ∂u ⎞
ρg x + + + = ρ⎜⎜ + u +v + w ⎟⎟
非 ∂x ∂y ∂z ⎝ ∂t ∂x ∂y ∂z ⎠
線 ∂τ xy ∂σ yy ∂τzy ⎛ ∂v ∂v ∂v ∂v ⎞
性 ρg y + + + = ρ⎜⎜ + u +v + w ⎟⎟
方 ∂x ∂y ∂z ⎝ ∂t ∂x ∂y ∂z ⎠
程
∂τ xz ∂τ yz ∂σzz ⎛ ∂w ∂w ∂w ∂w ⎞
式 ρg z + + + = ρ⎜⎜ +u +v +w ⎟⎟
∂x ∂y ∂z ⎝ ∂t ∂x ∂y ∂z ⎠

These are the differential equations of motion for any

fluid satisfying the continuum assumption.
How to solve u,v,w ?
38
Stress-Deformation chapter 6

™ The stresses must be 2 r

σ xx = − p − μ ∇ ⋅ V + 2μ
∂u
expressed in terms of the 3 ∂x
2 r ∂v
velocity and pressure σ yy = − p − μ ∇ ⋅ V + 2μ
3 ∂y
field. 2 r ∂w
σ zz = − p − μ ∇ ⋅ V + 2μ
3 ∂z
Cartesian coordinates ⎛ ∂v ∂u ⎞
τ xy = τ yx = μ ⎜⎜ + ⎟⎟
⎝ ∂x ∂y ⎠
⎛ ∂w ∂u ⎞
τ xz = τ zx = μ⎜ + ⎟
⎝ ∂x ∂z ⎠
⎛ ∂w ∂v ⎞
τ yz = τ zy = μ ⎜⎜ + ⎟⎟
⎝ ∂y ∂z ⎠
39
The Navier-Stokes Equations chapter 6
再來一步步透過假設，簡化Navier-Stokes equations
™ Under incompressible flow with constant viscosity
conditions, the Navier-Stokes equations are reduced to:
假設不可壓縮且黏度是constantÆ

⎛ ∂u ∂u ∂u ∂u ⎞ ∂p ⎛ ∂2u ∂2u ∂2u ⎞

ρ ⎜⎜ +u +v +w ⎟⎟ = − + ρg x + μ ⎜ 2 + + ⎟
⎝ ∂t ∂x ∂y ∂z ⎠ ∂x ⎜ ∂x ∂ y 2
∂ z 2 ⎟
⎝ ⎠
⎛ ∂v ∂v ∂v ∂v ⎞ ∂p ⎛ ∂2v ∂2v ∂2v ⎞
ρ ⎜⎜ +u +v +w ⎟⎟ = − + ρg y + μ ⎜ 2 + + ⎟
⎝ ∂t ∂x ∂y ∂z ⎠ ∂y ⎜ ∂x ∂ y 2
∂ z 2 ⎟
⎝ ⎠
⎛ ∂w ∂w ∂w ∂w ⎞ ∂p ⎛ ∂2w ∂2w ∂2w ⎞
ρ ⎜⎜ +u +v +w ⎟⎟ = − + ρg z + μ ⎜ + + ⎟
⎝ ∂t ∂x ∂y ∂z ⎠ ∂z ⎜ ∂x 2 ∂ y 2
∂ z 2 ⎟
⎝ ⎠
40
From the Navier-Stokes Equations 2/3

Simplify the Navier-Stokes equation

r
∇⋅V = 0 連續方程式
r 2
r
∇p + ρgk = μ∇ V 簡化後的Navier-Stokes equation

The flow is governed by a balance of pressure, weight, and

viscous forces in the flow direction.
顯示在完全發展區內pressure、weight與viscous force形成平衡

41
From the Navier-Stokes Equations 3/3
r r ∂p 1 ∂ ⎛ ∂u ⎞
V = u( r ) i + ρg sin θ = μ ⎜r ⎟
∂x r ∂r ⎝ ∂r ⎠

Function of, at most, only x Function of ,at most, only r

∂p ∂p − Δp
= const. → = 積分＋邊界條件
∂x ∂x l
Integrating Velocity profile u(r)=
B.C. (1) r = R , u = 0 ;
(2) r = 0 , u < ∞ or r = 0 ∂u/∂r=0
42
From Dimensional Analysis 1/3

™ Assume that the pressure drop in the horizontal pie, Δp, is

a function of the average velocity of the fluid in the pipe,
V, the length of the pipe, l, the pipe diameter, D, and the
viscosity of the fluid, μ.
Chapter 7
Δ p = F ( V , l, D , μ ) Dimensional analysis

D Δp ⎛l⎞
= φ⎜ ⎟ an unknown function of the length to
μV ⎝ D⎠
diameter ratio of the pipe.

函數關係？UNKNOWN
43
From Dimensional Analysis 2/3
假設是一個線性關係
DΔp Cl
= where C is a constant.
μV D
Δp CμV Q = AV = ( π / 4C ) Δ pD 4

= 2 μl
l D
The value of C must be determined by theory or experiment.
For a round pipe, C=32. For duct of other cross-sectional
shapes, the value of C is different.
32μlV 常數C可由理論或實驗來推算
For a round pipe Δp =
D2
對圓型管而言，C = 32 Q Q Δ pD 2
Vaverage = = =
A πR 2
32 μ l 44
From Dimensional Analysis 3/3
32μlV
Δp =
D2 Δp 32μlV / D 2 μ l 64 l
For a round pipe 1 = = 64 =
2 ρV 2 ρV ρVD D Re D
2 1 2

l ρV 2
Δp = f
D 2
f is termed the friction factor, or
D
Δp sometimes the Darcy friction factor.
f= l
ρV 2 64 8τ w
2 f= =
For laminar flow Re ρV 2
4 lτ w
物理意義：在完全發展區內壓力降與管壁剪應力平衡 Δp =
D 45
Example 8.3 Laminar Pipe Flow Properties 1/2

z The flowrate, Q, of corn syrup through the horizontal pipe shown in

Figure E8.3 is to be monitored by measuring the pressure difference
between sections (1) and (2). It is proposed that Q=KΔp, where the
calibration constant, K, is a function of temperature, T, because of
the variation of the syrup’s viscosity and density with temperature.
These variations are given in Table E8.3. (a) Plot K(T) versus T for
60°F≤T ≤ 160°F. (b) Determine the wall shear stress and the pressure
drop, Δp=p1-p2, for Q=0.5 ft3/s and T=100°F. (c) For the conditions
of part (b), determine the nest pressure force.(πD2/4)Δp, and the
nest shear force, πDlτw, on the fluid within the pipe between the
sections (1) and (2).

46
Example 8.3 Laminar Pipe Flow Properties 1/2

47
Example 8.3 Solution1/2
If the flow is laminar
πΔpD4 1 .60 × 10 −5
Q= = KΔp K=
μ
128μl
For T=100°F, μ=3.8×10-3 lb·s/ft2, Q=0.5ft3/s
128μlQ
Δp = = ... = 119lb / ft 2

πD4
Q R e = ρ VD / μ = ... = 1380 < 2100
V = = ... = 10.2ft / s
A
4 lτ w ΔpD
Δp = ⇒ τw = = ... = 1.24lb / ft 2
D 4l 48
Example 8.3 Solution2/2
The new pressure force and viscous force on the fluid within the pipe
between sections (1) and (2) is

πD 2
Fp = Δp = ... = 5.84lb
4
D
Fv = 2π lτ w = ... = 5.84lb
2
The values of these two forces are the same. The net
force is zero; there is no acceleration.

49
當管流是Turbulent flow……

50
Fully Developed Turbulent Flow
實務上，管流為turbulent pipe flow的機率遠大於Laminar pipe flow
™ Turbulent pipe flow is actually more likely to occur than
laminar flow in practical situations. 紊流，一個複雜的過程…
™ Turbulent flow is a very complex process.
™ Numerous persons have devoted considerable effort in an
attempting to understand the variety of baffling aspects of
turbulence. Although a considerable amount if knowledge
about the topics has been developed, the field of turbulent
flow still remains the least understood area of fluid
mechanics. 即便有很多投入，但對於turbulent pipe flow的了解還是有限
Much remains to be learned about the nature of turbulent flow.
51
Turbulent flow的特性還是最吸引人去關注的議題
Transition from Laminar to Turbulent
Flow in a Pipe 1/2 討論LaminarÆturbulent flow的過程
™ For any flow geometry, there is one (or more)
dimensionless parameters such as with this parameter
value below a particular value the flow is laminar, whereas
with the parameter value larger than a certain value the
flow is turbulent. 之前所使用的指標，小於某一值歸屬Laminar
flow，大於某一值歸屬Turbulent flow
Ö The important parameters involved and their critical
values depend on the specific flow situation involved.
因flow situation不同
For flow in pipe : 2100<Re…..Re>4000 似乎很難一刀畫下，
存在一個過渡的階段…
For flow along a plate Rex~5000
Consider a long section of pipe that is
為了了解transition
initially filled with a fluid at rest. 52
管內先塞滿流體Æ
Transition from Laminar to Turbulent
Flow in a Pipe 2/2 閥打開，管內流體開始流動，Re由0 增加
™ As the valve is opened to start the flow, the flow velocity and, hence,
the Reynolds number increase from zero (no flow) to their
maximum steady flow values.
™ For the initial time period the Reynolds number is small enough for
laminar flow to occur. 速度出現隨機波動
™ At some time the Reynolds
number reaches 2100, and the Re > 2100 崩裂
flow begins its transition to
turbulent conditions.
速度
™ Intermittent spots or burst
appear…..
Re>2100開始由transition 觀察不同時間的速度變動，並計算Re
53
Description for Turbulent Flow 1/4
紊流下，流體參數也都出現隨機波動的特性 在特定點追蹤速度的軸向分量
A typical trace of the axial component of
™ Turbulent flows involve velocity measured at a given location in
randomly fluctuating the flow, u=u(t).
注意其中的速度定義
parameters.
™ The character of many of the
important properties of the
flow (pressure drop, heat
進入turbulent status
transfer, etc.) depends strongly
on the existence and nature of
The time-averaged, ū, and
the turbulent fluctuations or
fluctuating, ú description of a
randomness. parameter for tubular flow.
流體的參數與紊流的隨機波動特性有很強烈的關聯
54
 Description for Turbulent Flow 2/4
以隨機的，三維的漩渦來描述紊流
™ Turbulent flows are characterized by random, three-
dimensional vorticity. 其他參數也有這種現象……
也可以如此描述
™ Turbulent flows can be described in terms of their mean
放大 values on which are superimposed the fluctuations.
描述turbulent flow
1 tO +T
u=
T ∫
tO
u (x , y, z, t )dt

u' = u − u
u = u + u'
55
Description for Turbulent Flow 3/4
™ The time average of the fluctuations is zero.
1 t O +T 1
u' =
T ∫ (
tO
u − u )dt = (Tu − Tu ) = 0
T
™ The square of a fluctuation quantity is positive.
1 t +T
∫ (u')2 dt > 0
2
( u' ) = O

T tO Turbulence intensity越大，速度變動越大
™ Turbulence intensity or the level of the turbulence
紊流強度 2 The larger the turbulence intensity, the larger
⎡1 t O +T ⎤
∫ (u') dt ⎥
2 the fluctuations of the velocity. Well-
⎢
( u' ) 2 ⎣ T tO ⎦ designed wind tunnels have typical value of
ℑ= =
u u ℑ=0.01, although with extreme care, values
as low as ℑ=0.0002 have been obtained. 56
Description for Turbulent Flow 4/4

™ In some situations, turbulent flow characteristics are

advantages. In other situations, laminar flow is desirable.
►Turbulence: mixing of fluids.
►Laminar: pressure drop in pipe, aerodynamic drag on
airplane.

Turbulent flow有其優點，當然也有其缺點；
Laminar flow亦是有優點，也有缺點

57
 不能迴避的問題，剪力與速度的關係
Shear Stress for Laminar Flow 1/2
Laminar flow的剪應力
™ Laminar flow is modeled as fluid particles that flow smoothly along
in layers, gliding past the slightly slower or faster ones on either side.
™ The fluid actually consists of numerous molecules darting about in
an almost random fashion. The motion is not entirely random – a
slight bias in one direction.
™ As the molecules dart across a given
plane (plane A-A, for example), the
ones moving upward have come from
an area of smaller average x
component of velocity than the ones
moving downward, which have come
from an area of large velocity.
58
Shear Stress for Laminar Flow 2/2
™ The momentum flux in the x direction across plane A-A give rise to
a drag of the lower fluid on the upper fluid and an equal but opposite
effect of the upper fluid on the lower fluid. The sluggish molecules
moving upward across plane A-A must accelerated by the fluid
above this plane. The rate of change of momentum in this process
produces a shear force. Similarly, the more energetic molecules
moving down across plane A-A must be slowed down by the fluid
below that plane.
™ BY combining these effects, we obtain the well-known Newton
如果流況歸類為Laminar flow，則
viscosity law
du Shear stress is present only if there is a
τ yx = μ gradient in u = u(y).
dy 59
Shear Stress for Turbulent Flow 1/2
Turbulent flow的剪應力
一連串random、3D、eddy型態
™ The turbulent flow is thought as a 的運動
series of random, three-
dimensional eddy type motions.
™ These eddies range in size from
very small diameter to fairly large
diameter.
™ This eddy structure greatly
promotes mixing within the fluid.

簡言之，紊流的剪力與速度關係無法像Laminar flow一樣
60
Shear Stress for Turbulent Flow 2/2
™ The flow is represented by u (time-mean velocity ) plus u’ and v’
(time randomly fluctuating velocity components in the x and y
direction).
™ The shear stress on the plane A-A The shear stress is not merely
proportional to the gradient of the
du time-averaged velocity, u ( y ) .
τ=μ − ρ u ' v ' = τ la min ar + τ turbulent
dy 剪力非與速度梯度成正比關係
is called Reynolds stress introduced by
ρu' v' Osborne Reynolds. 稱為Reynolds stress
As we approach wall, and is zero at the wall
ρu' v' → 0
在wall附近 (the wall tends to suppress the fluctuations.)
不像Laminar flow的剪應力與速度梯度存在簡單的關係 61
 怎麼辦？分靠近牆壁與遠離牆壁者兩區……

Structure of Turbulent Flow in a Pipe 1/2

管內紊流結構
™ Near the wall (the viscous sublayer), the laminar shear
stress τlam is dominant. 管壁附近laminar shear stress為主
™ Away from the wall (in the outer layer) , the turbulent
shear stress τturb is dominant.
™ The transition between these two regions occurs in the
overlap layer.
近管壁處Laminar 剪力比
flow主導；近管 transition
心處Turbulent
flow主導
速度曲線
越靠近管中心τturb > τlam 62
Structure of Turbulent Flow in a Pipe 2/2

™ The relative magnitude of τlam compared to τturb is a

complex function dependent on the specific flow involved.
™ Typically the value of τturb is 100 to 1000 times greater
than τlam in the outer region.
兩者間的相對大小，依流況而定，一般是100~1000倍

63
Alternative Form of Shear Stress 1/2
另一種表達shear stress的方式 強調：只是另一種表達方式而已

™ τturb: requiring an accurate knowledge of the fluctuations

u’ and v’, or ρ u ' v '
™ The shear stress for turbulent flow is given in terms of the
eddy viscosity η.
du This extension of of laminar flow terminology
τ turb =η was introduced by J. Boussubesq, a French
dy scientist, in 1877.

A semiempirical theory was proposed by L. Prandtl to

η?
determine the value of η

64
Alternative Form of Shear Stress 2/2
不管那一種方式，都一樣『不簡單』
2
du ⎛ du ⎞
η = ρl
2
m
τ turb = ρl ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
2
m
dy ⎝ dy ⎠
mixing length, is not constant
throughout the flow field.

There is no general, all-encompassing,

useful model that can accurately predict
the shear stress throughout a general
incompressible, viscous turbulent flow.
沒通用，可全面涵蓋的model，可以精確預估viscous
65
turbulent flow的shear stress
 Turbulent Velocity Profile 1/5
Shear stress與velocity關係不簡單之下，還是得面對…如何寫出velocity profiles
前面已講過完全發展管流內分成三區

™ Fully developed turbulent flow in a pipe can be broken into three

region: the viscous sublayer, the overlap region, and the outer
turbulent sublayer. 說明不同sublayer，主導之stress不同
Î Within the viscous sublayer the shear stress is dominant compared
with the turbulent stress, and the random, eddying nature of the flow
is essentially absent.
Î In the outer turbulent layer the Reynolds stress is dominant, and
there is considerable mixing and randomness to the flow.
Î Within the viscous sublayer the fluid viscosity is an important
parameter; the density is unimportant. In the outer layer the opposite
is true. 在viscous sublayer中黏度重要、密度不重要
因為沒有一個簡單的shear stress vs. velocity gradient，所以… 66
 Turbulent Velocity Profile 2/5
探討velocity profiles的方法：因次分析與半經驗公式
™ Considerable information concerning turbulent velocity profiles has
been obtained through the use of dimensional analysis, and semi-
empirical theoretical efforts. 不同layer有不同的公式
Î In the viscous sublayer the velocity profile can be written in
取自半經驗公式

dimensionless form as 管壁附近

*
+ u yu
u = * = = y + Law of the wall
u ν
Kinematic viscosity
Where y is the distance measured from the wall y=R-r.
u * = (τ w / ρ )
1/ 2
is called the friction velocity.
yu *
Is valid very near the smooth wall, for 0≤ ≤5
ν 67
Turbulent Velocity Profile 3/5

ÎIn the outer region the velocity should vary as the

logarithm of y 管中心附近

u ⎛ yu ∗ ⎞ yu *

∗
= 2 .5 ln ⎜ ⎟ + 5 .0 for > 30
u ⎝ y ⎠ ν
Determined experimentally
ÎIn transition region or buffer layer
U −u ⎛R⎞ yu *
= 2 .5 ln ⎜ ⎟ for 5-7 ≤ ≤ 30
ν
∗
u ⎝ y⎠
68
Turbulent Velocity Profile 4/5
*
u yu
=
u *
ν 管中心

u ⎛ yu∗ ⎞
∗
= 2.5 ln⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ + 5.0
u ⎝ y ⎠
靠近管壁

69
Turbulent Velocity Profile 5/5
另一種公式
™ The velocity profile for turbulent
flow through a smooth pipe may
also be approximated by the
empirical power-law equation
1/ n 1/ n
u ⎛y⎞ ⎛ r ⎞
=⎜ ⎟ = ⎜1 − ⎟
U ⎝R⎠ ⎝ R⎠
Where the exponent, n, varies
with the Reynolds number.
™ The power-law profile is not
applicable close to the wall.
可其限制－近管壁處不管用
70
Example 8.4 Turbulent Pipe Flow
Properties
z Water at 20℃ (ρ=998kg/m3 and ν=1.004×10-6m2/s) flows through
a horizontal pipe of 0.1-m diameter with a flowrate of Q=4×10-2m3/s
and a pressure gradient of 2.59 kPa/m. (a) Determine the
approximate thickness of the viscous sublayer. (b) Determine the
approximate centerline velocity, Vc. (c) Determine the ration of the
turbulent to laminar shear stress, τturb/τlam at a point midway
between the centerline and the pipe wall (i.e., at r=0.025m)

71
Example 8.4 Solution1/3
The thickness of viscous sublayer, δs , is approximately
DΔp
δsu * ν τw = = ... = 64.8N / m 2
=5 δs = 5 * 4l
ν u u * = (τ w / ρ )
1/ 2
= ... = 0 .255 m / s
ν
δ s = 5 * = ... = 1 .97 × 10 − 5 m = 0 .02 mm
u
The centerline velocity can be obtained from the average velocity and
the assumption of a power-law velocity profile
Q 0 .04 m 3 / s
V= = = 5 .09 m / s R e = VD / ν = ... = 5 .07 × 10 5
A π ( 0 .1m ) / 4
2

72
Example 8.4 Solution2/3
1/ n 1/ n
u ⎛y⎞ ⎛ r ⎞
=⎜ ⎟ = ⎜1 − ⎟
U ⎝R⎠ ⎝ R⎠
n2
Q = AV = ∫ u dA = ... = 2 π R Vc 2
= πR 2 V
( n + 1)( 2 n + 1)

V 2n 2
= Vc = ... = 6 .04 m / s
Vc ( n + 1)( 2 n + 1)

2τ w r
τ= Valid for laminar or turbulent flow
D
n=8.4
2τ w r 2(64.8 N / m )(0.025m) 2
τ= = R e = VD / υ = ... = 5 .07 × 10 5
D (0.1m)
= τlam + τ turb = 32.4 N / m 2 73
Example 8.4 Solution3/3
2τ w r 2(64.8 N / m 2 )(0.025m)
τ= =
D (0.1m)
= τlam + τ turb = 32.4 N / m 2
(1− n ) / n
du Vc ⎛ r⎞
τlam = −μ = −μ ⎜1 − ⎟ = 0.0266 N / m 2
dr nR ⎝ R ⎠

τ turb τ − τlam 32.4 − 0.0266

= = = 1220
τlam τlam 0.0266

74
Dimensional Analysis of
Pipe Flow

75
Energy Considerations 1/8
Page 1/8~7/8出現在Chapter5
™ Considering the steady flow through the piping system, including a
reducing elbow. The basic equation for conservation of energy – the
first law of thermodynamics
r r ∂ r r
in + ∫ σ nn V ⋅ n dA = ∫ e ρ d V + ∫ e ρ V ⋅ n dA
&
Q &
+W
net in Shaft
CS ∂t CV CS

∂ r r r r
&
⇒Q net in + WShaft in = ∫ e ρ d V + ∫ e ρ V ⋅ n dA − ∫ σ nn V ⋅ n dA
&
∂ t CV CS CS

Work done by normal

Energy equation stresses at the CS
∂ p V2 r r r
∫
∂t CV
eρdV + ∫ ( û + +
CS ρ 2
&
+ gz)ρV ⋅ ndA = Q &
net in + WShaft in

V2
e=u+ + gz
2 76
Rate of Work done by CV
& =W
W & + &
W + &
W + &
W
Shaft normal shear other
™ Shaft work W & : the rate of work transferred into through
Shaft
the CS by the shaft work ( negative for work transferred out,
positive for work input required) 藉由shaft傳遞的功
™ Work done by normal stresses at the CS:
r v r r r r
&
Wnormal = δ Fnormal ⋅ V = ∫
CS
σ nn V ⋅ n dA = − ∫ p V ⋅ n dA
CS
™ Work done by shear stresses at the CS:
r r
Wshear = + ∫ τV ⋅ n dA
& Negligibly small
CS
™ Other work 2 +輸入系統者，-輸出系統者

∂ r r r r
∂t ∫ cv eρdV + ∫ eρV ⋅ ndA =Q net in + Wshaft net in − ∫ pV ⋅ ndA
CS
& &
CS
77
Energy Considerations 2/8
∂
When the flow is steady
∂t ∫ CV eρdV = 0

The integral of
⎡ p V2 ⎤ r r
∫ CS ⎢⎣û + ρ + 2 + gz⎥⎦ρV ⋅ ndA ???
Uniformly distribution 進一步假設
⎡ p V2 ⎤ r r ⎛ p V2 ⎞ ⎛ p V2 ⎞
∫ CS ⎢⎣û + ρ + 2 + gz⎥⎦ρV ⋅ ndA = ∑ ⎜⎜ û + +
out ⎝ ρ 2
+ gz ⎟⎟m − ∑ ⎜⎜ û + +
⎠
&
in ⎝ ρ 2
+ gz ⎟⎟m
⎠
&

⎡ p V2 ⎤ r r
Only
Only one
one stream
stream ∫ CS ⎢⎣û + ρ + 2 + gz⎥⎦ρV ⋅ ndA
entering
entering and
and leaving
leaving
⎛ p V2 ⎞ ⎛ p V2 ⎞
= ⎜⎜ û + + + gz ⎟⎟ m & out − ⎜⎜ û + + + gz ⎟⎟ m & in
Special & simple case ⎝ ρ 2 ⎠out ⎝ ρ 2 ⎠in
78
單進單出
Energy Considerations 3/8
If shaft work is involved…. 當 shaft work 包括進來

⎡ ⎛p⎞ ⎛p⎞ Vout − Vin

2 2
⎤
& ⎢ û out − û in + ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ − ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ +
m + g (z out − z in )⎥
⎣ ⎝ ρ ⎠ out ⎝ ρ ⎠ in 2 ⎦
=Q& + W & One-dimensional energy equation
net in shaft net in
for steady-in-the-mean flow
單維能量方程式
p
Enthalpy ĥ = û + The energy equation is written in terms
ρ of enthalpy.
⎡ 2
Vout − Vin2 ⎤ &
& ⎢ ĥ out − ĥ in +
m + g (z out − z in )⎥ = Q net / in + W
&
shaft net / in
⎣ 2 ⎦
79
Energy Considerations 4/8 V2
⎡ ⎛p⎞ ⎛p⎞
m ⎢ û out − û in + ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ − ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ +
2
Vout − Vin2 ⎤ &
+ g (z out − z in )⎥ = Q & e = û + + gz
net in + Wshaft net in
&
⎣ ρ ρ
⎝ ⎠ out ⎝ ⎠ in 2 ⎦
2
For steady, incompressible flow…One-dimensional energy equation
⎡ ⎛ p out ⎞ ⎛ pin ⎞ Vout
2
− Vin2 ⎤ & 沒有 shaft work
& ⎢û out − û in + ⎜
m ⎟⎟ − ⎜ ⎟⎟ + + g(z out − z in )⎥ = Q net in 有normal stress做的功
⎣ ⎝ ρ ⎠ ⎝ ρ ⎠ 2 ⎦

( )
2
pout Vout pin Vin2
÷ m& ρ
+
2
+ gz out =
ρ
+
2
+ gz in − û out − û in − q net in

&
where q net in = Q net in / m
&
For steady, incompressible, frictionless flow… 之前得到的Bernoulli eq.
ρVout
2
ρVin2
p out + + γz out = p in + + γz in Bernoulli equation
2 2
û out − û in − q net in =0 Frictionless flow…
沒有摩擦損失 80
Energy Considerations 5/8
考量能量損失
For steady, incompressible, frictional flow…

û out − û in − q net in >0 Frictional flow…

p V2 Loss發生在in
Defining “useful or available energy”… + + gz Æout過程中
ρ 2
Defining “loss of useful or available energy”… û out − û in − q net in = loss
2 下游 2 上游
p out V p in V
+ + gz out =
out
+ + gz in − loss
in
ρ 2 ρ 2
2 2
p2 V2 p1 V
因為1Æ2有摩擦損失， + + gz 2 自然而然就低於 + + gz1
1
ρ 2 ρ 2 81
Energy Considerations 6/8
For steady, incompressible flow with friction and shaft work…
有摩擦損失有軸功進來
⎡ ⎛p ⎞ ⎛p ⎞ V −V 2
⎤ & 2
& ⎢û out − û in + ⎜ out ⎟⎟ − ⎜ in ⎟⎟ +
m + g(z out − z in )⎥ = Q
out in &
net in + Wshatf net in
⎣ ⎝ ρ ⎠ ⎝ ρ ⎠ 2 ⎦
在 in Æ out 注入
÷ m&
2 2
p out V p V
+ + gzout = in +
out
+ gzin + w shaft net in − ( û out − û in − q net in )
in
ρ 2 ρ 2
2
p out Vout pin Vin2
+ + gzout = + + gzin + w shaft net in − loss
ρ 2 ρ 2
在 in Æ out 注入
÷g
2 2
pout V p V
+ + z out = in +
out
+ z in + h s − h L in
γ 2g γ 2g
w shaft &
W &
W loss
Head loss hL =
shaft shaft
Shaft head h S = net / in
≡ net / in
= net / in
g m
&g γQ g 82
Energy Considerations 7/8
2
pout Vout pin Vin2
+ + z out = + + z in + h s − h L
γ 2g γ 2g
in Æ out 輸出

™ For turbine h s = − h T ( h T > 0 ) hT is turbine head

™ For pump h s = h P hp is pump head in Æ out 輸入
™ The actual head drop across the turbine
h T = −( h s + h L )T 想像：讓loss擴大
™ The actual head drop across the pump
h p = (hs − h L )p 想像：讓loss減緩

83
總結1/8~7/8
2 2
p2 V p1 V
+ + z2 = +
2
+ z1 + h s − h L
1
γ 2g γ 2g
Pipe system 內 LOCATION 1ÆÆ LOCATION 2

h L = h L major + h L min or
84
Energy Considerations 8/8

™ Total head loss , hL, is regarded as the sum of major losses,

hL major, due to frictional effects in fully developed flow
in constant area tubes, and minor losses, hL minor, resulting
from entrance, fitting, area changes, and so on.
Head loss可以分成major loss與minor loss

h L = h L major + h L min or

85
Major Losses: Friction Factor

™ The energy equation for steady and incompressible flow

with zero shaft work
⎛ p1 α1V1 2
⎞ ⎛ p 2 α 2 V2 2
⎞ α1V12 α2 V22
⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ =
⎜ ρg + 2 g + z1 ⎟ − ⎜ ρg + 2 g + z 2 ⎟ = h L 2g 2g
⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠

For fully developed flow through a constant area pipe

簡化一
p1 − p 2
>>> = ( z 2 − z1 ) + h L
ρg
簡化二
For horizontal pipe, z2 = z1 p1 − p 2 Δ p
>>> = = hL
ρg ρg 86
From F=ma 6/8

πD 4 Δ p
Q= Poiseuille’s Law
128 μ l
Valid for Laminar flow only

Q Q Δ pD 2
Vaverage = = =
A πR 2
32 μ l

87
Major Losses: Laminar Flow
先探討Laminar flow的major loss
™ In fully developed laminar flow in a horizontal pipe, the
pressure drop 水平、完全發展的laminar flow l ρV 2
Δp = f
128 μ l Q 128 μ l V (πD / 4 )
2
l μV D 2
Δp = = = 32 Δ p
πD 4 πD 4 D D = hL
Δp μ l 64 l ρg
= 64 = Q=V × A=V × π D 2/4 l V 2
1 ρ VD D Re D hL ≡ f
ρV 2
2 D 2g
l ρV 2 l μV l V2 ⎛ μ ⎞ ⎛ 64 ⎞ l V 2
Δp = f >> h L = 32 = ⎜ 64 ⎟=⎜ ⎟
D 2 D ρ D D 2 ⎝ ρ VD ⎟⎠ ⎜⎝ R e ⎟⎠ D 2

Friction Factor f = Δp( D / l) /(ρV 2 / 2)

64
壓力降可以解出，然turbulent flow f la min ar =
可就不是那麼容易。 Re 88
Major Losses: Turbulent Flow 1/3
再探討Turbulent flow的major loss 困難的關鍵在無法解析解出壓力降
™ In turbulent flow we cannot evaluate the pressure drop analytically;
we must resort to experimental results and use dimensional
analysis to correlate the experimental data.
™ In fully developed turbulent flow the
pressure drop, △p , caused by friction
in a horizontal constant-area pipe is
known to depend on pipe diameter,D,
pipe length, l, pipe roughness,e, 只得訴諸實驗，訴諸
dimensional analysis
average flow velocity, V, fluid
densityρ, and fluid viscosity,μ.

Δ p = F(V , D, l, ε, μ , ρ )
列出影響壓力降的因子 管壁粗糙度
89
 Major Losses: Turbulent Flow 2/3
透過dimensional analysis
™ Applying dimensional analysis, the result were a correlation of the
form
Δp ⎛ ρVD l ε ⎞ 諸多驗實驗顯示： head
= φ⎜⎜ , , ⎟⎟
2 ρV ⎝ μ D D ⎠ loss 與l/D成正比
1 2

™ Experiments show that the nondimensional head loss is directly

proportional to l/D. Hence we can write
來自累 Δp l ⎛ ε⎞ l ρV 2 Δp
= hL
積的實 = φ⎜ Re, ⎟ Δp = f ρg
驗結果 2 ρV
1 2
D ⎝ D⎠ D 2
Darcy-Weisbach equation
⎛ ε⎞
f ≡ φ⎜ Re, ⎟ h L major ≡ f
l V 2 Frictional factor ?
⎝ D⎠ D 2g 90
把l/D拿出來是沒有問題的
Roughness for Pipes
影響frictional factor的因子之一

91
Friction Factor by L. F. Moody

Depending on the specific

circumstances involved.

92
About Moody Chart 從Moody chart看出什麼

™ For laminar flow, f=64/Re, which is independent of the

relative roughness. 在Laminar flow中，f與粗糙度無關
™ For very large Reynolds numbers, f=Φ(ε/D), which is
independent of the Reynolds numbers.
™ For flows with very large value of Re, commonly termed
completely turbulent flow (or wholly turbulent flow), the
laminar sublayer is so thin (its thickness decrease with
increasing Re) that the surface roughness completely
dominates the character of the flow near the wall.
™ For flows with moderate value of Re, the friction factor
f=Φ(Re,ε/D). 中度的Reynolds number…
在Reynolds number很大時，f僅與粗糙度有關，原因…邊界層很薄很薄
93
Major Losses: Turbulent Flow 3/3
有沒有可以不用Moody chart的管道
™ Colebrook – To avoid having to use a graphical method for
obtaining f for turbulent flows. Valid for the entire nonlaminar
1 ⎡ε / D 2 .51 ⎤ range of the Moody chart.
= − 2 .0 log ⎢ + ⎥ 僅適用於非Laminar flow範圍
f ⎣ 3 .7 Re f ⎦ Colebrook formula
™ Miler suggests that a single iteration will produce a result within
1 percent if the initial estimate is calculated from
猜f的初始值 −2
⎡ ε / D 5 .74 ⎤
f 0 = 0 .25 log ⎢ + 0 .9 ⎥
⎣ 3 . 7 Re ⎦
94
Example 8.5 Comparison of Laminar or
Turbulent pressure Drop
z Air under standard conditions flows through a 4.0-mm-diameter
drawn tubing with an average velocity of V = 50 m/s. For such
conditions the flow would normally be turbulent. However, if
precautions are taken to eliminate disturbances to the flow (the
entrance to the tube is very smooth, the air is dust free, the tube does
not vibrate, etc.), it may be possible to maintain laminar flow. (a)
Determine the pressure drop in a 0.1-m section of the tube if the
flow is laminar. (b) Repeat the calculations if the flow is turbulent.

95
Example 8.5 Solution1/2
Under standard temperature and pressure conditions
Ρ=1.23kg/m3, μ=1.79×10-5N⋅s/m
The Reynolds number
R e = ρ VD / μ = ... = 13,700 → Turbulent flow
If the flow were laminar
f=64/Re=…=0.0467
l 1
Δp = f ρ V 2 = ... = 0 .179 kPa
D2

96
Example 8.5 Solution2/2
If the flow were turbulent
From Moody chart f=Φ(Re,ε/D) =…0.028
l 1
Δp = f ρ V 2 = ... = 1 .076 kPa
D2

97
Minor Losses 1/5
Pipe system不是只有直管而已，其他管元件所導致的損失
™ Most pipe systems consist of
considerably more than straight
pipes. These additional
components (valves, bends, tees,
and the like) add to the overall
head loss of the system.
™ Such losses are termed MINOR
LOSS.
Additional components所導致的loss
稱為MINOR LOSS The flow pattern through a valve
98
Minor Losses 2/5
理論預測流體在元件內的流況根本做不到
™ The theoretical analysis to predict the details of flow
pattern (through these additional components) is not, as
yet, possible. 以無因次化型式呈現head loss informationÆ資料來自實驗
™ The head loss information for essentially all components is
given in dimensionless form and based on experimental
data. The most common method used to determine these
head losses or pressure drops is to specify the loss
coefficient, KL
最常用的方法連結 Loss coefficient與head loss或壓力降

99
Minor Losses 3/5
如何連結？Æ
h Lmin or Δp 1 2
KL = = ⇒ Δp = K ρV
V / 2g 1 ρV 2
2 L
2
2 把minor loss視同另類major loss
V2 l eq V 2
Minor losses are sometimes h Lmin or = K L =f
2g D 2g
given in terms of an equivalent
D
length leq l eq = K L 相當於多長的管損失
f
The actual value of KL is strongly dependent on the geometry of
the component considered. It may also dependent on the fluid
properties. That is

K L = φ(geometry, Re) 100

 流體在元件內的Reynolds number很大，主
Minor Losses 4/5 導力來自inertial effect，viscous
effect可略過

™ For many practical applications the Reynolds number is

large enough so that the flow through the component is
dominated by inertial effects, with viscous effects being of
secondary importance. Viscous effect相對不重要
™ In a flow that is dominated by inertia effects rather than
viscous effects, it is usually found that pressure drops and
head losses correlate directly with the dynamic pressure.
™ This is the reason why the friction factor for very large
Reynolds number, fully developed pipe flow is
independent of the Reynolds number.
Minor loss’Friction factor與Re無關
壓力降及head loss與dynamic pressure有關 101
Minor Losses 5/5

™ This is true for flow through pipe components.

™ Thus, in most cases of practical interest the loss
coefficients for components are a function of geometry
only,

K L = φ( geometry)

就像major loss在Re很大時，frictional
factor僅與roughness有關。

102
Minor Losses Coefficient Entrance flow 1/3

™ Entrance flow condition

and loss coefficient
(a) Reentrant, KL = 0.8
(b) sharp-edged, KL = 0.5
(c) slightly rounded, KL = 0.2
(d) well-rounded, KL = 0.04
依進口條件不同而異

KL = function of rounding of
the inlet edge.

103
Minor Losses Coefficient Entrance flow 2/3
轉角處出現vena contract
™ A vena contracta region may result because the fluid
cannot turn a sharp right-angle corner. The flow is said to
separate from the sharp corner. 無法直角轉彎，自然由轉角處分離
™ The maximum velocity velocity at section (2) is greater
than that in the pipe section (3), and the pressure there is
lower. (2)處速度高於(3)處速度，壓力回升
™ If this high speed fluid could
slow down efficiently, the 壓力回不來
kinetic energy could be
converted into pressure.
104
如果高速可以有效率緩下來，kinetic energy當然可以轉回壓力
Minor Losses Coefficient Entrance flow 3/3
情況並非如此。加速度過程是OK的，但減速過程卻沒有效率
™ Such is not the case. Although
the fluid may be accelerated
very efficiently, it is very
difficult to slow down
(decelerate) the fluid
efficiently.(1)Æ(2) 減速過程出現來自viscous dissipation的loss
™ (2)Æ(3) The extra kinetic
energy of the fluid is partially
lost because of viscous
dissipation, so that the pressure
does not return to the ideal
value.
Flow pattern and pressure distribution
Kinetic energy在(2)Æ(3)部分損 for a sharp-edged entrance
失，導致壓力回不到理想位置。 105
Entrance HEAD LOSS

™流體的inertial
effects主要是被
流體內部的shear
stress給損失
掉，少部分是肇
因於wall shear
stress。

106
Minor Losses Coefficient Exit flow

™ Exit flow condition and

loss coefficient
(a) Reentrant, KL = 1.0
(b) sharp-edged, KL = 1.0
(c) slightly rounded, KL = 1.0
(d) well-rounded, KL = 1.0

107
Minor Losses Coefficient varied diameter
查表找KL

™ Loss coefficient for sudden

contraction, expansion,typical
conical diffuser.

2
⎛ A ⎞
K L = ⎜⎜1 − 1 ⎟⎟
⎝ A2 ⎠

108
Minor Losses Coefficient Bend
彎管的KL
™ Character of the flow in bend
and the associated loss
coefficient.

Carefully designed guide vanes

help direct the flow with less
unwanted swirl and disturbances. 109
Internal Structure of Valves

Valves內部構造

(a) globe valve

(b) gate valve
(c) swing check valve
(d) stop check valve
110
Loss Coefficients for Pipe
Components
常見pipe components的K L

111
Example 8.6 Minor Loss 1/2
z Air at standard conditions is to flow through the test section
[between sections (5) and (6)] of the closed-circuit wind tunnel
shown if Figure E8.6 with a velocity of 200 ft/s. The flow is driven
by a fan that essentially increase the static pressure by the amount
p1-p9 that is needed to overcome the head losses experienced by the
fluid as it flows around the circuit. Estimate the value of p1-p9 and
the horsepower supplied to the fluid by the fan.

112
Example 8.6 Minor Loss 2/2

113
Example 8.6 Solution1/3
The maximum velocity within the wind tunnel occurs in the
test section (smallest area). Thus, the maximum Mach number
of the flow is Ma5=V5/c5
V5 = 200ft / s c 5 = ( KRT5 )1 / 2 = 1117ft / s
The energy equation between points (1) and (9)

p1 V12 p 9 V9 2
+ + z1 = + + z 9 + h L1−9
γ 2g γ 2g
p1 p 9
h L1−9 = − The total head loss from (1) to (9).
γ γ

114
Example 8.6 Solution2/3
The energy across the fan, from (9) to (1)
p 9 V9 2 p1 V12 Hp is the actual head rise supplied
+ + z9 + hp = + + z1
γ 2g γ 2g by the pump (fan) to the air.

p1 p 9
hp = − = h L1−9
γ γ

The actual power supplied to the air (horsepower, Pa) is obtained

from the fan head by
Pa = γQh p = γA 5 V5 h p = γA 5 V5 h L1−9

115
Example 8.6 Solution3/3
The total head loss

h L1−9 = h Lcorner 7 + h Lcorner 8 + h Lcorner 2 + h Lcorner 3 + h Ldif + h L noz + h Lscr

V2 V2 V2 V2
h Lcorner = K L = 0. 2 h Ldif = K Ldif = 0 .6
2g 2g 2g 2g
K L noz = 0.2 K Lscr = 4.0

p1 − p 9 = γh L1−9 = (0.765lb / ft 2 )(560ft ) = ... = 0.298psi

Pa = ... = 34300ft ⋅ lb / s = 62.3hp

116
 要”像”圓才說得通，
Noncircular Ducts 1/4 不可以將太誇張的截面
硬納入！
非圓管，視同圓管D Æ Dh
™ The empirical correlations for pipe flow may be used for
computations involving noncircular ducts, provided their
cross sections are not too exaggerated.
™ The correlation for turbulent pipe flow are extended for
use with noncircular geometries by introducing the
hydraulic diameter, defined as A為截面積
4A
Dh ≡
P
Where A is cross-
sectional area, and P
is wetted perimeter. P：與流體接觸的周長度
117
被流體潤濕的長度
Noncircular Ducts 2/4
™ For a circular duct
4A
Dh ≡ =D
P
™ For a rectangular duct of width b and height h
4A 4bh 2h
Dh ≡ = = ar = h / b
P 2( b + h ) 1 + ar 適用範圍 ¼<ar<4

The hydraulic diameter concept can be applied in the

approximate range ¼<ar<4. So the correlations for pipe
flow give acceptably accurate results for rectangular ducts.
非範圍內者若硬套，可稱之為「太誇張」！ 118
Noncircular Ducts 3/4

™ The friction factor can be written as f = C/Reh, where the

constant C depends on the particular shape of the duct, and
Reh is the Reynolds number based on the hydraulic
diameter. 利用Hydraulic diameter計算Reynolds number
™ The hydraulic diameter is also used in the definition of the
friction factor, h L = f (l / D h )( V 2 / 2g) , and the relative
roughness ε/Dh.
利用hydraulic diameter來定義friction factor

l V2
h L major ≡f
D 2g 119
Noncircular Ducts 4/4

™For Laminar flow, the value of C = f·Reh have been

obtained from theory and/or experiment for various shapes.
™For turbulent flow in ducts of noncircular cross section,
calculations are carried out by using the Moody chart data
for round pipes with the diameter replaced by the hydraulic
diameter and the Reynolds number based on the hydraulic
diameter.
利用Moody chart處理非圓管

The Moody chart, developed for round pipes, can also

be used for noncircular ducts.
120
Friction Factor for Laminar Flow in
Noncircular Ducts
f = C/Reh C？

121
Example 8.7 Noncircular Duct
z Air at temperature of 120°F and standard pressure flows from a
furnace through an 8-in.-diameter pipe with an average velocity of
10ft/s. It then passes through a transition section and into a square
duct whose side is of length a. The pipe and duct surfaces are
smooth (ε=0). Determine the duct size, a, if the head loss per foot
is to be the same for the pipe and the duct.

122
Example 8.7 Solution1/3
The head loss per foot for the pipe
h L f V2
=
l D 2g
For given pressure and temperature ν=1.89×10-4ft2/s
VD
Re = = 35300
ν
hL f Vs2
For the square duct = = 0.0512
l D h 2g

4A Q 3.49
Dh = =a Vs = = 2
P A a
123
Example 8.7 Solution2/3
hL f Vs2 f (3.49 / a 2 ) 2
= = 0.0512 = ⇒ a = 1.30f 1 / 5 (1)
l D h 2g a 2(32.2)
The Reynolds number based on the hydraulic diameter
Vs D h (3.49 / a 2 )a 1.89 × 10−4
Re h = = −4
= (2)
ν 1.89 × 10 a
Have three unknown (a,f, and Reh) and three equation –
Eqs. 1, 2, and either in graphical form the Moody chart or
the Colebrook equation
Find a
124
Example 8.7 Solution3/3

Use the Moody chart

Assume the friction factor for the duct is the same as for the pipe.
That is, assume f=0.022.
From Eq. 1 we obtain a=0.606 ft.
From Eq. 2 we have Reh=3.05×104
From Moody chart we find f=0.023, which does not quite agree the
assumed value of f.
Try again, using the latest calculated value of f=0.023 as our guess.
…… The final result is f=0.023, Reh=3.05×104, and a=0.611ft.
125
Pipe Flow Examples 1/2
Single-path pipe system任兩點間的能量方程式
™ The energy equation, relating the conditions at any two
points 1 and 2 for a single-path pipe system
⎛ p1 α1V12 ⎞ ⎛ p 2 α 2 V2 2 ⎞
⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
⎜ ρg + 2 g + z1 ⎟ − ⎜ ρg + 2 g + z 2 ⎟ = h L = ∑h L major + ∑ h L min or
⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠
by judicious choice of points 1 and 2 we can analyze not
only the entire pipe system, but also just a certain section
of it that we may be interested in.
2
l V 2 V
Major loss h Lmajor ≡f Minor loss h Lmin or = KL
D 2g 2g
126
Pipe Flow Examples 2/2

™ Single pipe whose length may be interrupted by various

components.
™ Multiple pipes in different configuration
ÖParallel
ÖSeries
ÖNetwork

127
Single-Path Systems 1/2

™ Pipe flow problems can be categorized by what parameters

are given and what is to be calculated.
分成幾種型態

128
Single-Path Systems 2/2 重點
™ Given pipe (L and D), and flow rate, and Q, find pressure
drop Δp
™ Given Δp, D, and Q, find L.
™ Given Δp, L, and D, find Q.
™ Given Δp, L, and Q, find D.

已知…，求……

129
CASE 1

Given L , D, and Q, find Δp

已知L、D、Q，求壓力降
™ The energy equation
⎛ p1 α1V12 ⎞ ⎛ p2 α2 V2 2 ⎞
⎜ +
⎜ ρg + z1 ⎟⎟ − ⎜⎜ + + z 2 ⎟⎟ = h L = ∑ h Lmajor + ∑ h L min or
⎝ 2g ⎠ ⎝ ρg 2g ⎠
™ The flow rate leads to the Reynolds number and hence the
friction factor for the flow. Q、D Æ Reynolds number Æ f
™ Tabulated data can be used for minor loss coefficients and
equivalent lengths. 求Minor loss coefficients或 Leq
™ The energy equation can then be used to directly to obtain
the pressure drop. 利用能量方程式求壓力降
130
CASE 2

Given Δp, D, and Q, find L

™ The energy equation
⎛ p1 α1V12 ⎞ ⎛ p2 α2 V2 2 ⎞
⎜ +
⎜ ρg + z1 ⎟⎟ − ⎜⎜ + + z 2 ⎟⎟ = h L = ∑ h Lmajor + ∑ h L min or
⎝ 2g ⎠ ⎝ ρg 2g ⎠

™ The flow rate leads to the Reynolds number and hence the
friction factor for the flow. Q、D Æ Reynolds numberÆf
™ Tabulated data can be used for minor loss coefficients and
equivalent lengths. 求Minor loss coefficients或 Leq
™ The energy equation can then be rearranged and solved
directly for the pipe length.
利用能量方程式求Pipe length 131
Example 8.8 Type I Determine Pressure
Drop
已知管直徑與流率
z Water at 60°F flows from the basement to the second floor through the
0.75-in. (0.0625-ft)-diameter copper pipe (a drawn tubing) at a rate of
Q = 12.0 gal/min = 0.0267 ft3/s and exits through a faucet of diameter
0.50 in. as shown in Figure E8.8.
Determine the pressure at
point (1) if: (a) all losses
are neglected, (b) the only
losses included are major
losses, or (c) all losses are
included.

132
Example 8.8 Solution1/4
Q
V1 = = ... = 8.70ft / s ρ = 1.94slug / ft 3
A1 The flow is turbulent
μ = 2.34 × 10−5 lb ⋅ s / ft 2 Re = ρVD / μ = 45000
從已知資訊判定pipe flow為紊流
The energy equation
2 2
p1 α1V1 p2 α2 V2
+ + z1 = + + z2 + hL
ρg 2g ρg 2g
2 2
p1 = γz 2 + ρ( V2 − V ) + γh L 計算hL
1
2 1

z1 = 0, z 2 = 20ft , p2 = 0(free jet ) Head loss is different for

V2 = Q / A 2 = ... = 19.6ft / s each of the three cases.
133
Example 8.8 Solution2/4
(a) If all losses are neglected (hL=0)
2 2
p1 = γz 2 + ρ( V2 − V ) = ... = 1547lb / ft 2 = 10.7psi
1
2 1

(b) If the only losses included are the major losses, the head loss is
l V12 Moody chart
hL = f 由Moody chart求f
D 2g
ε = 0.000005 ε / D = 8 × 10 −5 Re = 45000 f=0.0215
2
2 2 l( = 60ft ) V
p1 = γz 2 + 12 ρ( V2 − V1 ) + ρf 1
= ... = 3062lb / ft 2 = 21.3psi
D 2

134
Example 8.8 Solution3/4
(c) If major and minor losses are included
2 2
l V V
+ ∑ ρK L
2 2
p1 = γz 2 + 12 ρ( V2 − V1 ) + fγ 1
D 2g 2
V2
p1 = 21.3psi + ∑ ρK L Minor loss納入
2
2
(8 .70ft / s )
= 21.3psi + (1.94slugs / ft 3 ) [10 + 4(1.5) + 2]
2

p1 = 21.3psi + 9.17psi = 30.5psi

135
Example 8.8 Solution4/4

136
Example 8.9 Type I, Determine Head Loss

z Crude oil at 140°F with γ=53.7 lb/ft3 and μ= 8×10-5 lb·s/ft2 (about
four times the viscosity of water) is pumped across Alaska through
the Alaska pipeline, a 799-mile-along, 4-ft-diameter steel pipe, at a
maximum rate of Q = 2.4 million barrel/day = 117ft3/s, or
V=Q/A=9.31 ft/s. Determine the horsepower needed for the pumps
that drive this large system.

137
Example 8.9 Solution1/2
The energy equation between points (1) and (2)
2 2
p1 V1 p 2 V2 hP is the head provided to the oil
+ + z1 + h P = + + z2 + h L by the pump.
γ 2g γ 2g
Assume that z1=z2, p1=p2=V1=V2=0 (large, open tank)
Minor losses are negligible because of the large length-to-
diameter ratio of the relatively straight, uninterrupted pipe.
l V2 Minor loss被忽略
hL = hP = f = ... = 17700ft
D 2g
Horse power克服head loss
f=0.0124 from Moody chart ε/D=(0.00015ft)/(4ft), Re=…..
138
Example 8.9 Solution2/2
The actual power supplied to the fluid.

⎛ 1hp ⎞
Pa = γQh P = ...⎜ ⎟ = 202000hp
⎝ 550ft ⋅ lb / s ⎠

139
CASE 3

Given Δp, L, and D, find Q 1/2

需要iteration
™ These types of problems required either manual iteration
or use of a computer application.
™ The unknown flow rate or velocity is needed before the
Reynolds number and hence the friction factor can be
found.
因為flowrate未知，無法知道速度，無法知道Reynolds number，所以
就不知道frictional factorÆ先猜測f

Repeat the iteration process

f→ V→ Re→ f until convergence
140
Given Δp, L, and D, find Q 2/2

™ First, we make a guess for f and solve the energy equation

for V in terms of known quantities and the guessed
friction factor f.
™ Then we can compute a Reynolds number and hence
obtain a new value for f.

Repeat the iteration process

f→ V→ Re→ f until convergence
先猜測f值，透過energy equation計算velocity，然後以Reynolds
number去查詢f，再檢驗f是否與猜測的f一樣？
141
CASE 4

Given Δp, L, and Q, find D 1/2

需要iteration
™ These types of problems required either manual iteration
or use of a computer application.
™ The unknown diameter is needed before the Reynolds
number and relative roughness, and hence the friction
factor can be found.

因為D未知，就無從由Q計算velocity與Reynolds number

142
Given Δp, L, and Q, find D 2/2

™ First, we make a guess for f and solve the energy equation

for D in terms of known quantities and the guessed
friction factor f. 由預測的f與energy equation計算D

™ Then we can compute a Reynolds number and hence

obtain a new value for f.

Repeat the iteration process

f→ D→ Re and ε/D→ f until convergence

143
Example 8.10 Type III, Determine Flowrate

z According to an appliance manufacturer, the 4-in-diameter

galvanized iron vent on a clothes dryer is not to contain more than
20 ft of pipe and four 90° elbows. Under these conditions determine
the air flowrate if the pressure within the dryer is 0.20 inches of
water. Assume a temperature of 100℉ and standard pressure.

直徑4-in鍍鋅鐵排氣孔、20 ft pipe與四個90°elbows

進口處壓力0.2 inches of water，求flowrate

144
Example 8.10 Solution1/2
先把energy equation寫出來
Application of the energy equation between the inside of the dryer,
point (1), and the exit of the vent pipe, point (2) gives
2 2
p1 V1 p 2 V2 l V2 V2
+ + z1 = + + z2 + f + ∑ KL 能量方程式
γ 2g γ 2g D 2g 2g

Assume that z1=z2, p2=0, V1=0

p1 ⎛ 1ft ⎞
= 0.2in ⇒ p1 = (0.2in.)⎜ ⎟(62.4lb / ft ) = 1.04lb / ft
3 2

γ H 2O ⎝ 12in. ⎠

With γ=0.0709lb/ft3, V2=V, and ν=1.79×10-4 ft2/s.

945 = (7.5 + 60f )V 2

(1) 代入f即可算出velocity
f is dependent on Re, which is dependent on V, and unknown. 145
Example 8.10 Solution2/2
VD
Re = = ... = 1860V (2) 有V即可算出Reynolds number
ν
We have three relationships (Eq. 1, 2, and the ε/D=0.0015 curve of
the Moody chart) from which we can solve for the three unknowns f,
Re, and V.
This is done easily by iterative scheme as follows.
Assume f=0.022→V=10.4ft/s (Eq. 1)→Re=19,300 (Eq.2)→f=0.029
Assume f=0.029 →V=10.1ft/s→Re=18,800 →f=0.029

Q = AV = ... = 0.881ft /s 3

146
Example 8.11 Type III, Determine Flowrate

z The turbine shown in Figure E8.11 extracts 50 hp from the water

flowing through it. The 1-ft-diameter, 300-ft-long pipe is assumed to
have a friction factor of 0.02. Minor losses are negligible. Determine
the flowrate through the pipe and turbine.
Friction factor f 已知 忽略minor loess

TurbineÆ敗

50 hp
147
Example 8.11 Solution1/2
先把energy equation寫出來
The energy equation can be applied between the surface of the lake
and the outlet of the pipe as
2 2
p1 V1 p V
+ + z1 = 2 + 2 + z 2 + h L + h T 能量方程式
γ 2g γ 2g
Where p1=V1= p2=z2=0, z1=90ft, and V2=V, the fluid velocity in
the pipe
l V2 Pa 561
hL = f = 0.0932V 2ft hT = = ... = ft
D 2g γQ V
0.107V − 90V + 561 = 0
3

There are two real, positive roots: V=6.58 ft/s or V=24.9 ft/s. The third
root is negative (V=-31.4ft/s) and has no physical meaning for this flow. 148
Example 8.11 Solution2/2
Two acceptable flowrates are
π 2
Q = D V = ... = 5.17ft 3 / s
4
π 2
Q = D V = ... = 19.6ft 3 / s
4

149
Example 8.12 Type IV Without Minor
Losses, Determine Diameter
z Air at standard temperature and pressure flows through a horizontal,
galvanized iron pipe (ε=0.0005 ft) at a rate of 2.0ft3/s. Determine
the minimum pipe diameter if the pressure drop is to be no more
than 0.50 psi per 100 ft of pipe.

鍍鋅鐵管，粗糙度已知
Q已知

壓力降已知

求管直徑

150
Example 8.12 Solution1/2
Assume the flow to be incompressible with ρ=0.00238 slugs/ft3 and
μ=3.74×10-7 lb．s/ft2.
If the pipe were too long, the pressure drop from one end to the other,
p1-p2, would not be small relative to the pressure at the beginning, and
compressible flow considerations would be required.
l ρV 2
With z1=z2, V1=V2 , The energy equation becomes p1 = p 2 + f
D g
2
(100 ft ) V
p1 − p 2 = (0.5)(144)lb / ft 2 = f (0.00238slugs / ft 3 )
D 2g
Q 2.55
V= = 2 D = 0.404f 1/5
(1)
A D 151
Example 8.12 Solution2/2

ρVD 1.62 × 10 4
Re = = ... = (2)
μ D
ε 0.0005
= (3)
D D
We have four equations (Eq. 1, 2, 3, and either the Moody chart or
the Colebrook equation) and four unknowns (f, D, ε/D, and Re)
from which the solution can be obtained by trial-and-error methods.

Repeat the iteration process

f→ D→ Re and ε/D→ f until convergence
(1) (2) (3) 152
Example 8.13 Type IV With Minor Losses,
Determine Diameter
z Water at 60°F (ν=1.21×10-5 ft2/s) is to flow from reservoir A to
reservoir B through a pipe of length 1700 ft and roughness 0.0005 ft
at a rate of Q= 26 ft3/s as shown in Figure E8.13. The system
contains a sharp-edged entrance and four flanged 45° elbow.
Determine the pipe diameter needed.
Flowrate、管長度、粗糙度已知

求管直徑
153
Example 8.13 Solution1/2
The energy equation can be applied between two points on the
surfaces of the reservoirs (p1=V1= p2=z2=V2=0)
2 2
p1 V1 p 2 V2
+ + z1 = + + z2 + h L
γ 2g γ 2g
V2 ⎛ l ⎞
z1 = ⎜ f
2g ⎝ D
+ ∑ K L⎟
⎠
Q 33.1
V= = 2 KLent=0.5, KLelbow=0.2, and KLexit=1
A D
V2 ⎛ 1700 ⎞
44ft = 2 ⎜
f + [ 4( 0 . 2 ) + 0 . 5 + 1] ⎟
2(32.2ft / s ) ⎝ D ⎠
f = 0.00152 D5 − 0.00135D (1) 154
Example 8.13 Solution2/2

VD 2.74 × 106
Re = = ... = (2)
ν D
ε 0.0005
= (3)
D D
We have four equations (Eq. 1, 2, 3, and either the Moody chart or
the Colebrook equation) and four unknowns (f, D, ε/D, and Re)
from which the solution can be obtained by trial-and-error methods.

Repeat the iteration process

先猜測D…… D→ f →Re and ε/D→ f until convergence
(1) (2) (3) 155
Multiple-Path Systems 多管系統

Series and Parallel Pipe System

流量關係與
能量損失關係
Q1 = Q2 = Q3 h LA − B = h L1 + h L 2 + h L 3

依據管排列架構

Q = Q1 + Q2 + Q3 h L1 = h L 2 = h L 3

156
Multiple-Path Systems
Multiple Pipe Loop System
流量關係 Q1 = Q2 + Q3
p A VA2 p B VB2
+ + zA = + + z B + h L1 + h L 2 (1 → 2 )
不同路徑， γ 2g γ 2g
寫下不同能
p A VA2 p B VB2
量方程式 + + zA = + + z B + h L1 + h L 3 (1 → 3)
γ 2g γ 2g
⇒ h L 2 = h L3 兩個貯存槽

157
Multiple-Path Systems
Three-Reservoir System
If valve (1) was closed, reservoir B Æ reservoir C
If valve (2) was closed, reservoir A Æ reservoir C
If valve (3) was closed, reservoir A Æ reservoir B
With all valves open…Q. 1 = Q2 + Q3 流量關係
p A VA2 p B VB2
不同路徑， + + zA = + + z B + h L1 + h L 2 (A → B)
γ 2g γ 2g
寫下不同能
p B VB2 pC VC2
量方程式 + + zB = + + z C + h L 2 + h L 3 (B → C )
γ 2g γ 2g

三個貯存槽
158
Example 8.14 Three reservoir, Multiple
Pipe System
z Three reservoirs are connected by three pipes as are shown in Figure
E8.14. For simplicity we assume that the diameter of each pipe is 1
ft, the frictional factor for each is 0.02, and because of the large
length-to-diameter ratio, minor losses are negligible. Determine the
flowrate into or out of each reservoir.

159
Example 8.14 Solution1/4
The continuity equation requires that

Flows out of Q1 + Q2 = Q3 ⇒ V1 + V2 = V3 (1)

reservoir B The diameters are the same for each pipe
The energy equation for the fluid that flows from A to C in
pipes (1) and (3) can be written as
p A VA2 pC VC2 l 1 V12 l 3 V32
+ + zA = + + z C + f1 + f3
γ 2g γ 2g D1 2g D 3 2g
By using the fact that pA=VA= pC=VC=zC=0

l 1 V12 l 3 V32
z A = f1 + f3 322 = V12 + 0.4V22 (2)
D1 2g D 3 2g 160
Example 8.14 Solution2/4
Similarly the energy equation for fluid following from B to C
p B VB2 pC VC2 l 2 V22 l 3 V32
+ + zB = + + zC + f2 + f3
γ 2g γ 2g D 2 2g D 3 2g
l 2 V22 l 3 V32
zB = f2 + f3 64.4 = 0.5V22 + 0.4V32 (3)
D 2 2g D 3 2g
No solution to Eqs. 1, 2, and 3 with real, positive values of V1, V2,
and V3. Thus, our original assumption of flow out of
reservoir B must be incorrect.

161
Example 8.14 Solution3/4
The continuity equation requires that

Flows into Q1 = Q2 + Q3 ⇒ V1 = V2 + V3 (4)

reservoir B
The energy equation between points A and B and A and C
l 1 V12 l 2 V22
z A = z B + f1 + f2 258 = V12 + 0.5V22 (5)
D1 2g D 2 2g
l 1 V12 l 3 V32
z A = z C + f1 + f3 322 = V12 + 0.4V32 (6)
D1 2g D 3 2g

Solve V1 = 15.9ft / s V2 = 2.88ft / s

162
Example 8.14 Solution4/4
The corresponding flowates are
Q1 = A1V1 = 12.5ft 3 / s from A
Q 2 = A 2 V2 = 2.26ft 3 / s int o B
Q3 = Q1 − Q2 = 10.2ft 3 / s int o C

163
 管狀流量量具
Pipe Flowrate Meters1/2

™ The theoretical flow rate may be related to the pressure

differential between section 1 and 2 by applying the
continuity and Bernoulli equations.
™ Then empirical correction factors may be applied to obtain
the actual flow rate. 先介紹理論值
Basic equation
∂ r r
∂t ∫CV
ρdV + ∫ ρV ⋅ dA = 0
CS

2 2
p1 V1 p 2 V2
+ + gz 1 = + + gz 2
ρ 2 ρ 2

164
 依據形狀
Pipe Flowrate Meters2/2 Orifice Meter
Nozzle Meter
Venturi Meter

ρ V2
2 ⎡ ⎛ A ⎞2 ⎤ 2 ( p1 − p 2 )
p1 − p 2 = ⎢1 − ⎜⎜ 2 ⎟⎟ ⎥ V2 =
2 ⎢⎣ ⎝ A 1 ⎠ ⎥⎦ [
ρ 1 − ( A 2 / A1 )2 ]
理論上可由上下游壓力
Theoretical mass flow rate 與管的幾何形狀算出Q值
孔的截面積
2(p 1 − p 2 )
Q ideal = V2 A 2 = A 2
ρ (1 − (D 2 /D 1 ) 4 )

Q ideal ∝ Δp Q actual ??
實際上？？ 165
Pipe Flowrate Meters
Orifice Meter

2 ( p1 − p 2 )
Q actual = C o Q ideal = C o A o
ρ (1 − β 4 )
A 0 = πd 2 / 4 Area of the hole in the orifice plate
C o = C o (β = d / D , Re = ρ VD / μ ) Orifice meter discharge coefficient

C0得由實驗取得 166
Pipe Flowrate Meters
Nozzle Meter

2 ( p1 − p 2 )
Q actual = C n Q ideal = C n A n
ρ (1 − β 4 )
A n = π d 2 / 4 Area of the hole
C n = C n (β = d / D , Re = ρ VD / μ )
Nozzle meter discharge coefficient
167
Pipe Flowrate Meters
Venturi Meter

2 ( p1 − p 2 )
Q actual = C V Q ideal = C V A T
ρ (1 − β 4 )
A T = πd 2 / 4 Area of the throat
C V = C V (β = d / D , Re = ρ VD / μ )
The Venturi discharge coefficient

168
Linear Flow Measurement
Float-type Variable-area Flow Meters
™ The ball or float is carried
upward in the tapered clear
tube by the flowing fluid
until the drag force and float
weight are in equilibrium.
™ Float meters often called
rotameters.

Rotameter-type flow meter 169

Linear Flow Measurement
Turbine Flow Meter
™ A small, freely rotating
propeller or turbine within the
turbine meter rotates with an
angular velocity that is function
of the average fluid velocity in
the pipe. This angular velocity
is picked up magnetically and
calibrated to provide a very
accurate measure of the flowrate
Turbine-type flow meter
through the meter.
170
Volume Flow Meters 1/2
™ Measuring the amount (volume
or mass) of fluid that has
passed through a pipe during a
given time period, rather than
the instantaneous flowrate.
™ Nutating disk flow meters is
widely used to measurement
the net amount of water used in
domestic and commercial
water systems as well as the
amount of gasoline delivered to Nutating disk flow meter
your gas tank.

171
Volume Flow Meters 2/2
™ Bellow-type flow meter is a
quantity-measuring device used
for gas flow measurement.
™ It contains a set of bellows that
alternately fill and empty as a
result of the pressure of gas and
the motion of a set of inlet and
outlet valves.

Bellows-type flow meter.

(a) Back case emptying, back diaphragm filling.
(b) Front diaphragm filling, front case emptying.
(c) Back case filling, back diaphragm emptying.
(d) Front diaphragm emptying, front case filling.
172