AC Power and Power Factor In an alternating current (AC) circuit, both voltage and current Capacitive Reactance In an AC circuit,

n AC circuit, the opposition offered by a capacitor to alternating

vary sinusoidally with time. Unlike direct current (DC), where voltage and current remain current is called capacitive reactance.
constant, AC circuits involve phase differences between voltage and current due to the presence X_C = \frac{1}{\omega C} where X C = capacitive reactance ω=2 πf = angular frequency
of inductance and capacitance. Because of this phase difference, the power consumed in an AC
circuit is not always equal to the simple product of voltage and current. The concept of AC C = capacitance Unit: Ohm (Ω) Capacitive reactance decreases as frequency increases.
power explains how electrical energy is converted into useful work in an AC circuit. The Impedance Impedance is the total opposition offered by a circuit to the flow of alternating
efficiency with which the electrical power is used is represented by a quantity called the power [Link] is the combination of resistance, inductive reactance, and capacitive reactance.
factor. Power factor is an important parameter in electrical engineering because it determines The unit of impedance is Ohm (Ω).In an AC circuit containing resistance, inductance and
how effectively electrical power is utilized in electrical devices and transmission systems.
Z=√ R + ¿ ¿
2
AC Power Consider an AC circuit in which the applied voltage and current are given by capacitance, the impedance is given by Z
where = impedance = R
V =V 0 sin ⁡(ωt ) I =I 0 sin ⁡(ωt −ϕ)
----> where V 0= maximum voltage resistance X L= inductive reactance X C = capacitive reactance

I 0= maximum current Relation Between Voltage and Current 1 In a pure resistive circuit, voltage and current are in
∘ .3In a pure capacitive circuit,
ω = angular frequencyϕ = phase difference between voltage and current
phase.2In a pure inductive circuit, current lags voltage by 90
∘.
The instantaneous power in the circuit is P=VI Substituting the values of voltage and
current leads voltage by 90
These phase relationships affect the behavior of AC circuits and determine the impedance of the
current, circuit.
P=V 0 I 0 sin ⁡(ωt )sin ⁡(ωt−ϕ )Using trigonometric identities, the average Importance in AC Circuits
Inductance is used in transformers, motors and inductors.
power over one complete cycle becomes P=V rms I rms cos ⁡ϕ where V rms= root Capacitance is used in filters, tuning circuits and energy storage devices.
Impedance determines the total opposition to AC and controls current flow.
mean square voltage I rms= root mean square current
These concepts are essential in designing electrical and electronic circuits
ϕ = phase angle between voltage and current This is the fundamental expression for AC power. .Conclusion
Inductance, capacitance and impedance are fundamental properties of AC circuits. Inductance
Types of Power in AC Circuit 1. Active Power (Real Power) Active power is the actual power opposes changes in current through magnetic effects, while capacitance stores electrical energy
consumed in the circuit and used to perform useful work such as heating, lighting, or mechanical in an electric field. The combined effect of resistance and reactance is called impedance, which
motion. P=VI cos ⁡ϕ Unit: Watt (W) determines how much current flows in an AC circuit. Understanding these concepts is essential
2. Reactive Power Reactive power is the power that alternately stores and releases energy in for analyzing and designing modern electrical and electronic systems.
Kirchhoff’s Laws In the analysis of electrical circuits, it is often necessary to determine
inductors and capacitors without performing useful work. Q=VI sin ⁡ϕ Unit: Volt-Ampere unknown currents and voltages in different parts of the circuit. Simple laws like Ohm's Law are
3. Apparent Power Apparent power is the product of RMS voltage and RMS current without useful, but they are not sufficient for complex networks containing many branches and loops. To
considering phase difference. S=VI Unit: Volt-Ampere (VA) solve such circuits, Kirchhoff's Circuit Laws are used. These laws were formulated by the
Power Factor Power factor is defined as the cosine of the phase angle between voltage and German physicist Gustav Kirchhoff in 1845. Kirchhoff’s laws are based on the fundamental
principles of conservation of charge and energy. They are widely used in electrical engineering
P
current in an AC circuit. ¿ It represents how efficiently electrical power is converted into to analyze complicated electrical networks.
VI Kirchhoff’s laws consist of two rules: Kirchhoff’s Current Law (KCL) Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law (KVL)
Kirchhoff’s Current Law states that: “The algebraic sum of currents at any junction in an
useful work. Types of Power Factor 1. Unity Power Factor When voltage and current are in the
electrical circuit is zero.” In other words, the total current entering a junction is equal to the total
same phase ( ϕ=0). cos ⁡ϕ=1 Example: Pure resistive circuits such as electric current leaving the junction. Mathematical ExpressionIf currents I 1 , I 2 , I 3enter a junction
heaters.
2. Lagging Power Factor Occurs in inductive circuits where current lags behind voltage. and I ,I
4 I + I + I =I + I
5 leave it: 1 2 3 4 5 or ∑ I =0
Examples: Electric motors, Transformers, Induction coils
Explanation A junction (node) is a point in a circuit where three or more conductors meet.
3. Leading Power Factor Occurs in capacitive circuits where current leads the voltage.
According to the law of conservation of electric charge, charge cannot accumulate at a node.
Example: Capacitor circuits.
Therefore, whatever charge enters the junction must leave [Link], the total incoming current
Power Triangle The relationship between active, reactive and apparent power can be
represented by a power triangle. 2 2 2 where = active power
P equals the total outgoing current. Example Suppose three currents enter a node: I 1=2 A
S =P +Q
Q = reactive power S= apparent power Importance of Power Factor 1High power factor I 2=3 I 3 =1 A
improves electrical system efficiency. 2It reduces transmission losses.3 It allows better utilization Total entering current: 2+3+1=6 A
of electrical equipment.4 It reduces the size and cost of electrical machines. Therefore the current leaving the node must also be 6A.
Methods of Improving Power Factor Using capacitors in parallel with inductive loads. Using Applications of KCL-- Used to analyze parallel circuits, Used in network analysisI, important in
synchronous [Link] phase advancers in induction motors .Conclusion electrical and electronic circuit design
AC power describes the rate at which electrical energy is consumed in an alternating current Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law states that: “The algebraic sum of all voltages in a closed loop of an
circuit. Because voltage and current may not be in phase, the effective power depends on the electrical circuit is equal to zero.” Mathematical Expression For a closed loop containing voltages
phase angle between them. The power factor indicates how efficiently electrical power is
utilized. A higher power factor means better performance of electrical systems and reduced V 1 ,V 2 , V 3: V +V +V =0
1 2 3 Or ∑ V =0
power losses. Therefore, maintaining a high power factor is very important for efficient ExplanationA loop is any closed conducting path in a circuit. According to the law of
operation of electrical networks and electrical machine conservation of energy, the total energy supplied by sources such as batteries must be equal to
Inductance, Capacitance and Impedance In an alternating current (AC) circuit, electrical the total energy consumed by resistors and other components. Therefore, the sum of voltage
components such as inductors and capacitors affect the flow of current in different ways. Unlike rises equals the sum of voltage drops in a closed loop. Example Consider a circuit with
simple resistive circuits, AC circuits contain elements that store and release energy in magnetic
and electric fields. These elements introduce opposition to current called reactance, and the
Battery voltage V =12 V and voltage drops across resistorsV 1=5 V V 2=4 V
total opposition offered to AC is known as impedance. Inductance, capacitance and impedance V 3=3 V
are fundamental concepts in AC circuit analysis and play an important role in electrical
machines, power systems and electronic devices. Then 12=5+ 4+ 3 This satisfies Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law.
Inductance Inductance is the property of a coil or conductor by which it opposes any change Applications of KVL-- Used to analyze series circuits, Helpful in solving multi-loop circuits, Used
in the current flowing through it due to the production of a magnetic field. in mesh analysis in electrical engineering
The unit of inductance is Henry (H).When current flows through a coil, a magnetic field is Difference Between KCL and KVL
produced around it. If the current changes, the magnetic field also changes, inducing an Kirchhoff Current Law Kirchhoff Voltage Law
electromotive force (EMF) that opposes the change in current. This phenomenon is known as Based on conservation of charge Based on conservation of energy
self-induction. Applied at a junction (node) Applied in a closed loop

dI Deals with currents Deals with voltages

According to Faraday’s law, E=−L where E = induced EMF L= inductance Conclusion Kirchhoff’s laws are fundamental tools for the analysis of electrical circuits. The
dt current law ensures that electric charge is conserved at a junction, while the voltage law ensures
conservation of energy in a closed loop. By applying these laws along with Ohm’s law, complex
dI electrical networks can be solved efficiently. Therefore, Kirchhoff’s laws form the foundation of
= rate of change of current modern circuit analysis and electrical engineering.
dt DC Power Source -A DC power source supplies direct current in which the flow of current is in
Inductive Reactance In an AC circuit, the opposition offered by an inductor to alternating one direction only. Examples include batteries, DC generators, and rectifiers. DC power is used in
current is called inductive reactance. electronic devices, batteries, and charging systems.
X_L = \omega L where X L= inductive reactance ω=2 πf = angular frequency = L AC and DC Generators
inductance DC Generator -A DC generator converts mechanical energy into direct current electricity. It
Unit: Ohm (Ω)Inductive reactance increases with frequency, meaning higher frequency AC works on the principle of electromagnetic induction discovered by Michael Faraday.
experiences greater opposition in an inductor. Main parts: Armature, Field winding, Commutator, Brushes
Capacitance AC Generator (Alternator)An AC generator produces alternating current in which the direction
Capacitance is the ability of a conductor or device to store electric charge when a potential of current changes periodically. It is widely used in power stations.
difference is applied across it .The device used to store electric charge is called a capacitor. Drawing Symbols Electrical components are represented by standard symbols in circuit
diagrams. These symbols make electrical drawings easy to read and understand. Common
Q Electrical Symbols
The unit of capacitance is Farad (F).Capacitance is defined as C= whereC = capacitance
Battery – Source of electrical energy ,Resistor – Opposes the flow of current, Capacitor – Stores
V electrical energy, Inductor – Stores energy in a magnetic field, Switch – Opens or closes a
Q = charge stored V = potential difference circuit,Lamp – Converts electrical energy into light,Ground – Provides a reference point in
circuits
A capacitor stores energy in the form of an electric field between its plates.
Using standard symbols helps in uniform representation of electrical circuits.
1. Drawing Symbols Electrical components are represented by standard symbols in circuit is made of many thin wires twisted together to form a single conductor. It is more flexible and
diagrams. These symbols make electrical drawings easy to read and [Link] easier to bend. Because of this flexibility, it is commonly used in cables and electrical appliances.
Electrical Symbols Battery – Source of electrical energy Resistor – Opposes the flow of current Cables:A cable is a group of one or more insulated conductors used to transmit electrical power
Capacitor – Stores electrical energy Inductor – Stores energy in a magnetic field Switch – Opens or signals. The conductors inside a cable are covered with insulating materials such as PVC,
or closes a circuit Lamp – Converts electrical energy into light Ground – Provides a reference rubber, or plastic to prevent electric shock and short circuits.
point in circuits Using standard symbols helps in uniform representation of electrical circuits. 2. Basic Wiring – Star and Delta Connection In three-phase electrical systems, two important
2 . Blueprints A blueprint is a detailed technical drawing that shows the layout of electrical types of connections are used: Star (Y) connection and Delta (Δ) connection.
wiring, equipment, and connections in a building or [Link] of Blueprints Shows the Star Connection (Y): In a star connection, one end of each phase winding is connected together
exact location of electrical componentsHelps in planning and installation of wiringMakes to form a common point called the neutral. This type of connection is widely used in power
troubleshooting easierBlueprints are commonly used in construction projects and electrical distribution systems. It provides both line voltage and phase voltage and is suitable for long-
installations. distance power transmission.
3. Reading Schematics A schematic diagram is a simplified drawing of an electrical circuit using Delta Connection (Δ): In a delta connection, the end of each winding is connected to the
symbols. Steps to Read a Schematic Identify the power source. Recognize the symbols of beginning of the next winding forming a closed loop. There is no neutral point in this
components. Follow the path of current [Link] the connections between components. connection. Delta connections are commonly used in three-phase motors and industrial
Schematic diagrams help technicians understand how the circuit works. equipment because they provide higher starting torque.
4 . Ladder Diagram A ladder diagram is a type of electrical schematic used mainly in control 3. Voltage Drop and Losses Across Cables Voltage drop is the reduction in voltage in a cable
circuits. It looks like a ladder with two vertical lines representing power supply and horizontal when electric current flows through it due to the resistance of the conductor.
lines representing circuit [Link] of Ladder Diagram,Used in industrial control Causes of Voltage Drop -High resistance of the conductor, Long length of cable,High current flow
systems,Used in motor control circuits,Used in PLC programming Effects of Voltage Drop-Reduced efficiency of the electrical system, Poor performance of
5 . Electrical Circuits An electrical circuit is a closed path that allows electric current to flow. It electrical devices, Overheating of cablesVoltage drop can be reduced by using cables with a
consists of several components such as:Power source,Conductors,Load (lamp, motor, etc.) larger cross-sectional area and low resistance conductors.
Switch or control device Electrical circuits can be series circuits or parallel circuits depending on 4. Instruments to Measure Current, Voltage and Power Different electrical instruments are used
the connection of components. to measure electrical quantities.
6 . Labeling of Circuit Schematic Labeling is the process of marking components and Ammeter:Measures electric current. Unit: Ampere (A). It is connected in series in a circuit.
connections in a circuit diagram for easy identification. Examples of Labels R for resistor,C for Voltmeter:Measures electric voltage. Unit: Volt (V). It is connected in parallel with the circuit.
capacitor,L for inductor,V for voltage source, A for ammeter, Proper labeling helps in easy Wattmeter:Measures electrical power. Unit: Watt (W).
understanding and maintenance of circuits. Multimeter:A versatile instrument used to measure voltage, current, and resistance.
7. Tracking the Connections of Elements Tracking means following the connection of each 5. InsulationInsulation is the protective covering placed around electrical conductors to prevent
component in a circuit to understand how the circuit operates. electric shock, leakage of current, and short circuits.
It involves: Identifying wires Following the path of current, Checking the connection between Common Insulating Materials,PVC (Polyvinyl Chloride),Rubber, Plastic, Paper insulation
components, This process is useful in fault finding and circuit analysis. Good insulation improves the safety and durability of electrical wiring systems.
8. Identify Current Flow and Voltage Drop In an electrical circuit, current flows from the positive 6. Cable Conduit and Cable TrayCable Conduit:A cable conduit is a pipe or tube used to protect
terminal to the negative terminal of the power source. electrical wires from mechanical damage. It can be made of metal or PVC.
When current flows through a component like a resistor, a voltage drop occurs across that Cable Tray:A cable tray is a structure used to support and organize multiple electrical cables in
component. Voltage drop depends on: Resistance of the component Amount of current flowing buildings and industries.
Understanding current flow and voltage drop helps in analyzing the performance of electrical circuits. 7. SpliceA splice is a method used to join two wires together to extend their length or repair
Conclusion Electrical drawings and symbols are essential tools for representing and understanding electrical damaged wires. Proper splicing ensures good electrical connection and mechanical strength.
circuits. They help engineers and technicians design, install, and maintain electrical systems efficiently.
8. Wire Nuts, Crimps and Terminal Block
Knowledge of blueprints, schematic diagrams, ladder diagrams, and circuit labeling makes electrical work easier
and more accurate. Wire Nuts:Plastic connectors used to join two or more electrical wires.
1. Main Electrical Circuit Elements and Their Combination Electrical circuits are made of Crimps:Metal connectors attached to wires using a crimping tool.
different elements which control the flow of current. Resistor A resistor is a component that Terminal Block:A device used to safely connect multiple wires in an electrical circuit.
opposes the flow of electric current in a circuit. The unit of resistance is Ohm (Ω). 9. Split Bolts and SolderSplit Bolt:A heavy-duty connector used to join large conductors.
Capacitor A capacitor stores electrical energy in the form of an electric field. The unit of Solder:A metal alloy used to permanently join electrical wires and provide a strong electrical
capacitance is Farad (F). connection.
InductorAn inductor stores energy in the form of a magnetic field when current flows through it. 10. Preparation of Extension BoardAn extension board is used to supply electrical power to
The unit of inductance is Henry (H). multiple devices from a single power [Link],Plug top,Socket,Switch, Fuse, Electrical
Voltage Source A voltage source supplies electrical energy to a circuit, such as a battery or wire Steps Connect the plug to the input wire. Install the switch and socket on the
generator. Combination of Circuit Elements Circuit elements can be connected in two ways: [Link] the wires properly inside the circuit. Ensure proper insulation and safety.
Series Connection Components are connected one after [Link] same current flows through ConclusionElectrical wiring is an essential part of electrical systems used in homes, industries,
all [Link] ConnectionComponents are connected across the same two points. and commercial buildings. Proper knowledge of conductors, cables, wiring connections,
Voltage across each component is the same. measuring instruments, and insulation helps ensure the safe and efficient distribution of
2. Rules to Analyze DC Electrical Circuits DC circuits can be analyzed using basic electrical laws. electrical energy.
Ohm’s Law Ohm’s Law states that the current flowing through a conductor is directly 2. Full Wave Bridge Rectifier – Working with Average and RMS CurrentA full wave bridge
proportional to the voltage and inversely proportional to [Link]: V = IR rectifier is an electronic circuit that converts AC (alternating current) into DC (direct current) by
3 Current and Voltage Drop Across DC Circuit Elements When electric current flows through using four diodes arranged in a bridge configuration. It allows current to pass through the load
circuit elements such as resistors, a voltage drop occurs due to resistance. in the same direction during both half cycles of the AC input.
Voltage drop depends on: Resistance of the conductor, Length of the wire, Magnitude of current Circuit Components-Four diodes (D1, D2, D3, D4), AC input source, Load resistance L R
Large voltage drops reduce the efficiency of the electrical circuit.
Working Principle Positive Half Cycle-Upper terminal of AC becomes positive., Diodes D1 and
4. Single Phase and Three Phase Alternating Current Source
D3 conduct., Diodes D2 and D4 remain reverse biased., Current path: Source → D1 → Load →
Single Phase AC Single phase AC supply consists of one alternating voltage waveform.
D3 → [Link] Half Cycle-Lower terminal becomes positive., Diodes D2 and D4
It is commonly used in houses and small electrical appliances.
conduct., Diodes D1 and D3 are reverse biased., Current path: Source → D2 → Load → D4 →
Three Phase ACThree phase AC supply consists of three alternating voltages separated by 120°
Source.
phase difference. Advantages: More efficient, Used in industries and large machines,Provides
Thus current through the load always flows in the same direction, producing full wave rectified
continuous power
DC output.
5. Rules to Analyze AC Electrical Circuits AC circuits are analyzed using impedance, reactance,
and phase angle. Impedance (Z)Impedance is the total opposition to AC current and includes 2 Im
resistance and reactance. Z = √(R² + X²) Where R = Resistance X = Reactance Average (DC) CurrentFor sinusoidal input current: I dc = Where
AC circuits contain three components: Resistance Inductive reactance Capacitive reactance π
6. Real, Reactive and Complex Power In AC circuits, power is divided into three types.
Real Power (P) Real power is the actual power used by electrical devices to perform work. I m= maximum current Approximate value I dc =0.637 I m
Unit: Watt (W). Reactive Power (Q)Reactive power is the power stored and released by inductors
and [Link]: Volt Ampere Reactive (VAR). Apparent Power (S)
Im
rms =
RMS Current- RMS value of full wave rectified current: I
Apparent power is the combination of real and reactive [Link]: Volt Ampere (VA).
7. Power Factor Power factor is the ratio of real power to apparent power in an AC circuit. √2
Power Factor = Real Power / Apparent PowerPower factor indicates the efficiency of electrical Approximate value I rms =0.707 I m
systems.A higher power factor means better efficiency and less power loss.
Advantages-Higher efficiency than half wave rectifier, Utilizes both half cycles of AC, Lower
8. Saving Energy and Money
ripple content, No center-tapped transformer required
Electrical energy can be saved by:Using energy-efficient appliancesSwitching off devices when
Applications Power supply circuits,Battery chargers, DC electronic devices
not in useUsing LED lights instead of incandescent bulbs Maintaining electrical equipment
ConclusionA full wave bridge rectifier converts AC into DC using four diodes and utilizes both
properly
half cycles of input. This results in higher efficiency and smoother DC output compared to a half
Saving energy helps reduce electricity bills and protects natural [Link]
wave rectifier.
circuits are essential for the operation of electrical systems. Understanding circuit elements, DC
2. D1 D2
and AC analysis, power components, and power factor helps in designing efficient and safe
AC ~---->|----+----|<----~
electrical systems. Proper energy management also helps in saving electricity and money.
|
Electrical Wiring Components and PracticesElectrical wiring is the system used to RL
distribute electrical power safely from the supply source to electrical devices. It consists of |
conductors, cables, insulation materials, connectors, and protective components. Proper wiring AC ~----|<----+---->|----~
ensures safe transmission of electrical energy and improves the efficiency of electrical systems D3 D4
used in homes, industries, and commercial buildings. 5. Norton’s Theorem with Circuit Diagram and Example
1. Different Types of Conductors and CablesA conductor is a material that allows electric Statement: Norton’s theorem states that any linear electrical network containing voltage
current to flow easily through it. Materials with low resistance are used as conductors. The most sources and resistances can be replaced by an equivalent circuit consisting of a single current
commonly used conductors in electrical wiring are copper and aluminium because of their high
electrical conductivity. source I R
N in parallel with a resistance N .
Types of Conductors Solid Conductor: A solid conductor consists of a single thick wire. It is This equivalent circuit produces the same current and voltage at the load terminals as the
mechanically strong and commonly used in permanent electrical wiring installations. However, it original circuit.
has less flexibility compared to stranded [Link] Conductor: A stranded conductor Norton Equivalent Circuit
Where
I N = Norton current
R N = Norton resistance
R L= Load resistance
Steps to Apply Norton’s Theorem
1. Remove the load resistance R L.
2. Find Norton Current I N
Short circuit the load terminals and calculate the current through the short circuit.
3. Find Norton Resistance NR
o Remove all independent voltage sources (replace with short circuit).
o Remove all independent current sources (replace with open circuit).
o Calculate equivalent resistance seen from load terminals.
4. Draw Norton Equivalent Circuit
Replace the original network with current source I N in parallel with resistance
R N.
5. Reconnect the Load R Land calculate load current.
Mathematical Relations
Load Current:
RN
I L =I N
RN + RL
Load Voltage:
V =I L R LAdvantages
L
 Simplifies complex circuits
 Useful for analyzing circuits with multiple loads
 Helps in network simplificatio

Applications
 Circuit analysis
 Power system calculations
 Electronic circuit design

Conclusion
Norton’s theorem simplifies complex electrical networks by replacing them with an equivalent
current source and parallel resistance, making circuit analysis easier and faster.