1.

3 Standards

Primarily, large scale production is made easier and cheaper when products and elements/parts have
widely unified parameters and requirements. Standards have less importance when a low number or
unique product is designed and manufactured mostly for RnD or motorsport.

Based on their influence, standards can be categorised as:

• local, company
• industrial
• national
• international

BS
ISO EN
Figure 1, Standard abbreviations

• BS, British Standard

• EN, European Standard
• ISO, International Standards

Ultimately, there is very little difference between an ISO, an EN-ISO, and a BS-EN-ISO, with all three
demonstrating that there is a proven commitment to a set standard. It may be best to view an ISO as
an umbrella standard, incorporating a range of similar, regionally adapted standards containing the
same core criteria, but exhibiting small changes in line with regulatory differences seen across the
world.

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2 Production documents: the engineering drawings
2.1 Types of engineering drawings

Drawings can be classified according to the discipline that they are used for and within a discipline,
there are several categories for different applications. The preparation and creation of drawings are
guided by the standards specific for each application.

• Civil: surveying, location plan, block plan, floor plan, detailing (structural, electrical, piping)
• Electrical engineering drawings: device, circuits and logic, power control
• Mechanical, pneumatics, hydraulics, casting, machining, automotive wiring

2.2 Production documentation, mechanical engineering drawing

2.2.1 Manufacturing instructions the Part drawing

Component or part drawing is a detailed drawing of a component to facilitate its manufacture. All the
principles of orthographic projection and the technique of graphic representation must be followed
to communicate the details in a part drawing. A part drawing with production details is rightly called
as a production drawing or working drawing (they are all the same). It should furnish all the
dimensions, limits and special finishing processes such as heat treatment, honing, lapping, surface
finish, etc., to guide the craftsman on the shop floor in producing the component. The title should also
mention the material used for the product, the number of parts required for the assembled unit, etc.

In the case of a complicated machine element, it might be necessary to create multiple part drawings
for the different stages of manufacturing. A good example is a high-volume production engine cylinder
head. Typically, there would be a part drawing for the additive manufacturing processes (casting,
rolling, forging) and another one for the subtractive manufacturing (i.e. milling, grinding, honing, etc.).

2.2.2 Assembly and subassembly instructions the Assembly drawing

Assembly drawing that shows the various parts of a machine in their correct working locations is an
assembly drawing.

The drawing standard is not specific what must be shown on an assembly drawing. Some features are
typically included:

• Balloons to identify individual components

• Part list corresponding to the balloons and giving further information about the parts

Additionally:

• Important assembly instructions should be included, tightening torque

• Fits and limits
• Overall size (bounding box)

There are several types of such drawings.

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Layout drawing. When a machine is designed, an assembly drawing or a design layout is first drawn to
clearly visualise the performance, shape and clearances of various parts comprising the machine.

Sub-assembly drawing. Many assemblies such as an automobile, lathe, etc., are assembled with many
pre-assembled components as well as individual parts. These pre-assembled units are known as sub-
assemblies.

A sub-assembly drawing is an assembly drawing of a group of related parts, that form a part in a more
complicated machine.

2.3 Paper management: sheet sizes and scales

The most important guideline here is that the drawings must carry the necessary technical information
without any ambiguity presented clearly and in a consistent manner. Once this is achieved the
recommendation states that the drawing should be plotted on the smallest available sheet size. The
preferred size selection is the ISO-A series as shown in Table 1.

In practice, at our department only A4 and A3 printing are cost effective and directly available.
Therefore, our local standard (ME1-1 2020) strongly suggests using these two sizes.
Table 1, ISO-A drawing sheet size series

Designation Dimensions (mm)

A0 841 × 1189
A1 594 × 841
A2 420 × 594
A3 297 × 420
A4 210 × 297

Most of the time, it is not practical to draw parts in the one-to-one scale. It is essential that all features,
including the smallest ones, can be seen easily or the full extent of a larger structure is captured.
Therefore, on engineering drawings, parts and assemblies are typically enlarged or reduced size views
are shown. The ratio of the dimension of a feature of an object as shown on the drawing is called the
scale.

With the use of advanced CAD systems and the ability to view drawings electronically at any size, the
importance of using a standard range of scales has greatly diminished. For your information the
standard recommended (not mandated!) scales are summarised in Table 2. Another local standard
(ME1-2 2020) is to maximise the available drawing space on drawing sheets, make details and features
large easily readable.

It is also common that there are two orders of magnitude difference between the sizes of some critical
features. For example, the metal frame of the table can be 1000 x 2000 mm but the radius on the
square boxed section legs is only 2 mm. In these cases, a selection of differently scaled views can be
used as shown in a later section of these notes.

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 Table 2, Recommended scales according to BS8888 and BS EN ISO5455

Category Recommended Scales

Enlargement scales 50:1 20:1 10:1
5:1 2:1
Full size 1:1
Reduction scales 1:2 1:5 1:10
1:20 1:50 1:100
1:200 1:500 1:1000
1:2000 1:5000 1:10000
Additional material

2.4 Title block, borders and frame lines

The sheets will usually come with borders and frames. These typically defined by local standards
ranging from a simple box to more complex frames, some possible features are introduced in

Trimming mark

Reference graduation
Orientation mark

Centre mark
Title block

Grid reference border

Figure 2, Drawing border features

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 Table 3, Basic line types

Representation Description Application

Dimension lines, extension lines, leader
Continuous narrow line lines, hatching, roots of screw threads,
termination of interrupted views
Visible edges, visible outlines, crests of
Continuous wide line threads, limit of thread length, section
arrows

Dashed narrow line Hidden edges, hidden outlines

Dashed wide line Permissible areas of surface treatment

Centre lines, lines and planes of symmetry,
Long dashed-dotted
pitch circle of gears or holes, spread of
narrow line
surface-hardened areas
Position of cutting planes, restricted area
Long dashed-dotted wide
for surface treatment or application of
line
tolerance requirement
Outline of adjacent parts, extreme
Long dashed- double-
positions of moveable parts, initial outline
dotted narrow
prior to forming, projected tolerance
line
zones and outline of datum target areas
For mechanical engineering drawings, two-line thicknesses (typically 0,7 and 0,35 or 0,5 with 0,25) are
sufficient for most purposes. The recommended ratio of the widths is 2:1.

2.5 Terminology, lettering, termination

• If the dimensional value is in a bracket (70) that means the value is only a reference
and it is just to aid the reading of the drawing.

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 • If the dimensional value is in a square box that means the value is a basic value
for a feature and a geometric tolerance is associated with it.
• If the dimensional value is underlined 70 that means the feature associated with it is
not to scale (the value is correct, but the feature was not drawn to scale).

Figure 3, Application of basic, reference and not-to-scale dimensions

2.6 Centre lines marks and patterns

All symmetries and patterns must be marked on engineering drawings. The symbols used for this are
the centre mark and centre line. A centre mark is a cross of two centre lines; some examples are shown
below in Figure 4.

Centre marks indicate the position of the three holes on The four bores on the part above are part of a pattern. This
the top view. In section, straight centre lines indicate the pattern is shown by a circular centre line. The individual
symmetry of the three holes centre points are indicated by centre marks; in this case, they
are created by the pattern centre line and symmetry centre
lines
Figure 4, Centre marks and lines, some example

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Indicating all symmetries and patterns is required for all types of drawings (part and assembly) on all
types of views: main, detail and auxiliary. This includes:

• all types of bores and holes, square or circular,

• symmetry lines of parts and features,
• rectangular and round patterns.

Please, observe the use of centre lines and centre marks used in the Figures in these notes. Be
generous with centre lines/marks; there is never too many of them on a drawing.

2.7 Choice of views

Views (including sections and sectional views) are selected according to the following principles.

• The number of views (and sections and sectional views) shall be limited to the minimum
necessary but sufficient to fully delineate the object without ambiguity.
• The need for hidden outlines and edges shall be avoided.
• The unnecessary repetition of detail shall be avoided.

The fundamental concept of engineering drawing is to represent the three-dimensional object on a

two-dimensional sheet of paper. The standard method for doing this is called orthographic projection
(ortho-straight, graphic-drawing). You were introduced to OP in the second set of sketching notes last
term. There is a brief reminder of the key points included here.

Orthographic projection requires the definition of three imaginary planes, Front, Side/End & Top.
These three planes are perpendicular to each other and intersect at a single point. When an object is
placed in one of the eight quadrants, lines can be projected from the object to the plane behind or in
front, thus providing an image of the object on the plane similar to a shadow or a reflection.

There are two different conventions for orthographic projection, first angle orthographic projection
and third angle orthographic projection. The first angle is widely used in continental Europe, and the
third angle is more popular in the USA, the UK uses a mixture of first and third angle and the
department has chosen to use third angle projection. The difference is whether you draw what you
see (third angle) or what you have projected (first angle).

An alternative way to think about the difference is to imagine the 3D object is inside a box.

The walls of the first angle projection box are white, and whatever you see from inside the box looking
at the object on each wall is the correct projection.

The walls of the third angle projection box are transparent, and whatever you see on the walls from
outside the box are the correct projections.

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The most common representation is 3 views per drawing: Front, End and Top. Some drawings such
as for shafts may require only 2 views Front and End, sometimes you may need both End views, Left
hand & Right hand.

A small Isometric view can be added to component drawings to assist in visualising the part shape.
Adding an isometric view to an orthographic projection drawing is a new development brought in by
solid modelling CAD. The creation of the solid model makes the inclusion of an Isometric view a simple
click of a button.

Engineering drawings can be supplemented by:

• Auxiliary projections where an extra plane an oblique angle is introduced to look at an angled
surface. The auxiliary projection will still follow the first or third angle projection convention.
• Section views where the object or assembly has been cut through to look inside. We will cover
section views in more detail in these notes. They are used extensively in assembly drawings.
• Detailed views where there is a necessity to use different scales. A “zoom in” tool, detailed
views act like magnifiers, small details can be shown in a large size.
• The brake out procedure eliminates the need for hidden lines and for larger sectional views.
Also called Partial Section View.
• Brakes are used to remove large, elongated parts from a view that carries no extra technical
information. For example, for the representation of long boxed sections (like legs or similar
support structure) the middle part or parts of the section can be removed not shown.

2.8 Projection views

Always start with considering the basic projection views: front, left, right, top, bottom and rear. Use
the minimal number of views to show all features on the part. In some cases, two projection views are
enough to define a part fully. For example, a simple cylindrical spacer can be fully described on a top
and front view drawing.

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 Figure 5, Simple cylindrical spacer, all features shown in only two projected views (front view with break out)

2.9 Auxiliary views

Where a true representation of features is necessary but cannot be achieved on the orthographic
views, the features shall be shown in projected auxiliary views.

The direction of the projection should be indicated by an arrow, and a single capital letter is used to
identify the new view.

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 (a) (b)
Figure 6, Auxiliary view examples

2.10 Isometric views

A small Isometric view can be added to component drawings to assist in visualising the part shape.
Adding an isometric view to an orthographic projection drawing is a new development brought in by
solid modelling CAD. The creation of the solid model makes the inclusion of an Isometric view a simple
click of a button.

2.11 Section views

Section views are a means to provide extra information in the drawing where the part is cut to reveal
more detail. The first step is to determine the location of the cutting section plane, represented by a
chain dash line with two arrows to show the direction of the cut.

The section view created from the section plane use cross-hatching to identify the actual material cut.
The faces of the cut surface are identified by the hatching, i.e. equally spaced narrow parallel lines at
an angle of 45°. Different patterns exist for different materials. The positioning of the section view
follows the rules of the chosen projection convention.

Figure 7, Detail Section views (using first angle projection)

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Section views are on most use in assembly drawings, when multiple and different parts are mated
together. To identify the different parts, the angle of the hatching must be changed by 90° for each
touching part to make it clear that there are different parts in contact. If more than 2 parts in contact,
the spacing of the hatching can also be adjusted to aid clarity, see Figure 7. For thin parts use a narrow
hatching pattern, increase the spacing as the parts increase in size. Remember clarity is key
consideration.

Figure 8, Assembly & Partial Section views

For large areas, it is acceptable in manual drawings for the hatching just be added at the external
edges as shown in centre image in Figure 7. Partial sections are also possible where only a portion of
the part needs to be sectioned as in the right-hand image.

The section cutting planes are not necessarily confined to a single plane, it is all about drawing clarity.
The examples shown in Figure 8. show broken staircase or hinged section planes and are acceptable
as long as the cutting plane is clearly identified. Note the web in section E-E is not hatched.

Staircase section plane AA Section cutting line EE, hinged at centre.

Figure 8 – Section planes, adapted from BS ISO 128-44-

There are certain rules to section views specified to improve clarity:

Hidden details (dashed lines) are not shown on section views.

The following items are excluded from section views; it is as if the section plane went around and did
not cut through them.

• Fasteners – all types (keys, nuts, bolts, screws, washers etc.), shafts, are shown in
full detail in assembly drawings.

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 • Stiffening/Strengthening ribs, webs and spokes.

Nut & Washer,

not hatched

Key, not
hatched

Shafts, not
hatc hed

–
Figure 9, Shafts & Fasteners in section

Web, not
hatched
Spokes, not
hatched

Figure 10, Spokes & Web in section

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