Chapter 12
Weatherin
g
Chapter 12: Weathering
Weathering
• Process whereby rocks are physically broken down or
chemically modified by climatic or biological elements • No
transportation of the weathered material (regolith) is
involved
Types of weathering
• Physical
• Chemical
• Biological
Chapter 12: Weathering
Physical weathering
• Breakdown of rocks into smaller fragments • Brought
about by physical (mechanical) forces rather than
chemical action
• Generally works through four processes:
– Alternate expansion and contraction
– Salt crystal growth
– Frost action
– Pressure release
Chapter 12: Weathering
Alternate expansion and contraction • Occurs in
areas where the diurnal temperature range is large, such
as in deserts
• In the day, intense heating causes the rocks to expand
• At night, the low temperature cools the rocks, causing
them to contract
• Repetition of this process leads to cracks in the rocks •
Over time, the rocks split along the cracks into smaller
fragments
• In well-jointed rocks such as granite, the process
widens existing joints, resulting in the breakdown of the
rocks into smaller blocks
Chapter 12: Weathering
• The alternate wetting and drying of rocks, known as
slaking, also causes rocks to expand and contract
repeatedly
• The rocks weaken over time and eventually disintegrate
Block disintegration of a
granite outcrop
Chapter 12: Weathering
Salt crystal growth
• Occurs in arid areas where evaporation is rapid and
along coasts where the onshore winds bring salt into
the cracks in rocks
• Water containing dissolved mineral salts seeps into
porous rocks such as sandstone
• When the water evaporates, the mineral salts crystallise
within the pores
• As the mineral salts grow into larger salt crystals, they
exert pressure on the pores, breaking down the rocks
over time
Chapter 12: Weathering
Salt weathering of sandstone near Qobustan, Azerbaijan
Chapter 12: Weathering
Frost action
• Occurs in temperate latitudes and mountainous areas
where there is a large amount of moisture and
temperatures fluctuate above and below freezing
point
• At night, water in the cracks of the rocks freezes • This
increases the volume of the water by 9%, which exerts
pressure on the cracks, thereby enlarging them • In the
day when the temperature rises above 0°C, the ice in the
cracks thaws and more water then enters the widened
cracks
• Repeated freeze-thaw action weakens the rocks,
causing them to split into angular fragments
Chapter 12: Weathering
A result of frost shattering
Chapter 12: Weathering
• The weathered fragments accumulate at the bottom of
cliffs to form slopes called talus slopes
A talus slope
showing
different sizes
of debris
Chapter 12: Weathering
Pressure release
• Occurs when intrusive igneous rocks are exposed at the surface
after erosion removes the overlying material
• After the overlying material is removed, the exposed rock expands •
As a result, fractures parallel to the surface are formed in the rock •
Over time, rock fragments break off the rock in layers due to further
weathering
• The exposed rock
becomes dome
shaped and is
known as an
exfoliation dome
Onion-skin weathering
in a
tropical climate
Chapter 12: Weathering
Chemical weathering
• Decay of rocks caused by alteration of the mineral
composition of the rocks through chemical reactions
with water and air
• The common processes involved are:
– Oxidation
– Solution
– Carbonation
– Hydrolysis
– Hydration
– Chelation
Chapter 12: Weathering
Oxidation
• Oxygen in water or air oxidises the minerals present in
rocks to form oxides
• The oxides are structurally weaker than the minerals
• As a result, the rocks crumble more easily • This is
common in rocks that contain iron
• When oxidised, the iron in rocks becomes ferrous oxide
which gives the
rocks a
reddish-brown
colour
A piece of rock showing
signs of oxidation
Chapter 12: Weathering
Solution
• Occurs in rocks which contain minerals that are soluble
in water
• When these minerals dissolve in water, they leave
hollows in the rock, making it prone to crumbling
Chapter 12: Weathering
Carbonation
• When carbon dioxide in the atmosphere dissolves in rainwater, it forms
carbonic acid
• This acid reacts with the calcium carbonate present in rocks such as
limestone to form calcium bicarbonate, which is soluble in water •
Solution weathering then takes place
• Carbonation and solution result in the enlarging and deepening of joints in
limestone rocks
• These enlarged joints are
called grikes
• Decomposition of plants
which grow within the
joints
produces acids which
exacerbate carbonation
A limestone pavement
Chapter 12: Weathering
Hydrolysis
• Occurs when minerals in rocks such as granite react
chemically with rainwater to form new compounds •
Feldspar, a mineral found in granite, turns into a clay
mineral called kaolin upon contact with
water • The kaolin is soft and expands in
volume
• This pushes the other mineral grains apart, causing a
granular breakdown of the rock
Hydration
• Occurs when rock minerals swell after absorbing water •
The expansion forces adjacent mineral grains apart and
stresses the rock
Chapter 12: Weathering
Biological weathering
• Breakdown of rocks caused by living organisms
• May involve physical or chemical weathering: 1.
Physical
– Tree roots grow between the cracks and joints in
rocks, widening and deepening them as they grow
– This not only
physically
stresses the rocks but
also makes the rocks
more vulnerable to other
weathering processes
– Burrowing animals have
a similar effect
Chapter 12: Weathering
2. Chemical
– Organisms produce organic substances called chelates
capable of breaking down rocks by removing the
metallic cations from minerals in the rocks
– This often occurs when decomposition of plants and
animals produces humic acid, which can cause chelation
Chapter 12: Weathering
Factors affecting weathering
1. Presence of joints
• Joints allow water to seep into rocks
• Freeze-thaw action, solution, carbonation, hydrolysis and
hydration take place when water is present
• Trees are able to pry apart joints and
split rocks, thereby speeding up the
weathering process
• In tropical areas, spheroidal weathering
occurs when rainwater seeps into
heavily-jointed granite rocks and results
in chemical weathering of the outer
layer, leaving resistant corestones that
are rounded in shape
• Stacks of exposed corestones form tors
Chapter 12: Weathering
Development of corestones and tors
Chapter 12: Weathering
2. Mineral composition and grain size
• Some minerals such as quartz are more resistant to
weathering than others such as pyroxene or feldspar • Granite,
which is rich in quartz, is therefore more resistant to chemical
weathering than basalt, which has more pyroxene •
Dark-coloured minerals are more sensitive to changes in
temperature than light-coloured ones
• The different rates of expansion and contraction within the
rock stresses it and can cause granular disintegration • A
coarse-grained rock is more susceptible to granular
disintegration than a fine-grained rock of similar mineral
composition
Grain
Chapter 12: Weathering
Type of
Coarse Quartz, mica,
grained feldspar
rock Fine Quartz, mica,
grained feldspar
size Rock minerals Fine Pyroxene,
Characteristics grained feldspar, iron,
magnesium
Coarse- Calciu ed together
to
fine-grain Flakes Clay
ed and
plates
Coarse- Quart
to grains
fine-grain cemen
Granite Hard igneous rock; varies in colour from pink to grey
Rhyolite Hard igneous rock; varies in colour from pink to grey
Basalt Easily weathered igneous rock; dark-coloured
Limestone Colour can be white, grey or even black
Resistant to weathering and
Sandstone porous than limestone
erosion; often forms cliffs or ridges; more
Shale Weak rock; easily weathered and eroded
Fine
Chalk grainedPure white soft
limestone (calcium Easily weathered by
carbonate) carbonation
Selected rocks and their susceptibility to weathering
Chapter 12: Weathering
3. Climatic conditions
• Temperature and rainfall are important climatic
conditions affecting weathering
• Physical weathering occurs most where average
temperatures are around freezing point
• The rate of chemical weathering doubles for every
10°C rise in temperature
• High rainfall provides the water needed for chemical
weathering processes such as hydrolysis and
solution
Chapter 12: Weathering
Weathering in different climatic regions •
Climate determines the type of weathering that takes
place
1. Tropical humid regions
• Chemical weathering dominates
• High rainfall facilitates hydrolysis and hydration
• Conditions are favourable to plant growth, which contributes to
biological weathering
2. Temperate humid regions
• Physical weathering dominates, particularly frost action •
Chemical weathering also takes place
• Low temperatures reduce the rate of evaporation, keeping the
rocks moist, thus allowing hydrolysis to work
• Solubility of carbon dioxide doubles at 0°C, facilitating
carbonation
Chapter 12: Weathering
3. Arid regions
• Weathering by alternate expansion and contraction is
dominant as the diurnal temperature range is large •
Weathering by salt crystal growth is common due to rapid
evaporation
• Chemical weathering occurs when moisture is present from
occasional rainfall, early morning dew and fog blowing
inland from offshore
