8 Computer Networks

8.1 INTRODUCTION
The greatest breakthrough in technology and communication over the past 20 years has been the
development and advancement of the computer network. From emailing a friend, to online bill
payment, to downloading data from the internet, to e-commerce, networking has made our world
much smaller and forever changed the way we communicate.
Network provides salient features which have made our life easy and comfortable, be it sending an
email, withdrawing money from an ATM machine, online railway or airline reservation, or sharing
audio and video files. Apart from these, the most extensively-used feature is the Print command
sent from a computer to get a printout from a printer attached to some other computer. All this
involves a network.
It is the network that connects various computers to each other and handles a large volume of data.

Fig. 8.1: A Computer Network

8.2 COMPUTER NETWORK—A BRIEF OVERVIEW

Several devices connected to each other for reliable communication/transfer of data constitute a
network. A network can consist of a computer, a fax machine, a printer, a camera, a cell phone, etc. A
collection of interconnected computers is called a Computer Network. Two computers or devices
are said to be interconnected if they are capable of sharing and exchanging information with each
other by following a protocol (set of rules).

CTM: A computer network is a collection of interconnected computers and other devices to share data and
other resources (hardware and software resources).
 8.2.1 Advantages of Computer Networks

Internet

Domain
DNS & Data Storage
Firewall
Wi-Fi
Router

Server

Server User PC User PC

User PC

Printer
Printer

Fig. 8.2: The Network Diagram

Let us now discuss why networks are essential. Are there any advantages of networked computers
over stand-alone machines? Yes, networked systems are far better. A network uses a distributed
processing system in which a task is divided among several devices which are interconnected
with each other. Therefore, instead of a single computer being responsible for completing the
entire task, all the interconnected computers are responsible for completing the task assigned
to them. This leads to better performance with high processing speed.
Networks have several advantages which are described below:
(a) Resource Sharing: The primary use of a network is to share among users programs/
applications, data and peripheral devices connected to the network, irrespective of their
physical location. You must have noticed in your networked computer labs that when a print
command is given on one computer, the document is printed by a printer attached to some
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other system. This allows printing of documents by several users and, hence, the printer is
shared by multiple users on the network. Other resources like hard disk, DVD drive, scanner,
etc., can also be shared on a computer network. For example, sharing database, audio and
video files, antivirus software, application software, printers and scanners, etc.
(b) Improved Communication: A computer network enables fast, reliable and secure
communication between users. It saves time and offers easy communication methods.
For example, in an organization, managers work at different locations to make financial reports.
While working on a network, any change made by one manager on his/her computer can easily
be seen by other managers and employees. Thus, a network allows managers to easily update
information. This increases their efficiency and allows them to complete their work quickly.
(c) Reduced Communication Cost: Sharing resources also reduces communication cost. Using
public networks, we can send a large quantity of data at a low cost. Internet and mobile
networks are playing a very important role in sending and receiving text, image, audio and
video data at a low cost.
(d) Reliability of Data: Reliability means backing up of data, i.e., data can be copied and
stored on multiple computers. In a network system, all computers are connected to each
8.2
 other. Thus, the information or message which is shared by each device is stored on their
respective workstations (computers). If, due to some reason (hardware crash, etc.), the data
gets corrupted and, thus, becomes unavailable on one computer, a copy of the same data can
be accessed from another workstation for future use. This leads to smooth functioning and
further processing without disruption.
(e) Central Storage of Data: Files can be stored on a central node (the file server) that can
be shared and made available to each and every user in an organization. With centralized
processing, data is stored and retrieved from a single central location. Thus, there is no
duplication of data and almost no data redundancy.

8.3 EVOLUTION OF NETWORK

The network did not evolve in a single day; rather, it took decades to become more powerful,
efficient and reliable. The network has passed through several stages which are described below:
• ARPANET (Advanced Research Project Agency Network): ARPANET, which was jointly
designed and named by the Advanced Research Projects Agency (ARPA) and US Department
of Defence (DoD), was the first network and came into existence in 1969. It was a project that
connected a handful of computers at different universities and US DoD for sharing of data and
messages and playing long-distance games, and socializing with people to share their views.
• NSFNET (National Science Federation Network): In the mid-80’s, another federal agency,
NSFNET (National Science Federation Network), created a new network which was more capable
than ARPANET. Its main aim was to use network only for academic research and not for any
private business activity. Later, many private companies combined their own private networks with
ARPANET and NSFNET to make a more capable and broad network—the Internet. It is the internet
that links two or more networks to make a large network for sharing of information and messages.
ARPANET + NSFNET + PRIVATE NETWORKS = INTERNET

1995 NSF Net

1984 ARPANET 1986 NSF
Computer Networks

1969 terminates its Today more than

has more than connects NSF net
ARPANET network on the 1996 Internet2 is 550 million hosts
1,000 individual to ARPANET and
becomes Internet and founded connect to the
computers linked becomes known
functional resumes status as Internet
as hosts as the Internet research network

Fig. 8.3: Evolution of Internet

8.3
 • Internet: In the 1990’s, internet, which is a network of networks, came into existence. The
internet has evolved from ARPANET. The computers are connected through World Wide Web
that comprises a large network and shares a common communication protocol (Transmission
Control Protocol-Internet Protocol, TCP/IP). It allows computers of different types to exchange
information and is known as internet. Millions of domestic, business and government networks
are connected with each other for the purpose of sharing files, data, email, etc. Most of the
computers are not connected directly to the internet. Instead, they are connected to smaller
networks which are further connected to a backbone network through gateways.

CTM: Network of networks makes the internet.

• Interspace: Interspace is a software that allows multiple users in a client-server environment

to communicate with each other by sending and receiving data of various types such as
data files, video, audio and textual data in a 3-D environment. It facilitates online real-time
exchange of data. Interspace is the most advanced term of communication available on the
internet today.

8.4 HOW DOES INTERNET WORK

One of the greatest things about the internet is that nobody really owns it. It is a global collection
of networks, both big and small. These networks connect together in many different ways to
form the single entity that we know as internet. In fact, the very name comes from this idea of
interconnected networks.
Since its beginning in 1969, the internet has grown from four host computer systems to tens of
millions. However, just because nobody owns the internet does not mean that it is not monitored and
maintained in different ways. The Internet Society, a non-profit group established in 1992, oversees
the formation of the policies and protocols that define how we use and interact with the internet.
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Fig. 8.4(a): Working of the internet

Before we learn about the basic underlying structure of the internet, e.g., domain name servers,
network access points and backbones, we first need to understand how our computer connects
to others.

8.4
Every computer that is connected to the internet is part of a network, even the one in our home.
For example, we may use a modem and dial a local number to connect to an Internet Service
Provider (ISP). At work, a computer may be part of a Local Area Network (LAN), but it most
likely still connects to the internet using an ISP that the company has contracted with. When
it connects to the ISP, it becomes part of their network. The ISP may then connect to a larger
network and become part of their network. The internet is simply a network of networks.
Most large communication companies have their own dedicated backbones connecting various
regions. In each region, the company has a Point of Presence (POP). The POP is a place for
local users to access the company’s network, often through a local phone number or dedicated
line. The amazing thing here is that there is no overall controlling network. Instead, there are
several high-level networks connecting to each other through Network Access Points or NAPs.

Backbone
Internet
T3 Line
ISP NAP

Conventional Phone, POP

Digital Subscriber, or
Cable Modem Line T1 Line

LAN

Home Business

Fig. 8.4(b): POP and NAP

Gateway: Gateway is a device that connects dissimilar networks. A backbone is a central

interconnecting structure that connects one or more networks just like the trunk of a tree.
At the source computer, the message to be sent is broken down into small parts called packets.
Each packet is given a serial number, e.g., 1, 2, 3. All these packets are sent to the destination
computer. The destination computer receives the packets in random order (10 may come before 1).
The packets are reassembled in the order of their number and message is restored.
How it functions smoothly: Every computer connected to the internet uses the same set of
rules for communication. A set of rules is called protocol. Communication protocol used by
internet is TCP/IP. The TCP (Transmission Control Protocol) part is responsible for dividing
the message into packets on the source computer and reassembling them at the destination
computer. The IP (Internet Protocol) is responsible for handling the address of the destination
computer so that the packet is sent to its proper destination.

8.4.1 Elementary Terminology of Networks

1. Nodes (Workstations): The term node refers to computers that are attached to a network
Computer Networks

and are seeking to share resources.

2. Server: A computer that facilitates the sharing of data, software and hardware resources on
the network.
3. Network Interface Unit (NIU) (MAC Address): A network interface unit is an interpreter
that helps in establishing communication between the server and the client. 8.5
 4. IP Address: Every machine on a TCP bar/IP Network has a unique identifying number
called an IP Address.
5. Domain Name: It is a way to identify and locate the computers connected to the internet.
It must be unique.

8.5 COMPONENTS OF DATA COMMUNICATION

A network comprises several components along with their functionalities that contribute to
its smooth functioning. To form a network, a lot of hardware devices are required which are
described as follows:
 Sender: A device or a computer that sends the data.
 Receiver: A device or a computer that receives the data.
 Message: Message is the information to be communicated. It may be text, image, audio or
video.
 Transmission Medium: A transmission medium is a physical path through which the data
flows from sender to receiver. A cable or wire or radio waves can be the medium.
 Protocol: A set of rules that governs data transmission. It represents the communication
methods which are to be followed by the sending and receiving devices.

Network adapter inside

each node

Computer
Printer

Network navigation device

Radio waves
Router (used in some networks)

Transmission media (wireless or

wired) connecting nodes
Networking software
running on each computing
device

iPad
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Fig. 8.5: Components of a Computer Network

8.6 MODES OF DATA TRANSMISSION

(a) Analog or Broadband Transmission
• The signal is a radio frequency signal or analog, i.e., it can consist of continuous
electrical waves that are of varying amplitudes.
• Telephone networks use this type of transmission.
• Requires modem for transmitting data over baseband medium.
(b) Digital or Baseband Transmission
• No special device for conversion of signal to be transmitted over baseband medium.
• The signal is a group of discrete electrical units which is transmitted in rapid succession.

8.6
(c) Parallel Communication
• When data is transmitted through multiple wires, with each wire carrying each bit, it
is called parallel communication.
(d) Serial Communication
• When bits are sent one after another in a series along a wire, it is called serial
communication.
10001----------------10001
(e) Synchronous or Asynchronous Transmission
• When sender and receiver synchronize their checks before transmission, i.e., the
sender first sends control characters to the receiver and then sends the actual data,
it is called synchronous transmission.
Advantage—Faster than asynchronous mode.
Disadvantage—Costly and complex set-up required.
• In asynchronous transmission, data is preceded and succeeded by a start bit and stop
bit respectively. No synchronization is required.
Advantage—Hardware required is simple and cheap.
Disadvantage—Slower than synchronous mode.

8.7 DIFFERENT WAYS OF SENDING DATA ACROSS NETWORK

There are several ways of sending data from one node to another through network. It can
be in the form of calls, messages, etc. By using various types of switching techniques, we can
establish the connection/communication.

8.7.1 Network Switching

A network is made up of several interconnected nodes. There can be a point-to-point connection
or star topology between pairs of devices, but both are not relevant for a large network. Hence,
various switching techniques are used to transfer packets of data from one port of a node to
another. A switched network is made up of a series of interconnected nodes called switches.

8.7.2 Switching Techniques

The main goal of networking is the reliable exchange of data or information among several
interconnected nodes. For the delivery of data with accuracy, various types of switching
techniques are used, namely:
1. Circuit Switching
2. Packet Switching
3. Message Switching
Computer Networks

CTM: The technique of sending data across the network is known as Switching technique. The three types
of techniques used are circuit switching, packet switching and message switching.

8.7
 1. Circuit Switching
Circuit switching provides end-to-end connection between two computers. It is established
usually in a telephone network where one person is making a call and another is receiving a call.
In a telephone system, the communication must be established between the two participants,
i.e., the sender and the receiver. The circuit is established between these two participants
before the transfer of data takes place.

Receiver Caller
Fig. 8.6: Circuit Switching

In this technique, the entire link remains dedicated and no other user can use it even if the
path remains idle. The following actions take place during circuit switching:
(a) A request signal is sent by the sender to set up the connection with the receiver. It establishes
a physical connection between the two participants.
(b) All intermediate nodes are identified. These nodes are also called switching nodes.
(c) If the destination node is available, it sends back the acknowledgement of receiving a signal.
Hence, data transmission begins.
(d) When the data transmission is complete, the call can be terminated.

CTM: Circuit switching is a connection-oriented service. In this technique, there is a dedicated link between
the sender and the receiver and no other call can be made during this link, even if the link remains idle.

2. Packet Switching
In packet switching technique, the entire data is divided into small fragments called packets.
Each packet is of a fixed size, usually 128 bytes or 512 bytes. Packet switching is similar to post
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office operation. Each packet has a source address as well as destination address (IP address)
for being transmitted, in the same way as a postman delivers a letter to a specific destination
address.
As there is no direct connection established between the sender and the receiver, each
packet follows different routes and, therefore, the packets are delivered in a random order
at the destination address. It is the TCP protocol which then arranges all received packets in
a sequential order. During the transfer of packets, each packet has to pass through several
intermediate nodes, so each intermediate node checks for destination IP address. If the packet
matches with the node address, it is received; otherwise, it is passed on to the next node until
it reaches the destination IP address.

8.8
 Mainframe

Caller
Receiver

Fig. 8.7: Packet Switching

CTM: Packet switching offers a connectionless service. Data is fragmented into small packets and each
packet is of fixed size in packet switching technology.

3. Message Switching
In message switching, the sender sends the data to a switching office first, which is then stored
in its buffer. It then checks the available link and, if it is free, the data is relayed to another
switching office. This process goes on until the data is sent to the destination (receiver). As the
data is first stored in a buffer and then sent to the next switching office, it is also called store
and forward switching technique.

CTM: Message switching is a store and forward switching technique where there is no direct connection
between the sender and the receiver.

8.7.3 Difference between Circuit Switching and Packet Switching

1. The circuit switching reserves the required bandwidth in advance, whereas packet switching
uses bandwidth as and when required by the packets to be transmitted.
2. Circuit switching is a fast technology as compared to packet switching which is a slow
mechanism of transferring packets from sender to receiver.
3. Circuit switching requires a dedicated path. Once the connection is established, the
communication path is entirely dedicated to it until the data is completely transferred
from sender to receiver, whereas in packet switching, packets can use any dynamic path.
4. In circuit switching, if the path is overloaded, the call is blocked and communication is
delayed. But in packet switching, packets are allocated to different paths.
5. Circuit-switched networks are used for phone calls and packet-switched networks handle
data.
6. Packet switching is more efficient because the cost of the link is shared by many users.
7. In circuit switching, the telephone message is sent unbroken. The message is received in
Computer Networks

the same order as it is originally sent. In packet switching, the message is broken into
small packets which are randomly sent from source and received in random order at
destination, which is then sequentially arranged.

8.9
 8.8 DATA COMMUNICATION TERMINOLOGIES
1. Channel: A channel is a communication path through which the data is transmitted from
the sender device to the receiver device.
2. Baud: The number of changes in a signal per second is known as baud. It is the measuring
unit of the data transfer rate. Technically, baud refers to a number of discrete signal
elements transmitted per second. 1 baud represents only 1 signal change per second and
is equivalent to 1 bit per second.
3. Bandwidth: The amount of data that can be passed along a communication channel in a
given period of time (1 second) is termed as bandwidth. The measuring unit is hertz (Hz),
where 103 Hz = 1 Kilo Hertz (KHz), 103 KHz = 1 Mega Hertz (MHz).
4. Data and Signals: Information that is stored within computer systems and transferred
over a computer network can be divided into two categories—data and signals. Data are
entities that are stored in the form of 0’s and 1’s, which convey some special meaning
to the computer system. When this data is transmitted from one place to another, it is
converted into signal. Signals are the electric or electromagnetic encoding of data and are
used to transmit data.
5. Communication/Transmission Media: It is a means of communication or access (lines
of communication) set up between two organizations to exchange data/information.
Communication media is the way of transmitting the signal from one place to another.
Communication media is also known as transmission media. It plays an important role in
sending and receiving of data to and from the sender and receiver.
6. Data Transfer Rate: It is the amount of data transferred in one direction over a link divided
by the time taken to transfer it in bits per second (bps). The various measuring units are
bits per second (bps) and bytes per second (Bps) or baud, kilobits per second (kbps),
megabits per second (mbps), gigabits per second (gbps), terabits per second (tbps.)

8.9 NETWORK DEVICES

1. Modem: A MODEM (Modulator DEModulator) is an electronic device that enables a computer
to transmit data over telephone lines. It is a device used to convert digital signals into
analog signals and vice versa. There are two types of modems, namely internal modem
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and external modem.

2. RJ-45 Connector: RJ-45 is a standard type of connector for network cables. The RJ-45 (Registered
Jack) connectors are the plug-in devices used in networking and telecommunications
applications. They are used primarily for connecting LANs, particularly Ethernet.

CTM: RJ-45 is a short term for Registered Jack-45. It is an eight-wire connector used to connect computers
on LANs, especially Ethernets.

3. Ethernet Card: It is a hardware device that helps in the connection of nodes within a network.
Ethernet card is also known as a network card, network adapter or NIC (network interface
card). It is a card that allows computers to communicate over a computer network. On
Ethernet card, a physical address of each communicating computer is mentioned. Physical
address is known as MAC address.

8.10
 4. Hub: It is multi-port and unintelligent network device which simply transfers data from
one port of the network to another. A hub is a hardware device used to connect several
computers together with different ports. When the packet reaches one port, it is copied to
all other ports of the hub without changing the destination address in the frame. Rather,
it simply copies the data to all of the nodes connected to the hub.
Hubs can be either active or passive. Hubs can usually support 8, 12 or 24 RJ-45 ports.

Fig. 8.8: Hub

But the problem with hub is that it is not an intelligent device. It shares bandwidth with
all the attached devices and broadcasts the data, i.e., sends the data frames to all the
connected nodes, as it does not remember devices/computers connected to it. Also, it
cannot filter the data and causes unnecessary traffic jams.
A hub can both send as well as receive information, but only one task at a time. However, a
hub is an inexpensive way to connect multiple nodes/devices to network.

CTM: Hub is a device used to connect several computers with each other.

5. Switch: A switch (switching hub) is a network device which is used to interconnect computers
or devices on a network. It filters and forwards data packets across a network. It is also a
multi-port device but with some intelligence and so the data packets received from one port
of network are refreshed and delivered to the other port of the network. The main difference
between hub and switch is that hub replicates what it receives on one port onto all the other
ports, while switch keeps a record of the MAC addresses of the devices attached to it.

Fig. 8.9: Switch

CTM: A switch is a device that transmits data to the computers in a LAN.

Computer Networks

6. Bridge: A bridge is a device that works on the physical layer as well as on data link layer. A
network bridge connects multiple network segments at the data link layer (layer 2) of the
OSI model. Bridges relay frames between two originally separate segments. When a frame
enters a bridge, the bridge not only regenerates the signal but also checks the physical
address of the destination and forwards the new copy only to that port.
8.11
 An important advantage of using a bridge is that it is a smarter hub as it can filter network
traffic on the basis of the MAC addresses.

SERVER SERVER [Link]/8

[Link]/8 IP ADDRESS
IP ADDRESS
BRIDGE

PC 4 PC 5 PC 4 PC 5

PC 1 PC 2 PC 3 PC 1 PC 2 PC 3
Fig. 8.10: Ethernet Bridge

CTM: A bridge is a device that links two segments together of the original network.

7. Gateway: A gateway is a device that connects dissimilar networks. In internet, several networks
are communicating with each other and each network has a different configuration. In
order to make reliable communication, there must be a device that helps in communicating.
Gateway is a device which establishes an intelligent connection between a local area network
and external networks with completely different structures.

Internet Web Server

******** Workstation
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Gateway

Fig. 8.11: Gateway

CTM: A gateway is a device that connects dissimilar networks.

8. Repeater: A repeater is a device that operates only on the physical layer of the OSI model. As
a signal travels a fixed distance, before attenuation of the signal, a repeater is used which
amplifies and restores signals for long-distance transmission. A repeater is an electronic
device that receives a signal before it becomes too weak and regenerates the original
signal. Also, it is a two-port network device that strengthens the signal intensity and
connects two identical networks. In most twisted pair Ethernet configurations, repeaters
are required for cable runs longer than 100 metres. A repeater does not change the
functionality of the network; instead, it makes the signal strong before it degrades.
Repeaters are also extensively used in broadcasting where they are termed as translators
8.12 or boosters.
 Weakened Signal Regenerated Signal

Repeater

Repeater

No signal
through the hill

Communication only possible by bouncing the

signal through the repeater

Fig. 8.12: Working of a Repeater

CTM: Repeater is a device that amplifies a signal that is transmitted across the network so that the signal is
received in the same way as it is sent.

9. Router: A router is a networking device that forwards data packets from the source
machine to the destination machine by using the shortest path. Routers are used at the
network layer, which is the third layer of the OSI model.
INTERNET EXTENDING A NETWORK USING
A LAN CABLE CONNECTION AND A SECOND ROUTER

Secondary
Main Router Router

LAN CABLE CONNECTION

LAPTOP LAPTOP
MOBILE TAB TAB MOBILE

Fig. 8.13: Router

CTM: A router is a networking device that helps in forwarding packets from one machine to another.

10. Wi-Fi Card: A Wi-Fi card is either an internal or external Local Area Network adapter with a
Computer Networks

built-in wireless radio and antenna. A Wi-Fi card is used in a desktop computer that enables
a user to establish an internet connection. Wi-Fi cards are known as wireless fidelity cards
as they allow the user to set up connection without any wire. Wireless Fidelity (Wi-Fi)
cards are widely used in notebook computers due to their highly portable nature. The most
common Wi-Fi cards used in desktop computers are PCI-Express Wi-Fi cards made to fit
the PCI-Express card slots on the motherboard. 8.13