1 THEORY & METHOD IN AMERICAN/ CULTURAL STUDIES: A Bibliographic Essa / T.V. Reed X.

Postcolonial & Transnational Theories "Postcolonial" (or post-colonial) as a concept enters critical discourse in its current meanings in the late 1970s and earl 19!0s" #ut #oth the practice and the theor o$ postcolonial resistance go #ac% much $urther (indeed to the origins o$ colonialism itsel$). Thus #elo& ' list a num#er o$ &riters &ho &ere "postcolonial" avant la lettre, including $igures li%e (ran) (anon and *l#ert +emmi" the ,ari##ean "negritude" &riters" and some -... critics &hose &or% also presages some o$ the positions no& la#eled postcolonial. The term means to suggest #oth resistance to the "colonial" and that the "colonial" and its discourses continue to shape cultures &hose re/olutions ha/e o/erthro&n $ormal ties to their $ormer colonial rulers. This am#iguit o&es a good deal to post-structuralist linguistic theor as it has in$luenced and #een trans$ormed # the three most in$luential postcolonial critics 0d&ard .aid" 1a atri .pi/a%" and 2omi 3ha#ha. +an genealogists o$ postcolonial thought" including 3ha#ha himsel$" credit .aid4s Orientalism as the $ounding &or% $or the $ield. .aid4s argument that "the 5rient" &as a $antastical" real material-discursi/e construct o$ "the 6est" that shaped the real and imagined e7istences o$ those su#8ected to the $antas " set man o$ the terms $or su#se9uent theoretical de/elopment" including the notion that" in turn" this "othering" process used the 5rient to create" de$ine" and solidi$ the "6est." This comple7" mutuall constituti/e process" enacted &ith nuanced di$$erence across the range o$ the coloni)ed &orld(s)" and through a /ariet o$ te7tual and other practices" is the o#8ect o$ postcolonial anal sis. 3oth the term and /arious theoretical $ormulations o$ the "postcolonial" ha/e #een contro/ersial. ' ha/e included &or%s #elo& &hich ta%e /er di$$erent approaches to &hat #roadl can #e la#eled postcolonial" and ' ha/e included &or%s &hich o$$er strong criti9ues o$ some o$ the limits o$ the $ield as practiced # some o$ it most prominent $igures. ' ha/e also included a separate section on :orth *merican postcolonial studies. This is meant #oth to suggest a$$inities and di$$erences. 'n the conte7t o$ *merican .tudies the &or% o$ $igures li%e ,.;.R. <ames" and 6.0.3. =u3ois" and more recentl 2.;. 1ates" <r." 1loria *n)ald>a" ;isa ;o&e" and <os? =a/id .ald@/ar" to name onl a $e&" ha/e anticipated" dra&n $rom" criti9ued and applied postcolonial theor to this continent. Part o$ that &or% emerges out o$ traditions in -... ethnic studies that ha/e traced diasporic lin%s #et&een home countries and ne& &orlds $or se/eral decades. *nother part o$ that &or% has included decentering the "-nited .tates" $rom its claim on the term "*merica"" a mo/e that connects the hemispheres" points to&ard the histor o$ the -... as an imperial po&er" and underscores the contemporar $act o$ intensi$ied transnationali)ation and glo#ali)ation o$ cultures. The term "transnationalism" is the most o$ten used critical

D term to denote the comple7 ne& $lo& o$ culture (in all directions" though hardl e9uall ) resulting $rom the current mo#ilit o$ people" capital" and ideas across national #oundaries. .trong e$$orts are under&a &ithin the *merican .tudies communit to locate the $ield-imaginar o$ *merican .tudies &ithin more complicated trans- and postnationalisms" &ithout underpla ing the continuing po&er o$ nationalisms. Online Postcolonial Studies ResourcesA

'n$o on /arious post-colonial listser/s 'nterroads a discussion list on *merican .tudies in international perspecti/e. Public Culture .ite $or this important 8ournal o$ "transnational cultural studies." Postcolonial studies homepage -se$ul introductor site $rom 0mor -ni/ersit . Political =iscourseA Theories o$ ,olonialism B Postcolonialism Ver rich site $rom 3ro&n -ni/ersit . 'ncludes succinct introductions to topics in and theorists o$ (post)colonialism. 0d&ard .aid 07tensi/e 5nline #i#liograph o$ &or%s # and a#out this %e postco theorist. <ou/ertA * <ournal o$ Postcolonial .tudies (urther 5nline Postcolonial Resources $rom "Voice o$ the .huttle."

*;; ,'T*T'5:. ': T2'. 3'3;'51R*P2C *R0 *RR*:10= ,2R5:5T5P',*;;C" :5T *;P2*30T',*;;C" T5 1'V0 * .0:.0 5( T205R0T',*; =0V0;5P+0:T. 0+0R1':1 5V0R T'+0. Overviews and Anthologies:

3ar%er" (rancis" et al." eds. uro!e and its Others. (D /ols.) ,olchesterA -ni/ersit o$ 0sse7" 19!E. 0ssa s $rom the in$luential postcolonial 0sse7 sociolog o$ literature con$erence. *shcro$t" 3ill" et al. The m!ire "rites #ac$. ;ondonA Routledge" 19!9. 'mportant collection o$ essa s on postcolonial literar studies" particularl those stemming $rom the $ormer 3ritish colonies. 2elped esta#lish postcolonial studies as an academic $ield. *shcro$t" 3ill" 1areth 1ri$$iths and 2elen Ti$$in" eds." The Post%colonial Studies Reader. :e& Cor%A Routledge" 199E. ,ollection o$ essa s that ranges &idel in time and space" including good selection o$ precursors" #ut limited largel to literar postcolonial &or%" and &ith some essa s that are too truncated. 6illiams" Patric%" and ;auren ,hrisman" eds." Colonial &iscourse and Postcolonial Theor'. :e& Cor%A ,olum#ia -ni/ersit Press" 199F. ;ess geoculturall inclusi/e than the *shcro$t" 1ri$$ith" Ti$$in collection" #ut selections are more care$ull chosen and arranged. 't also co/ers more postcolonial issues #e ond the literar " and presents most pieces in their entiret . 3ha#ha" 2omi" ed." (ation and (arration. ;ondonA Routledge" 1990. Rich collection o$ ad/anced essa s on the languages o$ nationalism and nationalisms o$ language.

G )a*or +igures:

.aid" 0d&ard. Orientalism. :CA Pantheon" 197!. 3 most accounts the $ounding te7t o$ postcolonial theor . .aid coins the term "orientalism" to descri#e the &a in &hich a $antas 5rient (his $ocus is primaril &hat the 6est calls the +iddle 0ast) is pro8ected onto" and then inscri#ed upon the lands and peoples o$ the region. -sing a some&hat unsta#le #lend o$ (oucaultian and +ar7ist theor " .aid esta#lished the notion o$ an archi/e o$ %no&ledges and languages &ith po&er to shape e7ternal realities as &ell as the su#8ecti/ities o$ those su#8ected to colonial discourses and colonial rule. ---. The "orld, the Te,t, and the Critic. ,am#ridge" +*A 2ar/ard -ni/. Press" 19!G. 07tremel important and pro/ocati/e collection o$ essa s on the relation o$ literar theor to the &ider social &orld. .ee especiall "'ntroductionA .ecular ,riticism"" "Re$lections on *merican 4;e$t4 ;iterar ,riticism"" and "Tra/eling Theor ." ---. Culture and -m!erialism. ;ondonA ,hatto and 6indus" 199G. 'mportant $ollo&-up to Orientialism, $ocused this time on the inscription o$ colonial/imperial concerns into the literature o$ the dominant *nglo-0uropean &orld. ---. dward Said: A Critical Reader. 0dited # +ichael .prin%er. 57$ordA 3asil 3lac%#all" 199D. * good point o$ entr into .aid4s &or%. 07tensi/e 5nline #i#liograph o$ &or%s # and a#out .aid. (anon" (ran). The "retched o. the arth. Translated # ,onstanc (arrington 2armonds&orth. ;ondonA Penguin" 19H7 I19HGJ. ---. #lac$ S$ins, "hite )as$s. (trans. ,harles ;am +ar%mann). ;ondonA Pluto Press" 19!H I19EGJ. '$ .aid &as the $ounder" then (anon must #e listed as an ur$ounder" $or his &or%s on the ps cholog o$ colonialism and resistance" &ith their emphasis on the role o$ colonial languages (li%e the (rench he learned in his nati/e +artini9ue) in the construction o$ a coloni)ed mind presaged much postcolonial theor " and his &or% continues to #e in$luential in its man rereadings. (anon had immense in$luence on the pre/ious generation o$ Third 6orld re/olutionaries during the independence struggles o$ the E0s and H0s. +emmi" *l#ert. The Coloni/er and the Coloni/ed. :e& Cor%A 5rion" 19HE. Ri/als (anon as an in$luential te7t $or Third 6orld and postcolonial resisters and critics. .pi/a%" 1a atri. -n Other "orlds. :CA +ethuen" 19!7. ,ollects man o$ the %e essa s # one o$ the $oremost "postcolonial" cultural critics &ho com#ines elements $rom deconstruction" $eminist theor " and mar7ism. ---. ",an the .u#altern .pea%K" in :elson and 1ross#erg" eds. )ar,ism and the -nter!retation o. Culture. -r#anaA -ni/. o$ 'llinois Press" 19!!. ---. The Post%colonial Critic. 0dited # .arah 2aras m. :e& Cor% B ;ondonA Routledge" 1990. ,ollection o$ inter/ie&s that pro/ides a lucid entr point into .pi/a%4s intellectual realm. 3ha#ha" 2omi. The 0ocation o. Culture. ;ondonA Routledge" 199F. * representati/e set o$ essa s # one o$ the t&o or three most o$t-cited postcolonial theorists. .uch 3ha#ha notions o$ "h #ridit " (an inmi7ing o$ dominant and

F su#altern cultures) and "mimicr " (su#altern echoes &ith di$$erence o$ dominant discourses) are pla ed out in these pieces. *i8a)" *hmad. -n Theor': Classes, (ations, 0iteratures. ;ondonA Verso" 199D. The most important and &idel de#ated mar7ist criti9ue o$ some o$ the limits o$ certain /ersions o$ postcolonial theor .

Re!resentative Te,ts:

:gugi &a Thiong4o. &ecoloni/ing the )ind: The Politics and 0anguage o. [Link] 0iterature. ;ondonA <ames ,urr " 19!H. 5ne o$ man important &or%s o$ criticism # one o$ Len a4s $oremost no/elists. 'n it :gugi declares $are&ell to the 0nglish language and announces his return to his nati/e 1i%u u tongue. +udim#e" V.C. The -nvention o. [Link]. ;ondonA <ames ,urr " 19!!. * #rilliant te7t that in man &a s does $or *$rica &hat .aid4s Orientalism did $or the +iddle 0ast. *mur" 1. .. and .. L. =esai" eds. Colonial Consciousness in Commonwealth 0iterature.3om#a A .omania Pu#lications" 19!F. 0speciall strong collection on 'ndia su#-continent literatures. 1uha" Rana8it. ed." Subaltern Studies: "ritings on South Asian 1istor' and Societ'. (D /ols.) :e& =heliA 57$ord -ni/ersit Press" 19!EM19!H. The "su#altern studies" school dra&s $rom a num#er o$ currents in and outside postcolonial theor . .uleri" .ara. Rhetoric o. nglish -ndia. ,hicagoA -ni/ersit o$ ,hicago Press" 199D. 2ighl in$luential" nuanced reading o$ the languages o$ colonialism under 3ritish rule in 'ndia. ,?saire" *im?. &iscourse on Colonialism. :e& Cor%A :e& Cor% -ni/ersit Press" D000. 'mportant &or% # one o$ the ma8or $igures o$ the ,ari##ean "negritude" mo/ement that in$luenced -.. #lac% nationalism" *$ro-0uropean" and Third 6orld anti-colonial struggles. 3lends ,esaire poetic" surrealist sensi#ilit &ith rich criti9ue o$ colonialism. 07cellent ne& edition &ith an illuminating introductor essa # Ro#in =.1. Lelle . <ames" ,.;.R. The C.0.R. 2ames Reader. 57$ordA 3asil 3lac%&ell" 199D. (ine introduction to this #rilliant *$ro-,ari##ean/*merican thin%er &hose career spans the mid D0th centur and &hose intellectual range and st le ma%e him an important anti-colonial &riter rele/ant to postcolonial theor . 3rath&aite" 0d&ard Lamau. The &evelo!ment o. Creole Societ' in 2amaica, 3445%3675.57$ordA ,larendon Press" 1971. 3rath&aite is one o$ the ma8or theorists o$ ,ari##ean "interculturalism" and "creoli)ation"" and this historical stud adds great depth to his theoretical speculations. ,ho&" Re . "oman and Chinese )odernit': The Politics o. Reading between the "est and the ast. +inneapolisA -ni/ersit o$ +innesota Press" 1991. 'mportant $eminist postcolonial anal sis o$ *sian discourses. .ommer" =oris. +oundational +ictions: The (ational Romances o. 0atin America. 3er%ele A -ni/ersit o$ ,ali$ornia Press" 1991. Rich readings o$ %e ;atin and :orth *merican $iction in dialectical" colonial/postcolonial tension.

*nderson" 3enedict. -magined Communities. Re/. and e7tended edition. ;ondonA Verso" 1991. The most in$luential recent stud o$ the origins and nature o$ "nationalism." -se$ul as a #ac%ground to nationalism as a $orce in #oth colonialism and resistance to colonialism. *ppadurai" *r8un. "=is8uncture and =i$$erence in the 1lo#al ,ultural 0conom "" Public Culture D (.pring" 1990). 3rilliant attempt to in/ent a set o$ concepts to understand the comple7" multilateral "$lo&s" o$ culture in the current" transnational conte7t. +c,lintoc%" *nne. "The *ngel o$ ProgressA Pit$alls o$ the Term 4Post,olonialism4"" Social Te,t G1/GD (.pring 199D). 5ne o$ the more succinct and insight$ul re$lections on the pro#lematic nature o$ the term "postcolonial." ---. -m!erial 0eather: Race, 8ender, and Se,ualit' in the Colonial Conte,t. ;ondonA Routledge" 199E. 3rilliantl detailed stud tracing the comple7 interrelations o$ se7ualit " race" gender" and nation in colonial discourses and practices. ;lo d" =a/id. Anomalous States: -rish "riting and the Post%Colonial )oment. =urham" :,M =u%e -ni/ersit Press" 199G. 3rilliant reading o$ Ceats" 3ec%ett" 2eane " and <o ce in conte7t o$ 'reland4s postcolonial predicaments. .an <uan" <r." 0. #e'ond Postcolonial Theor'. :e& Cor%A .t. +artin4s Press" 199!. .earching criti9ue o$ the political inade9uac o$ postcolonial theor . ;o&e" ;isa and =a/id ;lo d" eds. The Politics o. Culture in the Shadow o. Ca!ital. =urham" :,A =u%e -ni/. Press" 1997. Rich collection o$ essa s o$$ering a /ariet o$ political criti9ues o$ colonialism sensiti/e to the d namic #et&een the speci$icit o$ local struggles and the determinations o$ glo#al s stems.

(orth American Postcolonial Studies

=u 3ois" 6. 0. 3. The "orld and [Link]. :e& Cor%A 'nternational Pu#lishers" 19HE. =u3ois has #een interestingl recoded as a 3lac% *tlantic intellectual # 1ilro " and this #oo% o$$ers a glimpse into his postcolonial thin%ing. *n)ald>a" 1loria. #orderlands90a +rontera. .an (ranciscoA *unt ;ute Press" 19!7. 3rilliant collection o$ essa s and poems asserting and anal )ing the postcolonial presence o$ ,hicanos/as" &hile meditating on the status o$ real and metaphorical "$ronteras/#orderlands." 2er concept o$ the "#orderlands" has #ecome a %e term in contemporar theor . +ohant " ,handra. "-nder 6estern 0 esA (eminist .cholarship and ,olonial =iscourses." +eminist Review G0 (*utumn 19!!)AH1-!!. 'mportant postcolonial criti9ue o$ uni/ersali)ing tendencies in 6estern $eminist discourses. .ando/al" ,hela. "-... Third 6orld (eminismA The Theor and Practice o$ 5ppositional ,onsciousness in a Postmodern 6orld." 8enders 10 (1991)A1-DG. 3rilliant use o$ postcolonial and other theor to elucidate the theori)ing practice o$ -... &omen o$ color $eminisms. 1ates" <r." 2enr ;ouis" ed. #lac$ 0iterature and 0iterar' Theor'. :CA +ethuen" 19!F. ,ollection o$ essa s emplo ing and criti9uing structuralism and poststructuralism as tools $or interpreting *$rican and *$rican-*merican te7ts. .ee especiall 1ates4s introduction" and the essa s # 3enston" .tepto" and <ohnson.

1ates" <r." 2enr ;ouis" ed." :Race,: "riting, and &i..erence. ,hicagoA -ni/. o$ ,hicago Press" 19!EM 19!H. This collection o$ essa s $rom Critical -n;uir' includes a num#er o$ important pieces on race in *merica as &ell as %e contri#utions to postcolonial theor . .ee particularl the essa s # 1ates" .aid" <ohnson" ,ar# and 1ilman. <an+ohamed" *#dul" and =a/id ;lo d" eds." The (ature and Conte,t o. )inorit' &iscourse. :CA 57$ord -ni/ersit Press" 1990. * theoreticall in$ormed collection o$ articles $rom a t&o-/olume special issue o$ Cultural Criti;ue e7amining representational strategies in and strategic conte7ts $or literatures o$ -. domestic and international "Third 6orld" &riters. .ee especiall pieces # Laplan" +ani" Radha%rishnan" Ra#asa and Rosaldo. 1ilro " Paul. The #lac$ Atlantic. ,am#ridge" 2ar/ard -P" 199G. Rich anal sis o$ the 9uadrilateral trade o$ transnational culture among *$rica" 3ritain" the ,ari##ean" and the -nited .tates that rethin%s the positioning o$ a host o$ modern intellectuals. Trinh" +inh 2a. "oman, (ative, Other. 3loomingtonA 'ndiana -ni/. Press" 19!9. * $ormall inno/ati/e te7t that is at once $eminist postcolonial theor and an auto#iograph o$ this Vietnamese-*merican $ilm-ma%er/scholar. ,alderNn" 2?ctor" and <os? =a/id .ald@/ar" eds. Criticism in the #orderlands. =urhamA =u%e -ni/ersit Press" 1991. ,ollects man o$ the most in$luential essa s in theor and criticism o$ ,hicano/a literature and culture $rom postcolonial" neo-+ar7ist" $eminist" and ne& historicist /antage points. 'ncludes a use$ul select" annotated #i#liograph . +orrison" Toni. Pla'ing in the &ar$: "hiteness and the 0iterar' -magination. :CA Vintage" 199D. 3rilliantl illuminates the "*$ricanist" presence as structuring su#te7t in classic *merican literar and cultural te7ts. .ald@/ar" <os? =a/id. &ialectics o. Our America: 8enealog', Cultural Criti;ue and 0iterar' 1istor'. =urham" :,A =u%e -ni/ersit Press" 1991. +a%es strong argument /ia ;atin *merican and ,hicano/a literatures $or a decentering o$ the -nited .tates as "*merica" and recentering o$ "*merican" literar and cultural studies in a :orth/.outh hemispheric d namic. ------. #order )atters: Rema!!ing American Cultural Studies. 3er%ele A -.,. Press" 1997. 07cellent set o$ essa s placing *merican .tudies" ,ultural .tudies" 0thnic .tudies" and Postcolonial .tudies into dialogue around a series o$ readings o$ ,hicano and multiethnic cultural te7ts. *m Laplan" and =onald Pease" eds. Cultures o. <nited States -m!erialism. =urham" :,A =u%e -ni/ersit Press" 199G. 1round-#rea%ing collection o$ essa s attempting to re-place *merican .tudies in the conte7t o$ studies o$ imperialism and postcolonialit . .ee especiall Laplan4s lucid introduction. 3uell" ;a&rence. "*merican ;iterar 0mergence as a Postcolonial Phenomenon." American 0iterar' 1istor' F (199D)A F11-FD. .uggesti/e #ut at points pro#lematic argument $or /ie&ing earl -nited .tates literature as mar%ed # the postcolonial relation to 0ngland. ,an #e read as o#scuring the more central role o$ -... as imperial and neocolonial po&er" e/en amidst its postcolonial moments. =esmond" <ane" and Virginia =om@n9ue). "Resituating *merican .tudies in a ,ritical 'nternationalism"" American =uarterl' F! (.eptem#er 199H)AF7E-90.

7 .trong" lucid argument $or a rethin%ing o$ *merican .tudies in relation to other "area studies" in order to #etter locate the $ield in the larger terrain o$ a critical trans- and inter-nationalism that undercuts *merican e7ceptionalism. ;o&e" ;isa. -mmigrant Acts: On Asian American Cultural Politics..=urham" :,A =u%e -ni/. Press" 199H. 3rilliant use o$ postcolonial" mar7ist" critical race and $eminist theor to anal )e the complicated interrelations o$ *sian immigrant" *sian *merican and dominant communities in the -... -sing the e7ample o$ *sian immigration in its /arious &a/es" ;o&e e7poses the historical construction o$ dominant notions o$ -... nationhood and citi)enship in dialectical relation to those it &ould e7clude or onl partiall include &ithin those categories. du,ille" *nn. "Postcolonialism and *$rocentricit A =iscourse and =at ,ourse." 'n du,ille" S$in Trade. ,am#ridge" +*A 2ar/ard -ni/. Press" 199H. 3rilliant essa e7amining the dangers o$ essentialism in #oth postcolonial studies and #lac% studies" and the e9ual danger o$ reducing one to the other. ,oo%-; nn" 0li)a#eth. "h' - Can>t Read "allace Stegner, and Other ssa's. +adisonA -ni/. o$ 6isconsin Press" 199H. Po&er$ul" &ide-ranging collection o$ essa s de/eloping an anti-colonialist" pro-so/ereignt approach to :ati/e studies. Vi)enor" 1erald. )[Link] )anners: Postindian "arriors o. Survivance. 2ano/er" :2A 6esle an -ni/. Press" 199F. 3rilliantl re(de)constructi/ist collection o$ essa s # a postcolonial" postindian poet" $ictionist and critic. 'n/ents an alternati/e critical language $or :ati/e studies. 6arrior" Ro#ert. Tribal Secrets: Recovering American -ndian -ntellectual Traditions. +inneapolisA -ni/. o$ +innesota Press" 199E. -ses the &or% o$ <ohn <oseph +atthe&s and Vine =eloria" <r. to initiate #rilliant rethin%ing o$ *merican 'ndian intellectual traditions that s%ill$ull unites indigenous resources" so/ereignt issues and contemporar cultural theor . .ingh" *mrit8it and Peter .chmidt" eds. Postcolonial Theor' and the <nited States: Race, thnicit', and 0iterature -ni/. Press o$ +ississippi" D001. 07cellent collection o$ essa s on /arious diasporic and transnational $ormations" as &ell internal neo-colonialisms. 'nclude a $ine introductor essa on the relation ot postcolonial theor to -... culture(s).

httpA//&&&.&[Link]/Oamerstu/tm/[Link]

!os"colo#ial cri"icis$% a s"&' o( sp)ci(ici"i)s

! 'nter/ie& &ith <ean-+arc +oura

The onl (rench &riter to ha/e pu#lished &or% on postcolonial criticism as practiced in the *nglo-.a7on countries" <ean-+arc +oura gi/es a detailed e7planation here o$ the interest it has" and the issues at sta%e" $or thought in the (rancophone countries. "hat do 'ou thin$ e,!lains the silence o. +rench academics with regard to !ostcolonialism? 6hat e7plains it" is that this mo/ement #egan in the *nglo-.a7on countries t&ent or so ears ago" &hen immigrants started to enter the 3ritish and *merican uni/ersities. The mo/ement $irst o$ all de/eloped in 3ritain and the .tates" there$ore" then &as e7panded # 0nglish-language criticism $rom the ,ommon&ealth" the countries $ormerl coloni)ed # 0ngland. 't is a critical mo/ement &hich is highl de/eloped in the *nglo-.a7on countries" #ut &hich" as it is not speci$icall (rancophone - it is not (rancophone at all" in $act - has #een some&hat ignored # us. 1ow did the term >!ostcolonialism> emerge? 't emerged 9uite graduall . These students came to the *merican and 3ritish uni/ersities (*$ricans" 'ndians" 6est 'ndians" etc.)" and #egan to 9uestion literar histor in terms o$ their o&n histor . The reali)ed that literar histor &as /er 0urocentric" and a#solutel did not ta%e their colonial and post-colonial histor into account. Then" some o$ them o#tained posts in the uni/ersities" and #egan to reconsider literar histor in relation to their o&n histor o$ immigration and as immigrants. 't &as then that the term 4postcolonial4 emerged. 't is interesting to note that it did not emerge in the countries o$ the centre" such as the -nited .tates or 1reat 3ritain" it appeared in the post-colonial countries. 5ne o$ the ma8or critical &or%s on postcolonial theor &as pu#lished in *ustralia" i.e. a countr $ormerl coloni)ed # 1reat 3ritain. =uestions o. coloni/ation and its e..ects seem to be !osed on di..erent levels: on the level o. a State and its histor', and that o. the communities which ma$e u! its immigrant !o!ulation. 6hat is interesting in postcolonial theor and its mo/ement is that it is an international literar mo/ement. 't is pla ed out #et&een 0urope" that is the $ormer colonial po&ers" the -nited .tates as the main representati/e o$ the 6est" and all the $ormerl coloni)ed nations. 't is a glo#al mo/ement" there$ore" #ut one &hich is thought in terms o$ countries and geographic )ones (*$rica" *ustralia" the 6est 'ndies" :e& Pealand" 'ndia)" thus in terms o$ speci$icities. 3ut the 9uestioning is literall &orld-&ide" &hich is perhaps &h " at the end o$ this t&entieth centur - the era o$ &hat is no& re$erred to as glo#ali)ation the mo/ement is #ecoming so &idespreadA #ecause it is suited to this glo#ali)ation speci$ic o$ our time.

9 8iven the world%wide am!litude o. this movement, what should we ma$e o. the +rench academics> silence? ' can see se/eral reasons $or this" #ut there is one main one $irst o$ all. Cou are &ell a&are that the (rench language has o$ten #een set up as a &ar machine against the &orld domination o$ 0nglish. Toda " the #attle is practicall lostA 0nglish reall is the &orld4s lingua .ranca. 't seems to me that the (rench should react and reali)e that the (rench language is luc% to #e a second &orld language. 6e need to stop ta%ing such a hard line on the domination o$ 0nglish. That &ould allo& us to percei/e the positi/e aspects o$ postcolonial criticism. 6e &ould #egin to see it not as an *nglo-.a7on machine set to dominate the (rancophone critical &orld e/en more" #ut as a critical tool &hich could #e o$ ser/ice to us in our o&n (rancophone studies. That is the $irst reasonA (rench-spea%ers4 deep suspicion /is-Q-/is the 0nglish language. The second reason is pro#a#l related to the $irst. The ma8orit o$ academics in/ol/ed in (rench studies do not spea% 0nglish /er &ell" and there$ore ha/e little access to this *nglophone #od o$ &or%s" &hich has not et #een translated in (rance. The third reason comes $rom the $act that postcolonial criticism is part o$ a de/elopment in the *nglo.a7on uni/ersities" &hich is 9uite di$$erent to that o$ (rench literar studies. The t&o do not" there$ore" necessaril con/erge. 6e need to rethin% our o&n studies in (rance" in order to ta%e postcolonial criticism on #oard" perhaps in a more coherent manner than &e normall do. 't is a step &hich /er $e& colleagues seem to $eel the need to ta%e. &oesn>t treating all Third "orld literature .rom the !ers!ective o. !ostcolonialism elude the di..erences between the .ormer colonies and the .ormer !rotectorates? 5n a glo#al le/el" the postcolonial corpus is "imperialist" - &ith all the in/erted commas that that re9uires - as it entails all the literature $rom the .outhern countries &ritten in the 0uropean languages. 't is /ast" and that is one o$ the o#8ections that can #e made. 'n realit " postcolonialism ena#les us to consider literature in terms o$ centre/margin relations" &hich are an essential element in toda 4s &orld. This criticism insists on the speci$icities o$ each o$ these literatures &ithin this imperialist ensem#le. 5ne o$ its most interesting aspects $or (rench is precisel this insistence on the regional and territorial speci$icities o$ the di$$erent (rancophone literatures. '$ ou ta%e (rance4s and the (rancophone &orld4s literar histories" ou &ill see that most o$ them treat this (rancophone literature as a %ind o$ e7tension o$ (rench literature" &hich does not need to #e conte7tuali)ed to #e understood. People simpl thin% that it is in (rench" and so should #e spo%en a#out it as i$ it &ere (rench literature. Postcolonial criticism does the oppositeA it insists on speci$icities" and on the $act that ou $irst o$ all need to position it in anthropological" sociological" and e/en economic terms #e$ore discussing and anal )ing it in the &a that ou &ould &ith (rench literature. 't is a glo#al mo/ement" there$ore" as it de$ines itsel$ in glo#al terms" and a mo/ement &hich" &ithin this glo#ali)ation" insists on each o$ these literatures4 speci$icities. *t least t&o speci$icities can #e pointed out. (irstl " these are literatures o$ the margins in relation to a centre" &hich is the pu#lishing centre o$ the 6est" and it is important to ta%e the relation o$ the authors /is-Q-/is this 6estern pu#lishing centre into account. .econdl " these literatures are characteri)ed #

10 the coe7istence o$ t&o culturesA it is important to conte7tuali)e these linguistic and sociological elements #e$ore stud ing these literatures. This is one o$ the contri#utions postcolonial criticism ma%es. Ta%e the histories o$ (rancophone literature" $or e7ample. Cou &ill notice that the trul sociological" anthropological and economic elements are largel ignored. Cou are e7pected to anal )e pages o$ .enghor as i$ .enghor4s poetr could #e e7plained in the same &a as Rim#aud4s poetr &hen" in $act" .enghor4s poetr o#/iousl needs to #e situated in space and time #e$ore #eing discussed simpl as (rench literature. 6ould &e o/erloo% (lau#ert4s :orman originsK 6ould a stud o$ )adame de #ovar' &hich does not ta%e the $act that its author comes $rom :ormand #e a serious stud K ,an &e ignore +aupassant4s :orman originsK 't is o$ e7actl the same importance. There is a concern $or identit " a rooting o$ identit " 8ust as in the ma8or consecrated (rench authors. This a$$irmation o$ identit needs to #e ac%no&ledged. The term ghettoi/ation regularl' cro!s u! in relation to the arts .rom these margins. The .act that these literatures are considered an e,tension o. +rench literature as the' are in +rench, does not sto! them .rom being marginali/ed. "hat do 'ou thin$? ' thin% that the notion o$ the margins is $undamental. '$ ou &rite in a 0uropean language" #ut position oursel$ outside 0urope" ou ha/e to consider this literature as #eing on the margins. +arginal does not mean less important" #ut indicates that there is a conceptual element there" &hich has to #e ta%en into account in order to measure the speci$icit o$ this literature. ' thin% that it is at present much more important than (rench literature" &hich is a #it narcissistic. Ta%e the e7ample o$ Lourouma and 0es Soleils des ind@!endances or n attendant le vote des bAtes sauvages. '$ ou stud Lourouma &ith our students &ithout gi/ing them an introduction to +alin%e culture" the &ill not #e a#le to grasp Lourouma4s te7t" 9uite simpl #ecause ou &ill not ha/e gi/en them the %e s necessar to understand the &a in &hich Lourouma manipulates the (rench language" the &a in &hich he trul creates a third language out o$ +alin%e and (rench. The &ill not understand all Lourouma4s cultural allusions either" particularl in 0es Soleils des ind@!endances. 't is not possi#le. To m mind" it is not the notion o$ ghettoi)ation &hich should #e introduced here" #ut the 9uestion o$ scienti$ic rigour. '$ ou &ant to stud a literature" ou ha/e" at least" to stud its sociological and political conte7t $irst o$ all" &ithout &hich one is not rigorous. #ut can we reall' [Link] to !ostcolonialism, given that colonialism itsel. is not dead and buried? 5ne needs to recogni)e that postcolonialism entails t&o things. ' am going to introduce an orthographical concept" &hich is speci$ic to postcolonial criticismA !ost%colonial" &ith a h phen" &hich simpl means that &e are li/ing in the era a$ter coloni)ation - &hich some might contest - and !ostcolonial in one &ord" &ithout a h phen" &hich is the critical school &hich loo%s at an ensem#le o$ &or%s &hich see% to deconstruct the colonial codes" and &hich tr to challenge the latter. 'n this sense" postcolonialism #egins in the colonial era itsel$. *n author such as *im? ,?saire - or Late# Cacine - is a postcolonial author in the sense that" alread in the colonial era itsel$" he sought to deconstruct" to challenge the colonial codes and all the discourses &hich contested the

11 e7istence o$ a colonial su#8ect" etc. 'n this respect" postcolonialism is a critical concept" not a historic concept. 't is a critical school &hich concentrates on stud ing all strategies o$ &riting &hich con$ound colonial codes" imperial codes. Are wor$s on !ostcolonial theor' li$el' to become more wides!read? Cou $orce me to #e immodest" #ut" at present" there is onl one &or% &hich anal )es the meeting o$ (rancophone studies and postcolonial criticism in (rench" and that is mine. There are no others. That said" ' am 9uite con$identA ' thin% that this critical model4s interest &ill cause it to spread in (rance" #ut it ma &ell de/elop on the margins. That is" it &ill reach us /ia ,anada" Rue#ec" and /ia *$rica" /ia *$rican critics" &ho &ill adopt these elements and &ho &ill trans$er them to the (rancophone )one. &o 'ou have an' other wor$s on this theme in the !i!eline? Ces" ' am going to present another &or% to P-(" m pu#lishers" on the discourse o$ the (rancophone no/el" &hich &ill appl postcolonial criticism more directl still to (renchlanguage &or%s" as m $irst pu#lication is a programmatic and theoretical presentation. 't aims to point out the lessons &e" the (rancophone critics" can learn $rom these *nglo.a7on theoretical elements. *$ter that" ' &ould li%e to appl them to te7ts more" to sho& ho& it can &or%. 1ow did 'our students o. diverse origins react to 'our wor$, 'our a!!roach? The (rench students pro/ed themsel/es to #e highl interested in (rancophone literature" not 8ust *$rican literature" #ut 6est 'ndian too. The students o$ *$rican origin &ere" $or their part" most appreciati/e o$ the stud o$ the socio-cultural conte7t. The got the impression that gaps &ere #eing $illed" a super$icialit in the stud o$ these authors repaired. 1ow do 'ou e,!lain the .act that this critical movement develo!ed in the Anglo%Sa,on s!here? ' thin% that" $undamentall " there is the di$$erence #et&een the assimilationist model o$ integration in (rance" and the side-# -side e7istence o$ di$$erences model in the *nglo.a7on countries. -nli%e the (rench" the *nglo-.a7ons do not claim to assimilate most o$ the immigrant communities4 di$$erences. People used to re$er at one time to the *merican melting%!ot" #ut those da s are long since gone. There is" there$ore" a sort o$ coe7istence #et&een the di$$erent cultures in the *nglo-.a7on countries. That has de/eloped in the -nited .tates &ith &hat is called cultural studies" i.e. each immigrant communit identi$ies &ith its roots $irst o$ all" not so as to den the national ensem#le" #ut to sa$eguard its identit " and to consolidate the relations #et&een its identit and the general national culture. 'n (rance" &e still $unction on the assimilationist model" i.e. that o$ ignoring cultural speci$icities" &hich are supposed to $ade a&a in a %ind o$ cruci#le. This has pro#a#l pla ed a role in the $act that (rance is #ehind in terms o$ postcolonial criticism" and in the $act that" until no&" this cultural aspect o$ literature has #arel #een

1D ta%en into account. Postcolonial criticism4s $irst contri#ution to *$rica &as precisel to de/elop simultaneous comparati/e stud - ' am a lecturer in comparati/e literature" &hich is perhaps &h this interests me - #et&een (rancophone" *nglophone and ;usophone te7ts. That is" to de/elop a speci$icall *$rican point o$ /ie&" independent o$ the language in &hich such and such a &or% &as &ritten" stud ing .enghor" .on ;a#ou Tansi" in the (rancophone )one" .o in%a or *che#e" in the *nglophone region" <os? <uan =ino Vieira in the ;usophone )one. *nd" thus" de/eloping a speci$icall *$rican point o$ /ie& &hich re/ealed the in$luences" the relations" #ut also the speci$icities o$ each o$ these literatures. That e$$ecti/el allo&s us to en/isage the de/elopment o$ postcolonial literature on a large scale" an *$rican scale" &hereas in the past" it &as di/ided intoA one" (rancophone studiesM t&o" *nglophone studiesM and three" i$ there &as time" ;usophone studies. That is no longer the case. &oes !ostcolonial criticism ta$e wor$s in the vernacular languages into consideration? The are e$$ecti/el ta%en into consideration" #ut ' am not /er $amiliar &ith this &or% #ecause ' do not spea% the /ernacular languages. ' studied +alin%e a little to stud Lourouma. ' %no& that i$" # de$inition" one studies the /ernacular languages $rom a postcolonial angle" one is li%el to #e tempted to stud their relations to literature in the 0uropean languages. 't seems to me that" in the ears to come - ' spea% a#out this a little in the conclusion o$ m #oo% - t&o sorts o$ postcolonial studies &ill de/elopA the $irst" &hich &ill perhaps #e 6estern-centred" &ill #e that o$ the glo#al stud o$ postcolonial literatures in 0uropean languages" on the scale o$ a region or a continent. *nd the second &hich &ill de/elop" &ill #e the regional stud o$ such and such a literature" in &hich the relation to languages in /ernacular literature and the relation to languages in 0uropean literature &ill #e en/isaged. These t&o areas &ill" it seems to me" gro& $urther and $urther apart. The &ill ma%e up the postcolonial gala7 . Can we reall' s!ea$ about a contem!orar' vernacular literature? This" in $act" is an economic pro#lem. 't is a pu#lishing pro#lem" as pu#lishing structures are not de/eloped enough" especiall in *$rica" to ena#le a &ide audience to ha/e access to this literature in the /ernacular languages. There are ma8or postcolonial authors &ho ha/e #egan to &rite again in these languages. People al&a s cite the e7ample o$ :gugi 6a Thiongo" &ho #egan to &rite in 0nglish and &ho then &rote in Li%u u. 2e reali)ed that he had practicall no pu#lic in this language. 'n the 6est 'ndies" &e can cite the e7ample o$ ,on$iant" &ho #egan # &riting in ,reole" and &ho then &rote in (rench" and &ho has &ritten again in ,reole. 2e $inall reali)ed that he had $ar more readers i$ he &rote in (rench. 't4s reall an economic pro#lem. ' thin% that the d namism o$ these literatures &ill depend on the economic d namism o$ the *$rican countries. "here does !ostcolonial criticism stand in relation to the culturall' mi,ed authors who live in the "est? 'n the -nited .tates" &e ha/e the e7ample o$ Toni +orrison and the *$rican *merican communit . .he is one o$ 0nglish literature4s ma8or &riters toda " recogni)ed # all" &ho

1G stri/es to de/elop a sense o$ the identit o$ #lac% *merican culture" including its *$rican roots. This is an e7ample &hich doesn4t e7ist in (rance - &ell" it did a #it &ith .enghor #ut in toda 4s generation" the ma8or *$rican &riters do not $unction on the same model as Toni +orrison. The are" rather" authors &ho &rite in *$rica" in (rench" and &ho o$$er us their *$rican speci$icities. The e7ample o$ (rance4s beur literatureS #egan to #e studied" not # the (rench" #ut # the *mericans" in :e& 5rleans" a#out ten ears ago. 'ts stud in the terms o$ postcolonial criticism &ould in/ol/e anal )ing this literature4s sociological rooting" and its roots in relation to a sense o$ identit that is some&hat di$$erent $rom the (rench sense o$ identit " o$ the identit o$ a (rench person #orn in mainland (rance" &ho has no interest in his/her ancestors. * certain a$$irmation o$ this group4s identit " &hich is a $actor structuring this literature" has" there$ore" to #e ta%en into account. 3ut it is not a 9uestion o$ ghettoi)ation" it is simpl a matter o$ scienti$ic rigour. '$ &e stud a literature" &e need to %no& &here it comes $rom" ho& it &as #orn" and &hat its pro$ound roots are. Can 'ou e,!lain the notion o. h'bridit' to us? 2 #ridit is the ma8or concept o$ an 'ndian postcolonial critic called 2omi L 3ah#ah. The h #rid &orld is a site o$ negotiation in t&o parts" it #eing understood that" on this site o$ negotiation" each arri/es &ith an identit " &hich is not clearl de$ined" &ith a position &hich is open to compromise" in order to all &ith the other to tr to create something together. The situation o$ h #ridit is not" there$ore" the con$rontation #et&een t&o $i7ed identities. 't is the meeting #et&een t&o identities &hich are in construction and &hich" through this negotiation" &ill come into #eing and occur. This is un$ortunatel not translated into (rench. 't is one o$ the ma8or concepts o$ postcolonial criticism" not onl on a political and social le/el" #ut also on a literar one. 't comes do&n to treating &or%s as h #rid &or%s in &hich t&o cultures" &hich are in constant negotiation" coe7ist. 6hat ma%es the &or% interesting is precisel this plural negotiation &hich ta%es place &ithin each chapter" in e/er /erse in poetr . 1ow was 'our boo$ received b' 'our academic colleagues? 't &as /er &ell recei/ed # m (rancophone colleagues in general" #ecause the pointed out that ' introduced ne& and important methodological elements. 6hat &as sometimes contested &as the &ord !ostcolonial" the term colonial in a sense trapping the authors in a histor the &anted to #e rid o$. 3ut ' &as onl translating the *merican term" and are &e not" in $act" in a postcolonial &orldK 6ho can claim that *$rica is not still concerned &ith all that happened during coloni)ationK ' am re$erring simpl to the national #orders. '$ there are tragedies &hich result" i$ there are so man con$licts" it is #ecause these #orders &ere dra&n up in a totall a#errant manner in the da s o$ the colonial &orld. 'n this respect" &e are in a postcolonial &orld. ' also had $eed#ac% $rom the &ider (rancophone &orld. The Rue#ec%ers" ' understand &h " are /er interested in this 9uestion #ecause the are directl in$luenced # :orth *merica. 't thus seems completel natural to them. ' ha/e not et had an $eed#ac% $rom m *$rican colleagues... nor 6est 'ndian" #ut ' hope that ' &ill soon and that it &ill #e most $a/oura#le (laughter).

1F interview b' #[Link] )ongo%)boussa et Ale,andre )ensah <ean-+arc +oura is a lecturer in ,omparati/e ;iterature at the -ni/ersit o$ ;ille '''. 2e has pu#lished 0>image du Tiers%monde dans le roman .ranBais contem!orain" P-( 199DM 0ire l>e,otisme" =unod 199DM 0> uro!e litt@raire et l>ailleurs" P-( 199!" and the #oo% re$erred to in this inter/ie&A 0itt@ratures .ranco!hones et th@orie !ostcoloniale" P-(" 1999. 2e has also pu#lished 0itt@ratures !ostcoloniales et re!r@sentations de l>ailleurs. [Link];ue, CaraCbe, Canada " ,hampion D000" in colla#oration &ith <ean 3essiTre. S Translator4s noteA the term 4#eur4 re$ers to (rance4s oung" generall (rench-#orn" second-generation population o$ :orth *$rican origin. httpA//&&&.a$[Link]/anglais/articlesUanglais/[Link] 0:1; G19 - Postcolonial ;iterature (all 1997

Op)#i#g L)c"&r) * !os"colo#ial Li")ra"&r)

"Postcolonial literature" is essentiall a political categor " a shorthand term $or an attempt to $ind similarities among /arious Third 6orld national literatures. Postcolonial studies as a distinct area o$ interest has #ecome more prominent since the late 1970s" in part triggered # .aid4s 5rientalism (197!)" &hich called attention to the &a that 6estern literar discourse a#out "the 0ast" tended to de$ine non-0uropean peoples and cultures as an alien "other"" not part o$ the uni/ersalist culture o$ the 6est. Postcolonial literature has #een de$ined # *shcro$t as an literature a$$ected # the colonial e7perience" including that o$ the colonial period itsel$. Theoreticall " this could include &riters such as Lipling" an *nglo-'ndian" as &ell as literatures such as *merican or 'rishM usuall " ho&e/er" these are e7cluded. ,olonial countries can #e di/ided into settler (*ustralia" ,anada) and non-settler countries" although this di/ision is not a "clean" one (and countries li%e the -... are usuall not included" despite a histor o$ 0uropean coloni)ation" #ecause o$ our current position o$ po&er in the &orld (<apan and other politicall signi$icant non-6estern countries are also usuall e7cluded $or a /ariet o$ reasons)). +ost t picall " "postcolonial" re$ers to countries that e7ist at the margin o$ "mainstream" political and cultural acti/it " and these are usuall the non-settler countries. 6e &ill contrast "'mperial" or "colonialist" literature" &hich ta%es as normal or "uni/ersal" aspects o$ political po&er and culture associated &ith the "home countr " (0uropean colonial po&er) and as "alien" or "other" the politics and culture o$ the coloni)ed countr " &ith "postcolonial" literature &hich speci$icall $ocuses on tensions #et&een indigenous culture and the late coloni)ers" and/or pro#lemati)es the issue o$ perspecti/e. 'ssues in postcolonial studies include ho& 6estern st le education and the imposition o$ 6estern culture a$$ects the indigenous cultures o$ coloni)ed statesM the

1E signi$icance o$ linguistic choices in literar creationM the ps chological e7pression o$ a spea%er &ho has #een culturall indoctrinated to see himsel$ as in$erior" or to #e alienated $rom his (sociocultural) sel$. 'ssues include race" class" and gender relations as in$luenced # the colonial situation. 0/en such apparentl sensiti/e te7ts as ,onrad4s 2eart o$ =ar%ness ma perpetuate "colonialist" attitudes" as ,hinua *che#e has pointed out. +arlo&4s narration ro#s the nati/e *$rican o$ legitimate humanit " e/en &hile decr ing imperialism o$ other &hites. The pro#lem $or the critic is to a/oid duplicating ,onrad4s "sin" - to ta%e one4s o&n e7periences as the norm and to present onesel$ as authorit on the discourse o$ the "other" (D9H). *che#e has o#8ected to readings that emphasi)e the "uni/ersal truths" as those that echo &ith 6estern culture" &hen that culture is ta%en as the norm. 3ut 2enric%sen points out that there are also $la&s in the opposite temptation" to see non-6estern &riting as "e7otic" (D99-G00). 'n this course" our reading needs to $oreground critical assumptions a#out relationship #et&een dominant and su#altern literatures" recogni)e the tentati/e nature o$ these assumptions and the political implications o$ authors4 choice o$ language and implied audience (G0G). 'n the colonial &orld" political po&er &as en$orced /ia economic and cultural hegemon . 0/en at the height o$ the 3ritish 0mpire" $or instance" 0ngland4s po&er &as economic rather than militar - the arm and na/ &ere stretched thin in co/ering so man economic outposts. .o other tools &ere needed to control nati/e populationsA 3ritish culture ser/ed this purpose. 0/er &here" 3ritish s stems o$ go/ernment and education &ere superimposed on e7isting cultures" along &ith the 0nglish language (&hich remains a uni$ ing $orce in countries li%e 'ndia). 3ritish polic $rom earl on &as to e7port 3ritish culture" including go/ernmental $orms and literature" music" etc. .imilar e$$orts to impose 0uropean culture on "nati/es" &ere underta%en # the (rench and some o$ the other ma8or colonial po&ers -- note $or instance the u#i9uit o$ .panish language and culture on the $ormer .panish 0mpire. This &as critici)ed e/en at the time # a $e& o#ser/ers" as $or e7ample the 3ritish politician .ir 0d&ard ,ust in 1!G9A "To gi/e a colon the $orms o$ independence is a moc%er M she &ould not #e a colon $or a single hour i$ she could maintain an independent station." (Rtd in 3ha#ha" !E). 3ut these o#8ections &ere not raised # those $riendl to the "nati/es" - rather # those &ho thought there should #e greater su#8ugation. These e$$orts &ere remar%a#l success$ul. Rashna .ingh 9uotes Ved +ehta" a "cultural inheritor" o$ colonialism" as #emoaning the a#sence o$ +ar Poppins and *lice in 6onderland $rom his childhood e7perienceM no mention is made o$ 'ndian $ol%tales or other indigenous literar $orms. ,olonial culture imposed its /alues on "in$erior" $ormer colonies" causing some to attempt merger &ith the larger culture # den ing origins - e.g." 2enr <ames and T... 0liot #ecoming "0nglish" rather than "*merican" &riters. This is a%in to &hat 3ha#ha calls "mimicr " - i.e." colonial su#8ects see% to imitate the cultural #eha/ior o$ the po&er$ul" so as to escape their characteri)ation as "other." 3ut "to #e *nglici)ed is emphaticall not to #e 0nglish" (3ha#ha" !7)M the colonial mimic" # $ailure to #e "authentic"" re/eals the distortions o$ cultural di$$erence. The *nglici)ed colonial is $ore/er caught #et&een t&o cultures" not allo&ed to #e part o$ the one that he/she has em#raced" #ut ha/ing alread repudiated the other.

1H Recognition o$ this position contri#uted to one o$ the earl re/olutionar criti9ues o$ colonialism" that o$ (rant) (anon" a (rench &riter #orn in +artini9ue and educated to concei/e himsel$ as (rench. 2o&e/er" his education in (rance and con$rontation &ith (rench racism made him a&are o$ the disorientation he e7perienced as a #lac% man taught to #eha/e "&hite"" and he responded in part # &riting his in$luential tract" #lac$ S$in, "hite )as$s (19ED). 2e argued that racist/colonial culture creates a ps chological construct that pre/ents the #lac% man $rom recogni)ing his su#8ection to &hite norms. This alienation o$ the postcolonial su#8ect is in particular the result o$ languageA "To spea%. . . means a#o/e all to assume a culture" to support the &eight o$ a ci/ili)ation"" (anon sa s. Thus" to spea% (rench or another 0uropean language that esta#lishes the opposition #et&een #lac% and &hite in moral terms is" $or the #lac% man" to accept one4s association &ith &hat the &hite culture de$ines as e/il. These cultural /alues #ecome internali)ed" producing #lac% alienation $rom the sel$. ;inguistic issues thus #ecome important concerns $or postcolonial critics" &riters" and readers. The Len an &riter :gugi &a Thiong4o ta%es the e7treme position that postcolonial &riters should onl &rite in indigenous languages" esche&ing the language o$ the coloni)erM on the other hand" the :igerian ,hinua *che#e has argued that the colonial languages (in his case 0nglish" #ut also perhaps including (rench) are the onl common medium o$ communication across *$rica (and more #roadl " across the Third 6orld)" and there$ore remain an appropriate choice $or literar language. *ttitudes a#out language ma also #e connected to attitudes a#out &ho can spea% to" $or" or a#out postcolonial te7ts. (or instance" some *$rican &riters ha/e suggested that 6esterners are dis9uali$ied $rom critici)ing the *$rican no/el" inso$ar as the are the heirs o$ colonialism. 5thers" li%e *che#e" choose to &rite in 0nglish and include all people &ho read 0nglish in his audience. 'n discussing Rushdie4s Satanic Derses" 3ha#ha o#ser/es that migrant (postcolonial) peoples must con$ront the pro#lem o$ crossing cultural $rontiersM does such crossing "permit $reedom $rom the essence o$ the sel$. . .IorJ onl change the sur$ace o$ the soul" preser/ing identit under its protean $orms" (DDF) +an postcolonial te7ts $oreground the pro#lem o$ cultural migration" as mem#ers o$ the $ormer colonial empires return to the imperial center (Rushdie" ,ari##ean &riters)" negotiate the transition to other $ormer colonies (:aipaul" ,anadians)" or to the -nited .tates (+u%her8ee4s 2asmine.) *nother important mar%er o$ postcolonial &riting is a concern &ith histor and historical perspecti/es. ((or e7ample" 6alter Rodne 4s statement "To #e coloni)ed is to #e remo/ed $rom histor "" or =ere% 6alcott4s "' met 2istor once" #ut he ain4t recogni)e me" $rom "The .chooner +light.") Postcolonial &riting see%s to create a ne& connection to histor " one that in/erts the 0urocentric /alue s stem and loo%s at histor and societ $rom the perspecti/e o$ those /oices that ha/e #een silenced or ignored # the mainstream. *nother term $or postcolonial in this regard is "su#altern"" re$erring to the position o$ colonial su#8ects as permanentl su#ordinate to the rule o$ coloni)ers" in culture e/en a$ter $ormal political independence. Postcolonial &riting insists on the importance o$ histor " #ut a histor reconcei/ed and re$ocused on pre/iousl marginal areas. *s such it is connected to other politicall in$lected literar and cultural

17 mo/ements" including $eminism. Thus &e &ill see ho& /arious &riters such as ,oet)ee" *che#e" and +ah$ou) ma%e use o$ historical concerns in their &riting. Partial list o$ sourcesA 3ill *shcro$t" 1areth 1ri$$iths" and 2elen Ti$$in" The m!ire "rites #ac$: Theor' and Practice in Post%Colonial 0iteratures. ;ondonA Routledge" 19!9. 2omi 3ha#ha" The 0ocation o. Culture. ;ondonA Routledge" 199F. Paul Lenned " The Rise and +all o. the 8reat Powers: conomic Change and )ilitar' [Link] .rom 3E55 to 7555. :e& Cor%A Random 2ouse" 19!7. Patric% 3rantlinger" Rule o. &ar$ness: #ritish 0iterature and -m!erialism, 36F5%3G3H. 'thacaA ,ornell -P" 19!!. 5. +annoni" Pros!ero and Caliban: The Ps'cholog' o. Coloni/ation. :e& Cor%A (rederic% *. Praeger" 19HF. Ton .mith" 0d. The nd o. the uro!ean m!ire: &ecoloni/ation [Link] "orld "ar --. ;e7ington" +*A =.,. 2eath" 197E. 3ruce 2enric%sen" ",hinua *che#eA The 3icultural :o/el and the 0thics o$ Reading." 'n .andra 6ard ;ott" +aureen ..1. 2a&%ins" and :orman +c+illan" 8lobal Pers!ectives on Teaching 0iterature. -r#ana" ';A :,T0" 199G. Pp. D9E-G10. httpA//&&&.[Link]/hasting&/P,T205RC.2T+ 0:1; F(70" ,ontemporar ;iterar Theor " 3roc% -ni/ersit

So$) Iss&)s i# !os"colo#ial Th)or

,op right 1997" 199! # <ohn ; e. This te7t ma #e $reel used" &ith attri#ution" $or non-pro$it purposes. *s &ith all o$ m posts $or this course" this document is open to change. '$ ou ha/e an suggestions (additions" 9uali$ications" arguments)" mail me.

Post-colonial theor deals &ith the reading and &riting o$ literature &ritten in pre/iousl or currentl coloni)ed countries" or literature &ritten in coloni)ing countries &hich deals &ith coloni)ation or coloni)ed peoples. 't $ocuses particularl on 1. the &a in &hich literature # the coloni)ing culture distorts the e7perience and realities" and inscri#es the in$eriorit " o$ the coloni)ed people D. on literature # coloni)ed peoples &hich attempts to articulate their identit and reclaim their past in the $ace o$ that past4s ine/ita#le otherness. 't can also deal &ith the &a in &hich literature in coloni)ing countries appropriates the language" images" scenes" traditions and so $orth o$ coloni)ed countries. This page addresses some o$ the comple7ities o$ the post-colonial situation" in terms o$ the &riting and reading situation o$ the coloni)ed people" and o$ the coloni)ing people.

1! The literature(s) o$ the coloni)ed Postcolonial theor is #uilt in large part around the concept o$ otherness. There are ho&e/er pro#lems &ith or comple7ities to the concept o$ otherness" $or instanceA 1. otherness includes dou#leness" #oth identit and di$$erence" so that e/er other " e/er di$$erent than and e7cluded # is dialecticall created and includes the /alues and meaning o$ the coloni)ing culture e/en as it re8ects its po&er to de$ineM D. the &estern concept o$ the oriental is #ased" as *#dul <an+ohamed argues" on the +anichean allegor (seeing the &orld as di/ided into mutuall e7cluding opposites)A i$ the &est is ordered" rational" masculine" good" then the orient is chaotic" irrational" $eminine" e/il. .impl to re/erse this polari)ing is to #e complicit in its totali)ing and identit -destro ing po&er (all is reduced to a set o$ dichotomies" #lac% or &hite" etc.)M G. coloni)ed peoples are highl di/erse in their nature and in their traditions" and as #eings in cultures the are #oth constructed and changing" so that &hile the ma #e 4other4 $rom the coloni)ers" the are also di$$erent one $rom another and $rom their o&n pasts" and should not #e totali)ed or essentiali)ed -- through such concepts as a #lac% consciousness" 'ndian soul" a#original culture and so $orth. This totali)ation and essentiali)ation is o$ten a $orm o$ nostalgia &hich has its inspiration more in the thought o$ the coloni)ers than o$ the coloni)ed" and it ser/es gi/e the coloni)er a sense o$ the unit o$ his culture &hile m sti$ ing that o$ othersM as <ohn (ro& remar%s" it is a ma%ing o$ a m thical 5ne out o$ man ... F. the coloni)ed peoples &ill also #e other than their pasts" &hich can #e reclaimed #ut ne/er reconstituted" and so must #e re/isited and reali)ed in partial" $ragmented &a s. Cou can4t go home again. Postcolonial theor is also #uilt around the concept o$ resistance" o$ resistance as su#/ersion" or opposition" or mimicr -- #ut &ith the haunting pro#lem that resistance al&a s inscri#es the resisted into the te7ture o$ the resistingA it is a t&o-edged s&ord. *s &ell" the concept o$ resistance carries &ith it or can carr &ith it ideas a#out human $reedom" li#ert " identit " indi/idualit " etc." &hich ideas ma not ha/e #een held" or held in the same &a " in the coloni)ed culture4s /ie& o$ human%ind. 5n a simple political/cultural le/el" there are pro#lems &ith the $act that to produce a literature &hich helps to reconstitute the identit o$ the coloni)ed one ma ha/e to $unction in at the /er least the means o$ production o$ the coloni)ers -- the &riting" pu#lishing" ad/ertising and production o$ #oo%s" $or instance. These ma &ell re9uire a centrali)ed

19 economic and cultural s stem &hich is ultimatel either a &estern import or a h #rid $orm" uniting local conceptions &ith &estern conceptions. The concept o$ producing a national or cultural literature is in most cases a concept $oreign to the traditions o$ the coloni)ed peoples" &ho (a) had no literature as it is concei/ed in the &estern traditions or in $act no literature or &riting at all" and/or #) did not see art as ha/ing the same $unction as constructing and de$ining cultural identit " and/or c) &ere" li%e the peoples o$ the 6est 'ndies" transported into a &holl di$$erent geographical/political/economic/cultural &orld. ('ndia" a partial e7ception" had a long-esta#lished tradition o$ lettersM on the other hand it &as a highl #al%ani)ed su#-continent &ith little i$ an common identit and &ith man di/ergent su#-cultures). 't is al&a s a changed" a reclaimed #ut h #rid identit " &hich is created or called $orth # the coloni)eds4 attempts to constitute and represent identit . The /er concepts o$ nationalit and identit ma #e di$$icult to concei/e or con/e in the cultural traditions o$ coloni)ed peoples. There are comple7ities and perple7ities around the di$$icult o$ concei/ing ho& a coloni)ed countr can reclaim or reconstitute its identit in a language that is no& #ut &as not its o&n language" and genres &hich are no& #ut &ere not the genres o$ the coloni)ed. 5ne result is that the literature ma #e &ritten in the st le o$ speech o$ the inha#itants o$ a particular coloni)ed people or area" &hich language use does not read li%e .tandard 0nglish and in &hich literature the standard literar allusions and common metaphors and s m#ols ma #e inappropriate and/or ma #e replaced # allusions and tropes &hich are alien to 3ritish culture and usage. 't can #ecome /er di$$icult then $or others to recogni)e or respect the &or% as literature (&hich concept ma not itsel$ ha/e rele/ance -- see ne7t point). There other are times &hen the /iolation o$ the aesthetic norms o$ &estern literature is ine/ita#le" 1. as coloni)ed &riters search to encounter their culture4s ancient et trans$ormed heritage" and D. as the attempt to deal &ith pro#lems o$ social order and meaning so pressing that the normal aesthetic trans$ormations o$ &estern high literature are not rele/ant" ma%e no sense. The idea that good or high literature ma #e irrele/ant and misplaced at a point in a culture4s histor " and there$ore $or a particular cultural usage not #e good literature at all" is di$$icult $or us &ho are raised in the culture &hich strong aesthetic ideals to accept.

D0 The de/elopment (de/elopment itsel$ ma #e an entirel &estern concept) o$ h #rid and reclaimed cultures in coloni)ed countries is une/en" disparate" and might de$ those notions o$ order and common sense &hich ma #e central not onl to &estern thin%ing #ut to literar $orms and traditions produced through &estern thought. The term 4h #rid4 used a#o/e re$ers to the concept o$ h #ridit " an important concept in post-colonial theor " re$erring to the integration (or" mingling) o$ cultural signs and practices $rom the coloni)ing and the coloni)ed cultures ("integration" ma #e too orderl a &ord to represent the /ariet o$ stratagems" desperate or cunning or good-&illed" # &hich people adapt themsel/es to the necessities and the opportunities o$ more or less oppressi/e or in/asi/e cultural impositions" li/e into alien cultural patterns through their o&n structures o$ understanding" thus producing something $amiliar #ut ne&). The assimilation and adaptation o$ cultural practices" the cross-$ertili)ation o$ cultures" can #e seen as positi/e" enriching" and d namic" as &ell as as oppressi/e. "2 #ridit " is also a use$ul concept $or helping to #rea% do&n the $alse sense that coloni)ed cultures -- or coloni)ing cultures $or that matter -- are monolithic" or ha/e essential" unchanging $eatures. The representation o$ these une/en and o$ten h #rid" pol glot" multi/alent cultural sites (reclaimed or disco/ered coloni)ed cultures searching $or identit and meaning in a comple7 and partiall alien past) ma not loo% /er much li%e the representations o$ #ourgeois culture in &estern art" ideologicall shaped as &estern art is to represent its o&n truths (that is" guiding $ictions) a#out itsel$. To 9uote 2omi 3ha#ha on the comple7 issue o$ representation and meaning $rom his article in 1reen#latt and 1un4s Redrawing the #oundaries, ,ulture as a strateg o$ sur/i/al is #oth transnational and translational. 't is transnational #ecause contemporar postcolonial discourses are rooted in speci$ic histories o$ cultural displacement" &hether the are the middle passage o$ sla/er and indenture" the /o age out o$ the ci/ili)ing mission" the $raught accommodation o$ Third 6orld migration to the 6est a$ter the .econd 6orld 6ar" or the tra$$ic o$ economic and political re$ugees &ithin and outside the Third 6orld. ,ulture is translational #ecause such spatial histories o$ displacement -- no& accompanied # the territorial am#itions o$ glo#al media technologies -- ma%e the 9uestion o$ ho& culture signi$ies" or &hat is signi$ied # culture " a rather comple7 issue. 't #ecomes crucial to distinguish #et&een the sem#lance and similitude o$ the s m#ols across di/erse cultural

D1 e7periences -- literature" art" music" ritual" li$e" death -- and the social speci$icit o$ each o$ these productions o$ meaning as the circulate as signs &ithin speci$ic conte7tual locations and social s stems o$ /alue. The transnational dimension o$ cultural trans$ormation -- migration" diaspora" displacement" relocation -ma%es the process o$ cultural translation a comple7 $orm o$ signi$ication. the natural(i)ed)" uni$ ing discourse o$ nation " peoples " or authentic $ol% tradition" those em#edded m ths o$ cultures particularit " cannot #e readil re$erenced. The great" though unsettling" ad/antage o$ this position is that it ma%es ou increasingl a&are o$ the construction o$ culture and the in/ention o$ tradition.

The literature(s) o$ the colonistsA 'n addition to the post-colonial literature o$ the coloni)ed" there e7ists as &ell the postcolonial literature o$ the coloni)ers. *s people o$ 3ritish heritage mo/ed into ne& landscapes" esta#lished ne& $ounding national m ths" and struggled to de$ine their o&n national literature against the $orce and tradition o$ the 3ritish tradition" the themsel/es" although o$ 3ritish or 0uropean heritage" ultimatel encountered the originating traditions as 5ther" a tradition and a &riting to de$ine onesel$ against (or" &hich amounts to the same thing" to e9ual or surpass). 0/er colon had an emerging literature &hich &as an imitation o$ #ut di$$ered $rom the central 3ritish tradition" &hich articulated in local terms the m ths and e7perience o$ a ne& culture" and &hich e7pressed that ne& culture as" to an e7tent" di/ergent $rom and e/en opposed to the culture o$ the "home"" or coloni)ing" nation. The coloni)ers largel inha#ited countries &hich a#sor#ed the peoples o$ a num#er o$ other heritages and cultures (through immigration" migration" the $orced mingling o$ di$$ering local cultures" etc.)" and in doing so o$ten adapted to use the m ths" s m#ols and de$initions o$ /arious traditions. 'n this &a as &ell the literature o$ the hitherto coloni)ers #ecomes 4post-colonial4. ('t is curiousl the case that 3ritish literature itsel$ has #een coloni)ed # colonial/postcolonial &riters &riting in 3ritain out o$ colonial e7periences and a colonial past.) 'n this regard a salient di$$erence #et&een colonialist literature (literature &ritten # coloni)ers" in the coloni)ed countr " on the model o$ the "home" countr and o$ten $or the home countr as an audience) and post-colonial literature" is that colonialist literature is an attempt to replicate" continue" e9ual" the original tradition" to &rite in accord &ith 3ritish standardsM postcolonial literature is o$ten (#ut not ine/ita#l ) sel$-

DD consciousl a literature o$ otherness and resistance" and is &ritten out o$ the speci$ic local e7perience. -R; o$ this pageA httpA//&&&.#roc%[Link]/english/courses/F(70/[Link] ;ast updated on <ul DD" 199! # Pro$essor <ohn ; e httpA//&&&.#roc%[Link]/english/courses/F(70/[Link] =isclaimer 3roc% -ni/ersit +ain Page