Feature Article

Vocabulary Learning Strategies

of Japanese Life Science
Students
ANDREA LITTLE
Waseda University

KAORU KOBAYASHI
Tokyo University of Pharmacy and Life Sciences
This study investigates vocabulary learning strategy (VLS)
preferences of lower and higher proficiency Japanese university
science students studying English as a foreign language. The
study was conducted over a 9-week period as the participants
received supplemental explicit VLS instruction on six strategies.
The 38 participants (14 males and 24 females) were all first- and
second-year students majoring in life sciences. The explicit
vocabulary instruction focused on three cognitive, or shallower,
strategies (vocalization, writing rehearsal, and word cards) and
three memory strategies involving deeper processing (imagery
strategies, association, and mnemonics). The aim of the study
was to see which VLSs the learners were familiar with; their
perceptions of VLSs for learning general academic vocabulary
and for learning science words; and finally, after instruction,
which strategy the learners preferred. Statistical analyses and
qualitative data (student comments on each of the six strategies)
were used to answer the questions. The results shed some light
on the VLS preferences of life science students for studying both
types of words. It also confirms the value of explicit VLS
instruction for both lower and higher proficiency students and
increased the researchers understanding of the students vocabulary learning behavior.
doi: 10.1002/tesj.141

Oxford (1990) defines learning strategies as steps taken

by students to enhance their own learning (p. 1). Among other
things, effective use of strategies helps students become
TESOL Journal 6.1, March 2015
2014 TESOL International Association

81

self-directed, active learners and raises their confidence and

proficiency. More proficient, more motivated learners use a
wider range of strategies more frequently than less proficient,
less motivated learners (Oxford, 1990). In addition, intensive
strategy-based instruction has been found to enhance learners
development of self-regulation skills, one aspect of learner
autonomy (Nguyen & Gu, 2013). Not only do vocabulary learning
strategies (VLSs), a subset of learning strategies, help learners
acquire new vocabulary, but research has shown that frequent,
effective vocabulary strategy use is associated with higher
achievement levels across all language skills (Kojic-Sabo &
Lightbown, 1999; Takeuchi, 2003). It is therefore not surprising
that more proficient learners use more VLSs than less proficient
learners (Schmitt, 1997). Given the complex nature of vocabulary
acquisition and the benefit of learning strategies, it seems
worthwhile to provide explicit instruction on vocabulary learning
strategies and also to explore which VLSs specific groups of
students find the most salient for their purposes.

LITERATURE REVIEW
Classifying Vocabulary Learning Strategies
Various taxonomies of learning strategies have been developed
along with instruments, or scales, for measuring them. Oxford
(1990) broadly classifies general language learning strategies into
direct strategies and indirect strategies. The first category includes
memory strategies, cognitive strategies, and compensation
strategies. Indirect strategies are social strategies, affective
strategies, and metacognitive strategies. Her strategy system was
then used to develop the 121-item Strategy Inventory of Language
Learning to assess how foreign language learners learn languages
(Oxford, 1990). Oxfords taxonomy, though generally appropriate,
was inadequate for classifying vocabulary-specific strategies in
several respects: It had no category for discovering a new words
meaning, some strategies fit in multiple groups, and it was unclear
which group other strategies belonged in (Schmitt, 1997). In
compiling his VLS taxonomy, Schmitt (1997) sought to rectify these
problems.
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TABLE 1. List of Students and Their TOEIC Scores

Lower Proficiency Group
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21

Higher Proficiency Group

Student

TOEIC Score

L1
L2
L3
L4
L5
L6
L7
L8
L9
L10
L11
L12
L13
L14
L15
L16
L17
L18
L19
L20
L21

310
315
325
330
330
355
355
360
365
370
395
395
400
400
405
410
415
420
425
440
460

Student

TOEIC Score

22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38

H1
H2
H3
H4
H5
H6
H7
H8
H9
H10
H11
H12
H13
H14
H15
H16
H17

465
465
490
505
520
520
520
530
535
555
595
595
600
650
660
700
735

Note. The number of the students in each group was different. There were 21 students in the lower
proficiency group, whereas there were only 17 students in the higher proficiency group.

RESULTS
Students Familiarity With the Strategies
The first research question asked which strategies the students
were already familiar with. Table 2 shows the mean scores and
standard deviation of the students ratings on each item of strategy
specific surveys on each VLS. The mean scores for Item 1 suggest
that the students were already familiar with vocalization, writing
rehearsal, and word cards, with writing rehearsal rated the
highest. However, imagery strategies, association, and mnemonics
were less familiar, with mnemonics rated the lowest.

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on an inventory gleaned from a literature review. The inventory

was then narrowed to 47 items. Social and affective strategies
were excluded, because the informants rarely used them. In
addition, strategies that did not ensure learning leading to
acquisition (e.g., guessing from context, note-taking, dictionary
use) were also excluded. After piloting the instrument, rarely
used and overused strategies were eliminated. The final
questionnaire had 25 items.
Studies Investigating VLS and Japanese Learners
Researchers note that, in teaching, VLS variables such as culture,
age, gender, motivation, self-efficacy, learning purposes,
proficiency level, and context of learning should be considered as
they affect learners strategy use (Mizumoto & Takeuchi, 2009b;
Schmitt, 2000). Regarding Japanese learners specifically, VLS
research has explored strategy use in relation to several of these
variables.
Horino and Ichikawa (1997), in a study using high school EFL
learners, found content-attached motives (i.e., enjoyment,
cultivation, and practicality) correlated with VLSs involving
organization, imaging, and repetition. Students with higher scores
for content-attached motives had higher strategy orientation.
Schmitt (1997) used his own taxonomy to create a survey
instrument which he used with 600 Japanese learners across four
age groups (junior highadult) to examine which strategies they
used and how effective they felt them to be. He discovered the use
and perception of individual strategies helpfulness changes as
learners mature: Secondary school learners prefer strategies
focusing on word form (i.e., written repetition), whereas adults
increasingly prefer strategies involving deeper processing (i.e.,
imaging, association, analysis). Schmitt also found a gap between
actual VLS use and their perceived usefulness. In a study
involving Japanese high school students in EFL and ESL learning
environments, Nakamura (2002) investigated VLS and gender,
proficiency level, and learning context. Although all three
variables affected VLS use, females used strategies more often than
males, and the learning environment exerted the strongest
influence on the types of VLSs used.
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Other studies have focused on Japanese university students.

Mizumoto and Takeuchi (2008) used their strategic vocabulary
learning scale to investigate the correlation between VLS,
motivation, study time, and proficiency, as measured by TOEIC
scores. The subjects were 300 EFL university students, both males
and females. The researchers found metacognitive strategies (i.e.,
self-management and input-seeking) correlated most strongly with
TOEIC scores, and intrinsic motivation contributed to VLS use.
Learners with higher TOEIC scores consciously applied VLSs. In a
later study involving 204 female EFL university students studying
humanities, Mizumoto and Takeuchi (2009b) examined the
effectiveness of explicit instruction for VLS. They discovered that
explicit instruction improved vocabulary test scores, possibly led
to increased intrinsic motivation, and expanded the learners
repertoire and use of strategies, especially for less frequentto
moderate strategy users. This finding demonstrates that less
effective learners benefit the most from strategy training and helps
make the case that explicit VLS instruction is worthwhile. Finally,
a recent study by Mizumoto (2012) examined the effects of selfefficacy on VLS. Self-efficacy is belief in ones capabilities to
organize and execute the courses of action required to manage
prospective situations (Bandura, 1995, p. 2, cited in Mizumoto,
2012, p. 425). Mizumoto discovered that learners with high selfefficacy actively used VLSs, particularly deeper strategies, and
learners with medium self-efficacy tended to actively use
shallower strategies. On the other hand, learners with low selfefficacy used VLSs passively.
Limitations of Previous Studies
The studies described above examined VLS in relation to motives,
or learning purposes, strategy use, and perceptions of
effectiveness, age, proficiency level, learning context, motivation,
study time, and self-efficacy. Only one provided explicit VLS
instruction, and that study involved only female participants. A
further limitation of the previous studies was that none looked at
strategies that science students use.
Thus, the overall aim of this study is to investigate the VLS
preferences of Japanese life science majors for learning academic
Vocabulary Learning Strategies of Japanese Life Science Students

85

vocabulary and to see which strategies they believe would be

helpful in studying vocabulary for science. In addition, because
many of the science students we teach dislike English and are
lower proficiency EFL students lacking sufficient vocabulary to
read scientific articles in English, we felt an intervention study
providing explicit VLS instruction to science students would be
worthwhile. Because the students may not use VLSs regularly or
be aware of the range of strategies available for use, providing
explicit instruction on six cognitive and memory strategies would
enable them to compare shallower and deeper strategies, thereby
helping them determine which strategies could be of value for
learning science words. By asking them to write comments on
each strategy, we could gain a deeper understanding of their
preferences.

RESEARCH QUESTIONS
1 Which VLSs are life science major students already familiar with?
2 How did the students perceive the usefulness of each VLS for learning
general academic words and for learning science vocabulary? Would the
students use the strategy again?
3 After experiencing all six VLSs, which strategy do the students prefer? Is
there any difference in the preference in accordance with the students
English proficiency?

METHOD
Participants
The participants were first- and second-year students in the
authors classes. On the first day of class, the participants received
a research proposal and consent form explaining the studys
objective and methodology. The consent form clearly stated
participants had the right to refuse to take part and to withdraw
from the study at any time without consequences; they were also
assured that their identity and that of the university would be
anonymous. All participants signed the consent form of their own
free will. Initially, 99 students were involved in the study, but only
data collected from 38 students (14 males and 24 females), those
who responded to every question on all six VLSs, were used.
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Vocabulary Learning Strategies

For explicit strategy instruction and practice, six cognitive and
memory strategies were chosen. Following Mizumoto and
Takeuchi (2009a), social and affective strategies were excluded
because Japanese EFL students rarely use them. Strategies that did
not encourage learning leading to acquisition were also excluded.
However, common strategies that Schmitt (1997) indicated
younger, less proficient students frequently used were included to
understand if learners felt these familiar strategies could be
effective for studying science words. The cognitive strategies
chosen, involving shallower processing, were vocalization, writing
rehearsal, and word cards, all strategies students may already be
familiar with. The memory strategies chosen, involving deeper
processing, were imagery strategies, association, and mnemonics,
and were thought to be unfamiliar to most students. These
strategies correspond to the VLS categories on the pre- and
posttreatment VLS survey.
Target Words
The target words (see Appendix A) were 68 science words on the
Academic Word List (Coxhead, 2000) that were necessary for
students to know for reading scientific texts (Herr, 2007). Although
these words belong to the academic language of science, they are
not specific to science (Herr, 2007). These target words were
presented in weekly word lists with sample sentences that used
the scientific sense for each word. The scientific senses were tested
in the weekly vocabulary tests.
Data Collection and Procedure
The study was conducted during the first 9 weeks of the autumn
semester as a supplementary vocabulary learning activity in an
English course that focused on lecture note-taking. The study
schedule and tasks are given in Appendix B. During these
9 weeks, 2 weeks had no classes. In Week 1, the students
received a handout that explained the first strategy and a list
of target words with sample sentences. The students were
asked to apply the target strategy and learn the first set of the
target vocabulary. The students were also asked to answer
Vocabulary Learning Strategies of Japanese Life Science Students

87

a strategy-specific survey to rate their familiarity with the

strategy, its usefulness, and its possible future use for both
academic words and science words. The survey had seven items,
including two open-ended questions. Except for the open-ended
questions, student responses were measured by a 5-point Likert
scale (1 = never or almost never true of me, 2 = not true of me,
3 = undecided, 4 = true of me, 5 = always or almost always true
of me). The items are as follows:
1
2
3
4
5
6

I was already using this strategy before this practice.

I think the strategy is useful.
I think this strategy is useful for science words.
I would like to try using this strategy again.
I would like to try using this strategy with science words.
Regarding your answer to Statement 4 above, please explain why or
why not.
7 Regarding your answer to Statement 5 above, please explain why or
why not.

The survey was given online using SurveyMonkey, a

commercial online survey tool. In Week 2, the students took a quiz
on the first set of the target vocabulary to see the strategys
effectiveness and received a handout on the second strategy along
with the accompanying word list and sample sentences. This
procedure was repeated until the students took the quiz on the
sixth set of target vocabulary.
The six strategy training handouts introduced and explained
the target strategies. Each handout had three sections: General
tips for learning vocabulary, which introduced the weeks
metacognitive strategy; Explanation of the strategy, which
explained the target strategy; and Putting the strategy into practice,
which gave the step-by-step procedure for the strategy (see
Appendix C). To provide students with a choice, each handout
usually offered two tasks involving the target strategy and
students were required to choose one to practice. They were also
required to submit evidence of practicing the strategy the
following week.
In the beginning and immediately after training in the six
VLSs, a VLS and motivation questionnaire (Appendix D) was
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administered. The questionnaire was given as an online

homework assignment. It combined Mizumoto and Takeuchis
(2009b) VLS questionnaire and nine items developed to measure
extrinsic and intrinsic motivation by Noels, Pelletier, Cl
ement, and
Vallerand (2000). This questionnaire used the same Likert scale
used in the strategy-specific surveys.
Data Analysis
To answer Research Question 1, the mean scores and standard
deviations of the students ratings on how true Item 1 was to
them were calculated and compared. Regarding the second
research question, first, the mean scores and standard deviations
of student responses to Items 2 to 5 were calculated. To further
analyze whether the students perceptions about the strategy
were consistent with both types of vocabulary, and whether the
students had the same perceptions on the usefulness and possible
future use of the strategy, the correlation coefficients of student
responses to Items 2 and 3, Items 4 and 5, Items 2 and 4, and
Items 3 and 5 were calculated. For the present study, because the
data set violated parametric assumptions and had many tied
ranks, a nonparametric correlationKendalls tau, swas
calculated (see Field, 2009). Statistical analyses were conducted
using SPSS. The qualitative data from student responses to Items
6 and 7 were used as references to discuss the qualitative results.
For the third research question, first, the survey items were
grouped into higher ranking categories of learning behaviors and
types of motivation following Mizumoto and Takeuchi (2009b):
self-management, input-seeking, imagery, writing rehearsal, oral
rehearsal, association, extrinsic motivation, and intrinsic
motivation. The mean scores of student responses to the pre- and
posttreatment survey items were calculated and compared
according to the difference between the means. To see the
students tendency on the perception of the strategies usefulness
in relation to their English proficiency, the students were divided
into two groups according to their TOEIC scores. The border was
set at the average score, which was 463.68. Table 1 shows the
students TOEIC scores.
Vocabulary Learning Strategies of Japanese Life Science Students

89

TABLE 1. List of Students and Their TOEIC Scores

Lower Proficiency Group
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21

Higher Proficiency Group

Student

TOEIC Score

L1
L2
L3
L4
L5
L6
L7
L8
L9
L10
L11
L12
L13
L14
L15
L16
L17
L18
L19
L20
L21

310
315
325
330
330
355
355
360
365
370
395
395
400
400
405
410
415
420
425
440
460

Student

TOEIC Score

22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38

H1
H2
H3
H4
H5
H6
H7
H8
H9
H10
H11
H12
H13
H14
H15
H16
H17

465
465
490
505
520
520
520
530
535
555
595
595
600
650
660
700
735

Note. The number of the students in each group was different. There were 21 students in the lower
proficiency group, whereas there were only 17 students in the higher proficiency group.

RESULTS
Students Familiarity With the Strategies
The first research question asked which strategies the students
were already familiar with. Table 2 shows the mean scores and
standard deviation of the students ratings on each item of strategy
specific surveys on each VLS. The mean scores for Item 1 suggest
that the students were already familiar with vocalization, writing
rehearsal, and word cards, with writing rehearsal rated the
highest. However, imagery strategies, association, and mnemonics
were less familiar, with mnemonics rated the lowest.

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TABLE 2. Means and Standard Deviations of Strategy-Specific Surveys

on Each Vocabulary Learning Strategy
Questionnaire Item
1. Used strategy before
2. Strategy is useful
3. Strategy is useful for
science words
4. Will use strategy
5. Will use strategy
for science words

M
(SD)
M
(SD)
M
(SD)
M
(SD)
M
(SD)

S1

S2

S3

S4

S5

S6

3.18
(1.27)
3.55
(0.95)
3.45
(0.98)
3.74
(0.92)
3.61
(1.05)

2.58
(1.37)
3.32
(0.93)
3.34
(1.05)
3.16
(1.15)
3.53
(0.98)

3.89
(1.20)
3.95
(1.04)
3.55
(0.95)
4.03
(1.10)
3.61
(1.10)

2.21
(1.56)
2.82
(1.31)
2.82
(1.29)
2.53
(1.29)
2.84
(1.29)

2.18
(1.27)
2.55
(0.95)
2.71
(1.01)
2.45
(1.16)
2.50
(1.03)

3.68
(1.23)
3.87
(1.12)
3.79
(1.17)
3.63
(1.17)
3.50
(1.13)

Note. S1 = vocalization, S2 = imagery strategies, S3 = writing rehearsal, S4 = association, S5 =

mnemonics, S6 = word cards.

TABLE 3. Kendalls tau, s, Among the Items in Strategy-Specific Surveys

Questionnaire Item

S1

S2

S3

S4

S5

S6

Items 2 and 3 (usefulness: academic

words and science words)
Items 4 and 5 (future use: academic
words and science words)
Items 2 and 4 (academic words: usefulness
and future use)
Items 3 and 5 (science words: usefulness
and future use)

.49

.37

.49

.79

.38

.79

.65

.59

.49

.55

.74

.77

.49

.76

.76

.52

.71

.67

.55

.48

.84

.58

.69

.64

Note. S1 = vocalization, S2 = imagery strategies, S3 = writing rehearsal, S4 = association, S5 =

mnemonics, S6 = word cards. All the coefficients are p < .01.

Students Perceptions About the Strategy

To answer the second research question, the means and standard
deviations of student ratings on Items 2 to 5 in the strategy specific
survey and the correlation coefficients among these items were
studied (Table 2). Table 3 shows the correlation coefficients of
Items 2 to 5. The findings from the results of each strategy are
summarized below.
Vocalization. The means of Items 2, 3, 4, and 5 were all
above 3 (Item 2, M = 3.55; Item 3, M = 3.45; Item 4, M = 3.74;
Item 5, M = 3.61). These statistics demonstrate that the students
regarded this strategy as useful for both academic words and
Vocabulary Learning Strategies of Japanese Life Science Students

91

science words, and they thought they would use the strategy
again to learn both types
of words.
As mentioned earlier, many students were already familiar
with this strategy as the following comments show.
I think that repeat word pairs aloud more and more time is
good way to pick up the words. And, until now I used the way.
(Student L16)
I had done the method since junior high school student. So, I fitted the method. (Student H3)

Although the ratings generally were not low, students

comments show some students did not like the strategy because it
took too much time.
Because I think it is important to understand vocabulary (meaning) on sentence, this strategy is nice study strategy. But it took
much time. (Student H6)
For me oral rehearsal is not good for me to remember
the words and it is take a lot of time to read and to
remember them with oral. When I see unknown words, I
dont know how to say. So I open my dictionary and find
it. (Student H15)

Some students wrote that they liked the strategy because by

vocalizing the sentence containing the target word, they could
learn its usage.
I thought it was important to understand meaning of vocabulary on sentence. Not only meaning but also using way of
vocabulary. So, this strategy was nice because I could study
words on sentence. About reading each sentence with aloud,
I can input meaning and using way, but it was limited time
to study and space to study. (Student H6)
Why I read the sentence is because I can know how to use
words and I can know nuance of the words. And I dont like
memorizing. And I like reading aloud. (Student H8)
Reading sample sentences was first time. When I found other
unknown word in the sample sentence, I could learn it besides
target word. I learned grammar too. I want to try this strategy
again. (Student H12)
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Regarding the strategys usefulness for learning science

vocabulary, many students indicated they would try it and
explained why it might be useful.
Science vocabulary cant memorized easily. When I study science, Ill be necessary a lot of special words of science vocabulary. So I would like to try this strategy with science vocabulary.
(Student L2)
Yes, I can input common words with this strategy, so I can
input science vocabulary too. (Student H10)

Imagery strategies. The means of the four items were larger

than 3 (Item 2, M = 3.32; Item 3, M = 3.34; Item 4, M = 3.16; Item 5,
M = 3.53). A weak correlation between Items 2 and 3 (s = .37)
indicates that, although students perceptions about the strategys
usefulness were generally positive, students had different opinions
on its usefulness for academic words and for science words. On
the other hand, a relatively large correlation between Items 2 and 4
(s = .76) demonstrates that students thought this strategy was
useful and would use it again when they learned academic words.
Nonetheless, some students comments indicated they did not
like this strategy because creating a visual image was difficult and
time-consuming.
Creating visual images is very difficult for me. (Student L1)
This strategy is difficult. And, it took a lot of time. Nouns and
verbs are almost OK, but adjectives and adverbs are not good. I
want to use this method for drawing easy things. (Student H5)
I think it takes very long time to learn only one word, so it is
not effective to learn new words. (Student H15)

However, some students rated this strategy highly because

they thought learning words in true sentences was effective.
Writing a true sentences are good for me. I think the best way is
learning from sentences. (Student H3)
If I think true sentences by myself, I never forget. This strategy is good for studying and remembering new words.
(Student H7)

Vocabulary Learning Strategies of Japanese Life Science Students

93

Regarding the value of the strategy for learning science words,

the comments focused on the difficulty of science words and the
value of writing true sentences.
It is difficult for me to remember science vocabularys spelling,
so imaging is good way, I think. (Student L5)
I think that the science words is difficult to understand. It
is more easy to remember science words with true sentences. If I know true sentences, it will really help me.
(Student H12)

Writing rehearsal. The means of the four items all exceeded 3.5
and marked the highest among the six VLSs except for Item 3 (Item 2,
M = 3.95; Item 3, M = 3.55; Item 4, M = 4.03; Item 5, M = 3.61).
The correlations were relatively large between Items 2 and 4 and
between Items 3 and 5 (Items 2 and 4, s = .76, Items 3 and 5,
s = .84). The statistics show that students had positive perceptions
about the strategy, thought the strategy was useful, and would use
it again for both academic words and science words.
From the comments, it was clear many students were very
familiar with the strategy and were already using it.
I think this strategy is good way for me. I already using this
strategy before this practice. (Student L16)
Writing spelling is familiar to me. It is effective all vocabularies.
(Student L20)

However, some students felt this strategy was insufficient.

I think it is important to use this strategy but also to pronounce
and hear. I think to use five senses is good for remembering.
(Student L7)

Both lower and higher proficiency students wrote that the

strategy was especially effective with science words because the
words are often long.
A lot of science words have long spells. So this strategy will be
effective to learn. (Student L14)
I try it again to use it to learn scientific words because many
scientific words have complex spell. (Student H15)
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Association. The means of all four items were less than 3

(Item 2, M = 2.82; Item 3, M = 2.82; Item 4, M = 2.53; Item 5,
M = 2.84) and a relatively large correlation was observed between
Items 2 and 3 (s = .79). The students did not perceive the strategy
as useful and did not think they would use it again for either type
of vocabulary. These students comments show the main reasons
for the low rating.
I thought that this method is difficult. (Student L13)
It takes much time although this strategy is effective. (Student
L20)
This method did not suit me. Because I do not like to draw pictures.
Moreover, it take much time to write. I am busy. (Student L21)
I dont like this method because it is not efficient. It is difficult
for me to create mind maps. And, I want to learn a lot of
words in a relatively short time. (Student H17)

On the other hand, some students thought this strategy was

effective for science words because, by creating word maps or
semantic networks, they could learn other words with the target
word.
Because we can learn other science vocabulary for making these
network maps. (Student L8)
I hate associating words very much. But I think I would like to
try strategy with science vocabulary. Because science vocabulary is difficult. So it is efficient to associate science vocabulary.
(Student H2)
Word map is a little efficient. Science words is difficult for me
to learn them by heart so if I used this way, I would study
many science words at the same time. (Student H15)

Mnemonics. The means of all four items were the lowest

among the six VLSs (Item 2, M = 2.55; Item 3, M = 2.71; Item 4,
M = 2.45; Item 5, M = 2.50). Correlations were significant between
Items 4 and 5 (s = .74), Items 2 and 4 (s = .71), and Items 3 and
5 (s = .69). The correlation between Items 2 and 3 (s = .38) is
relatively low, indicating student responses were negatively
inclined. These statistics show that the students consistently
Vocabulary Learning Strategies of Japanese Life Science Students

95

had negative perceptions about the usefulness and the future use
of the strategy, regardless of the word type.
The student comments clearly indicate that some students
found this strategy too difficult to use.
This weeks memory strategy is if I find good link, very useful
and the word is memorized well. But it is difficult for me. So, I
think I dont use this strategy. (Student L11)
I would not like to using this strategy again. Because I dont
come up with some words form and meaning link. (Student H3)

Despite the negative sentiment the statistics reveal, some

thought this strategy was useful for science words.
I thought this strategy is good for studying the science vocabularies. They have very difficult and complex meanings so it is
hard to memorize them. If I write the descriptions of each of new
words or the words tour, it is more easier than I write the vocabularies only. They give me strong impressions. (Student L13)
Because I can relatively easily imagine for science vocabulary. I
think that this strategy suits for science vocabulary. (Student
L15)
Science vocabulary is difficult to image. But remember with Japanese keyword makes easy to recall. So I think this strategy is
good for to study science vocabulary. (Student H12)

Word cards. The students comments show they had been

using this strategy since they started learning English. Similar to
writing rehearsal, the means for all the four items exceeded 3.5
(M = 3.87 for Item 2, M = 3.79 for Item 3, M = 3.63 for Item 4,
M = 3.50 for Item 5). Together with the significant correlations
among items (Items 2 and 3, s = .79; Items 4 and 5, s = .77;
Items 2 and 4, s = .67; Items 3 and 5, s = .64), the statistics show
the students rated this strategy highly regarding its usefulness for
both academic words and science words and they would use the
strategy again for both word types.
Many comments pointed out the convenience of using the
portable word cards.
I made word cards. So, I can bring it outside easily. For
example, in train, at school, at home, in car, wherever I can
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remember words. It is very useful for me to remember words.

(Student L11)
It is portable and handy, so I can learn vocabulary everywhere
and every time. (Student L20)
I always use this strategy when I dont have word lists. Because
I can carry it anywhere and I can use it in the train. And I can
repeat to use it. (Student H5)

Although easy and enjoyable, some students noted its limitation.

I enjoyed making word cards and studying vocab. . . . I can learn
meaning by heart. But this strategy I cant understand meaning
in sentences. (Student H6)
This method is useful for me when I should memorize many
words. However, I want to learn words in sentence. (Student H8)
Some science words are often difficult. So, especially in a science
vocabulary I wish there were example sentence. (Student H17)

Some students noted that another drawback of the strategy is

that making word cards is time-consuming.
This strategy is not suitable for me. Because word cards take a
time to make it. (Student L12)
This method is difficult for me to create some word cards. That
is because it took me much time to make cards. . . . So I think that
word lists are better than word cards. (Student H17)

A third drawback for some students was that the strategy was
boring.
Although it is portable and handy, I get bored soon. (Student L13)
But I often get tired of this way, so I cant continue this way.
(Student L20)

However, given the difficulty of science words, some lower

proficiency students especially felt this strategy was effective when
learning science words.
I think that this strategy is useful too with science vocabulary.
Word cards are so portable that I can memorize difficult words
with them. (Student L2)
Vocabulary Learning Strategies of Japanese Life Science Students

97

I was already using this strategy with science vocabulary too.

What we remember science vocabulary is difficult. But we can
remember by repeating this strategy. (Student L10)
I thought this strategy is good for studying the science vocabularies. They have very difficult and complex meanings so it is
hard to memorize them. If I make the word cards, it is more
easier than I write the vocabularies only. They give me strong
impressions. (Student L12)

Students Vocabulary Learning Behaviors Before and After the

Treatment
The students vocabulary learning behaviors before and after the
treatment are summarized in Table 4. Clearly the gain in learner
behaviors (self-management and input-seeking) was larger among
higher proficiency students, as was the gain in use of the strategies
(imagery, oral rehearsal, and association). On the other hand,
imagery and writing rehearsal decreased among lower proficiency
students. Extrinsic motivation increased slightly for both groups,
whereas intrinsic motivation decreased slightly.

DISCUSSION
Both the statistical analyses and open-ended responses indicate
that the students were very familiar with the VLSs of vocalization,
writing rehearsal, and word cards. This confirmed the authors
assumption these three would be known to many students.
Indeed, the first two strategies are among the six strategies Schmitt
(1997) found Japanese learners used the most for consolidating a
words meaning. The open-ended responses indicate that these
methods were taught in secondary school. The other strategies
involving imagery, association, and mnemonics were less familiar,
again as predicted. Thus, one outcome of this study is that it
exposed learners to new strategies.
Regarding the students perceptions of the individual
strategies for learning general academic vocabulary and science
words, both statistical analyses and open-ended responses
indicate definite preferences. First, for shallower strategies, most
students indicated they would use vocalization again to learn
both types of words although they were well aware of its
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Vocabulary Learning Strategies of Japanese Life Science Students

99

2.87 (0.41)
3.11 (0.18)
2.96 (0.24)
3.94 (0.12)
3.1 (0.42)
2.97 (0.3)
3.76 (0.3)
3.23 (0.35)

(0.35)
(0.28)
(0.21)
(0.12)
(0.47)
(0.27)
(0.35)

3.26 (0.27)

2.62
2.97
3.21
4.25
2.97
2.97
3.75

Posttreatment
Survey
Mean (SD)

Note. Gain is the mean difference (posttest minus pretest).

Self-management
Input-seeking
Imagery
Writing rehearsal
Oral rehearsal
Association
Extrinsic
motivation
Intrinsic
motivation

Pretreatment
Survey
Mean (SD)

Lower Level (N = 21)

0.03

0.25
0.14
0.25
0.31
0.13
0
0.01

Gain

3.36 (0.45)

3.02 (0.6)
2.88 (0.42)
2.87 (0.54)
3.61 (0.39)
3 (0.18)
3.04 (0.18)
3.82 (0.24)

3.34 (0.45)

3.31 (0.49)
3.11 (0.31)
2.94 (0.28)
3.59 (0.24)
3.23 (0.36)
3.1 (0.12)
3.88 (0.12)

Posttreatment
Survey
Mean (SD)

Higher Level (N = 17)

Pretreatment
Survey
Mean (SD)

TABLE 4. Means, Standard Deviations, and Gains in the Two Groups

0.02

0.29
0.23
0.07
0.02
0.23
0.06
0.06

Gain

disadvantages (time-consuming and noisy); lower proficiency

learners especially felt it was efficient for learning science
vocabulary as opposed to more cognitively demanding strategies
involving imagery, association, and mnemonics. Writing rehearsal
was viewed even more positively. Students indicated they would
continue to use it for learning both types of vocabulary. Both
proficiency groups believed the strategy was useful for learning
the spelling of long or complicated words. More negative
students, too, indicated they would still use the strategy but in
combination with other strategies. The last shallower strategy,
using word cards, was viewed the most positively of all
strategies, and most students indicated they would continue to
use it for both types of words. The cards portability and being
able to use them everywhere were pluses. Negative comments
highlighted the time it takes to make the cards and the lack of
sentences. As a whole, the findings indicate many life science
majors would continue to use these shallower strategies to study
science vocabulary.
Turning to less familiar strategies involving deeper processing,
although the learners might have seen their value, they were
generally less enthusiastic about their usefulness. Imagery
strategies were perceived as useful for neither learning academic
words nor science words. Regarding science words specifically,
many students felt imagery strategies were too difficult and
inefficient. The strategy as well as science lexis were too difficult.
However, a few higher proficiency students comments show their
willingness to try imagery, particularly writing true sentences,
with science words. Association strategies, too, were perceived as
complex, time-consuming, or requiring drawing skills.
Undoubtedly, this impacted students willingness to use the
strategies in the future with either type of vocabulary. As with
imagery strategies, open-ended comments indicate some students
in both proficiency groups saw the value of building association
networks for learning science words, and accordingly expressed
an interest in using association to learn science words. Finally,
mnemonics were perceived as the least useful of the six strategies
taught; students were clearly unwilling to use them for learning
any vocabulary in the future. This was somewhat surprising as
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mnemonics are popular with high school students for

remembering historical periods and atomic symbols. One
disadvantage may be that learners must learn two unrelated
definitions: one for the strategy and one for the words actual
definition. Despite being cumbersome, a few responses show that
some students found using keywords or word tours helpful in
recalling meaning. In short, although life science majors appeared
to understand how these three deeper strategies could be helpful
in learning science words, their perceived utility was limited by
both the strategies complexity and the difficulty of science
vocabulary.
Finally, the study examined how explicit instruction affected
the students vocabulary behaviors. The results confirm Mizumoto
and Takeuchis findings (2009b) that VLS instruction appears to
have increased the use of some strategies (namely, selfmanagement and input seeking), but not others. However, unlike
in Mizumoto and Takeuchis study, in the current study more
proficient learners, not lower learners, posted greater gains for all
strategy subsets. Interestingly, some strategy use actually
decreased or changed very little. For example, writing rehearsal
decreased for both groups, especially the lower proficiency group.
This was unexpected because the statistical analyses and openended comments immediately after using the strategy indicate the
learners intention to continue using it. We surmise that trying
new strategies may have shown the learners more effective
strategies that they were now using. Not surprisingly, given the
negative attitudes in the open-ended comments, there was no
change at all among lower proficiency learners for association and
a significant decrease for imagery, indicating a total rejection of
these strategies by those who were unfamiliar with them before
instruction. The decrease in imagery following the treatment is
more confirmation of lower proficiency students negative
perceptions of it. Interestingly, and again unexpectedly, both
proficiency groups posted gains in oral rehearsal. Finally, there
was very little change in either extrinsic or intrinsic motivation. It
could be that the period of instruction was too short or possibly
that VLS instruction, for these science students, did not affect their
motivation to learn English.
Vocabulary Learning Strategies of Japanese Life Science Students

101

CONCLUSION AND IMPLICATIONS

This study investigated the VLS preferences of lower and higher
proficiency Japanese EFL students majoring in life sciences. The
students received supplemental explicit VLS instruction on six
strategies, three of which were shallower (vocalization, written
rehearsal, and word cards) and three of which involved deeper
processing (imagery, association, and mnemonics). The results
first and foremost give us some understanding of the VLS use
and preferences of life science majors and reveal which strategies
they perceived as useful for learning science words and why.
Second, the study confirms the value of explicit VLS instruction.
It can expose lower and higher proficiency learners to new
strategies. Because this study included males as well as females,
it adds to earlier research on explicit VLS instruction which
involved females only (Mizumoto & Takeuchi, 2009b). VLS
instruction can give all learners more ways of approaching
vocabulary, thereby lightening the learning burden for words
they view as difficult, such as science vocabulary. Third, this
study reveals that many learners are resistant to changing VLSs.
Many preferred familiar strategies to new ones. Unless they see
compelling reasons for changing their strategy use, they will not.
Instead, instructors might suggest ways of enhancing these
strategies, for example, encouraging students to add sentences to
word cards. Fourth, open-ended comments clearly indicate that
learners are practical. Although they may see the value of
strategies involving deeper processing, they seek to use their time
as efficiently as possible. Thus, when teachers introduce new
VLS, time-intensive strategies, such as deeper ones, may be
rejected as being inefficient even if they are perceived as useful.
Finally, in recommending specific VLS to students, instructors
should keep the students proficiency level firmly in mind. Lower
proficiency learners may not have the grammatical and lexical
capacity necessary for more cognitively demanding tasks
involving deeper processing. The open-ended responses reveal
that lower proficiency students felt their English language skills
were inadequate to write true sentences in English and many
believed they lacked sufficient knowledge of synonyms and
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related words to successfully create association networks or

vocabulary word maps. Given the grammatical and lexical
challenges of such tasks, it appears that lower proficiency
learners preferences for shallower strategies actually match their
abilities.
Although the findings of this study add to our
understanding of learner variables affecting VLS use, most
specifically the VLS preferences of life science majors, the study
has two limitations. First, the sample size was too small to
generalize the findings to other life science majors. Second, the
study involved only first- and second-year life science major
students who had been exposed to limited English science
vocabulary. If the study had been conducted with third- or
fourth-year students, who were actively reading research articles
in English and taking classes using English science vocabulary,
the results may have indicated preferences for different
strategies. Under those circumstances, a longitudinal study or a
study including third and fourth year students might have been
more revealing.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
We would like to thank Takanori Sato for his invaluable assistance
on the statistical analyses used in this article.

THE AUTHORS
Andrea Little has been teaching English for academic purposes
and English for specific purposes in Japan to university students
and adults for over 20 years. Her current research interests include
vocabulary acquisition, ESP, computer-assisted language learning,
and task-based language teaching.
Kaoru Kobayashi teaches English at Japanese universities,
including Tokyo University of Pharmacy and Life Sciences. Her
research interests are in vocabulary acquisition and computerassisted language learning. She has published in Malaysian Journal
of ELT Research and The JALT (Japan Association for Language
Teaching) CALL Journal.
Vocabulary Learning Strategies of Japanese Life Science Students

103

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APPENDIX A
Target Word List
List 1
Vocalization
features
process
interpretation
maintenance
derived
alternative
evaluation
specific
strategies
benefit
assume
corresponding

List 2
Imagery strategies
procedure
journal
resources
region
principle
structure
factors
equation
authority
final
perceived

List 3
Writing rehearsal
relevant
aspects
potential
circumstances
initial
assessment
significant
concept
available
dominant
required
distribution

List 4
Association
section
elements
criteria

List 5
Mnemonics
role
period
area

List 6
Word cards
function
deduction
source

Vocabulary Learning Strategies of Japanese Life Science Students

105

APPENDIX A. (Continued)
research
comments
demonstration
theory
variables
percent
data
response

primary
instance
positive
components
method
range
select

previous
acquisition
analysis
estimate
approach
consistent
achieve
transfer
similar

APPENDIX B
Study Schedule and Tasks

Week
1

Strategy
type

Type of
processing

Vocalization Shallower

Choice of tasks

General
learning tips

Repeat L2L1 word Preview unknown

pairs
several times
Read sample
sentences from the
word list aloud
several times

words

Analyze part of

speech/word parts

Guess from
context

Decide whether to
skip new word

Imagery
strategies

Deeper

Writing
rehearsal

Shallower

Write true

Expand your way of

Write each

Conscious input of

sentences
Create visual
images
word
56 times

learning vocabulary

English vocabulary

Set targets in

vocabulary learning

Association

Deeper

Association

network
Vocabulary
word map

106

Designate time for

vocabulary learning

TESOL Journal

APPENDIX B. (Continued)

Week
5

Strategy
type
Mnemonics

Type of
processing
Deeper

General
learning tips

Choice of tasks

Word tour
Keyword

Attempt to use new

Make L2L1

Set a realistic weekly

words while learning

vocabulary

method

Word cards

Shallower

word cards

learning goal
Test yourself regularly

APPENDIX C
Sample HandoutStrategy 4: Association
Part 1: This Weeks General Tip to Make Your Vocabulary
Learning More Efficient
Designate time for vocabulary learning: Learning vocabulary is an
endless task that takes a lot of time and effort. But you can make it
more efficient by scheduling a short time every day for learning
and reviewing vocabulary. You dont need to schedule a long
period of time. In fact, it seems that scheduling 5 minutes two or
three times a day is much more productive than 30 minutes once a
day. For example, you could spend 5 minutes each morning on
the train memorizing new words and spend 5 minutes on the train
in the evening reviewing words. Spending a short time each day
will make vocabulary learning easier and more effective.
Part 2: This Weeks Memory Strategy to Try With the Word List
Explanation of the Strategy
Research shows that often people remember words better by
making associations, or connections, in their minds. One way to do
this is to make an association network centered on the new word
connect the word to other words that you associate with it and
draw a diagram. Figure 1 is an example. The network can be large
Vocabulary Learning Strategies of Japanese Life Science Students

107

or small, but the important thing is that it is unique because you

have thought of the words and made the connections yourself.
Putting the Strategy into Practice
Choose one method from below and try it out.
Method 1association network
1 Find the meaning of each word on the word list.
2 Make one network for each target word.
3 Write the word in the center, and then add other words that you associate
with the center word.
4 Test yourself on the train tomorrow by recalling the word and its associations.

Method 2vocabulary word map

1 Make one map for each word.
2 Write the target word in the center. Then follow these steps:

Use your knowledge to guess the meaning of the word.

Then look up the English definition of the word.
Next, write the Japanese translation of the word.
Draw a simple picture that shows the meaning of the word.
Finally, in the box labeled Association put any clue that will help you
remember the word.

3 Review the maps you made on the train tomorrow morning!

After studying the words with this strategy

1 Complete the short survey for this strategy on Codex.
2 Hand in the association network or word map you made for each word.

Figure 1. Association network for mammal

From [Link]
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Figure 2. Vocabulary word map

3 In your log book, write your opinion of the strategy.

Source: Word map: [Link]

APPENDIX D
VLS Questionnaire for Japanese EFL Learners (Originally in
Japanese)
Self-management
1 I regularly review the vocabulary I learned to check if I remember it.
2 I keep a vocabulary book or word list to check the vocabulary any time I
wish.
3 I try to make it a rule to memorize a certain number of words in a specific
time period (e.g., I will memorize 10 words a day).
4 I try to learn extra vocabulary in addition to what I am taught in class.
5 I try to take time for vocabulary learning.
6 I consciously set aside time to study vocabulary in order to prepare for tests
(e.g., TOEIC, TOEFL, Eiken: English Proficiency Test).
7 I use my own methods for remembering, checking, or reviewing
vocabulary.

Vocabulary Learning Strategies of Japanese Life Science Students

109

Input-seeking
8 I try to expose myself to English vocabulary by reading or listening a lot.
9 I try to manage the learning environment so as to expose myself to English
vocabulary.
10 I try to make use of the media (TV, radio, Internet, mobile phone, or movies) to learn vocabulary.
11 I study vocabulary with the intention of using it.

Imagery
12 When I try to remember vocabulary, I make a mental picture of what can be
associated with a words meaning.
13 When I try to remember vocabulary, I link my personal experiences to it.
14 When I try to remember vocabulary, I create an image of the spellings or
orthographic forms.
15 When I try to remember vocabulary, I use the keyword method (keyword
mnemonic technique).
16 When I try to remember vocabulary, I imagine whether the meaning of the
word is negative or positive.

Writing rehearsal
17 When I try to remember vocabulary, I write it repeatedly.
18 When I try to remember vocabulary, I write it on a note or a card.
19 When I try to remember vocabulary, I remember not only the meaning but
also the spelling of the word by writing it.

Oral rehearsal
20 When I try to remember vocabulary, I say it aloud repeatedly.
21 When I try to remember vocabulary, I vocalize it to remember not only the
meaning but also the pronunciation of the word.
22 When I try to remember vocabulary, I say the sample sentence aloud.

Association
23 When I try to remember vocabulary, I associate it with the synonyms (e.g.,
begin and start) or antonyms (e.g., positive and negative) I already know.
24 When I try to remember vocabulary, I also memorize the synonyms or
antonyms of the word.
25 When I try to remember vocabulary, I memorize words similar to it (in
meaning, sound, or shape) or the related words in a group.

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I study English. . .
Extrinsic motivation
26 Because I require school credits to graduate.
27 In order to get a prestigious job in the future.
28 In order to receive a better salary later on.

Intrinsic motivation
29 For the pleasure I experience when I surpass myself in my English studies.
30 For the enjoyment I experience when I can grasp the meaning of words if I
keep studying.
31 For the satisfaction I feel when I am in the process of accomplishing difficult
exercises in English.
32 For the high I feel when hearing English spoken.
33 For the high feeling that I experience while speaking English.
34 For the pleasure I get from hearing English spoken by native speakers of
English.

Vocabulary Learning Strategies of Japanese Life Science Students

111