MSM1Aa MATHS CORE A: APPLICATIONS OF

DIFFERENTIATION

pitals Rule for Limits

1. LHo
Fact 1.1. Suppose that x1 < a < x2 , that f an g are differentiable on (x1 , x2 ) and
that g 0 (a) 6= 0. Suppose also that
(1) limxa f (x) = limxa g(x) = 0 and
(2) limxa
Then

f 0 (x)
exists.
g 0 (x)
f (x)
f 0 (x)
= lim 0
.
xa g(x)
xa g (x)
lim

2. Increasing and Decreasing Functions

Definition 2.1. Let f be a real-valued function f of a real variable and let I = (x1 , x2 )
be an interval in dom(f ). Then f is said to be:
(1) increasing (non-decreasing) on I if f (a) f (b) whenever a, b I and a < b;
(2) strictly increasing on I if f (a) < f (b) whenever a, b I and a < b;
(3) decreasing (non-increasing) on I if f (a) f (b) whenever a, b I and a < b;
(4) strictly decreasing on I if f (a) > f (b) whenever a, b I and a < b.
Fact 2.2. Let f be a real-valued function of a real variable that is differentiable on
I = (x1 , x2 ).
(1) f 0 (x) 0 for all x I if and only if f is non-decreasing on I.
(2) If f 0 (x) > 0 for all x I, then f is strictly increasing on I.
(3) f 0 (x) 0 for all x I if and only if f is non-increasing on I.
(4) If f 0 (x) < 0 for all x I, then f is strictly decreasing on I.

MSM1AA MATHS CORE A: APPLICATIONS OF DIFFERENTIATION

3. Concave Functions and Points of Inflexion

Definition 3.1. Let f be a real-valued function of a real variable that is differentiable
on I = (x1 , x2 ).
(1) (The graph of) f is concave up on I if f 0 (x) strictly increasing on I.
(2) (The graph of) f is concave down on I if f 0 (x) strictly decreasing on I.
(3) A point c I is a point of inflexion of f if:
(a) either, f is concave up on (x1 , c) and concave down on (c, x2 );
(b) or, f is concave down on (x1 , c) and concave up on (c, x2 ).
From Fact 2.2 we have the following:
Fact 3.2. Let f be a real-valued function of a real variable that is twice differentiable
on I = (x1 , x2 ).
(1) If f 00 (x) > 0 for all x (x1 , x2 ), then f is concave up on (x1 , x2 ).
(2) If f 00 (x) < 0 for all x (x1 , x2 ), then f is concave down on (x1 , x2 ).
(3) If c (x1 , x2 ) is a point of inflexion, then f 00 (c) = 0.
(4) If f 00 (c) = 0 and f 00 changes sign at c, then c is a point of inflexion.
Note that if c is a point if inflexion, then f 0 (c) does not have to be 0. To find
points of inflexion, first identify all points c such that f 00 (c) = 0 and then determine
at which of these points f 00 changes sign.
4. Stationary Points and Extrema
Definition 4.1. Let f be a real-valued function of a real variable.
(1) f has a local maximum at c if there is some open interval (x1 , x2 ) containing
c such that f (x) 6 f (c) for all x (x1 , x2 ).
(2) f has a absolute or global maximum at c if f (x) 6 f (c) for all x dom(f ).
(3) f has a local minimum at c if there is some open interval (x1 , x2 ) containing
c such that f (x) > f (c) for all x (x1 , x2 ).
(4) f has a absolute or global minimum at c if f (x) > f (c) for all x dom(f ).
(5) f has a local (or global) extremum at c if it has either a local (or global)
maximum or minimum at c.
Definition 4.2. Let f be a real-valued function of a real variable. The point c is a
stationary point of f if f 0 (c) = 0.
Stationary points are often called turning or critical points.
Fact 4.3. Let f : [x1 , x2 ] R be a continuous function. Then f has a global
maximum and a global minimum (we say that f attains its bounds). Moreover, each
global extremum of f is either:
(1) an end point of the interval [x1 , x2 ]; or
(2) a point where the derivative of f does not exist; or
(3) a stationary point of f .

MSM1Aa MATHS CORE A: APPLICATIONS OF DIFFERENTIATION

5. Classifying Stationary Points

5.1. The First Derivative Test. This test always works for classifying stationary
points, but can be tricky to implement.
Suppose that f has a stationary point at c.
(1) f has a local maximum at c provided f 0 (c) = 0 and:
f 0 > 0 immediately to the left of c, and
f 0 < 0 immediately to the right of c.
x=
f 0 (x)
slope

c c c+
+ve 0 ve
/ \

(2) f has a local minimum at c provided f 0 (c) = 0 and:

f 0 < 0 immediately to the left of c, and
f 0 > 0 immediately to the right of c.
x=
f 0 (x)
slope

c c c+
ve 0 +ve
\ /

(3) f has a stationary point of inflexion at c provided f 0 (c) = 0 and:

either f 0 < 0 both immediately to the left of c and immediately to the
right of c;
or f 0 > 0 both immediately to the left of c and immediately to the right
of c.
x=
f 0 (x)
slope

c c c+
+ve 0 +ve
/ /

or

x=
f 0 (x)
slope

c c c+
ve 0 ve
\ \

5.2. The Second Derivative Test. This test does not work when f 00 (c) = 0.
Suppose that f has a stationary point at c.
(1) f has a local maximum at c if f 00 (c) < 0;
(2) f has a local minimum at c if f 00 (c) > 0;
(3) The test fails if f 00 (c) = 0.

MSM1AA MATHS CORE A: APPLICATIONS OF DIFFERENTIATION

6. Graph Sketching
(1) Use your knowledge of functions.
(2) Identify the asymptotic behaviour of y = f (x) as x . If y = f (x)
approaches a line y = mx + c, then this line is an oblique asymptote. It is
also possible for y = f (x) to be asymptotic to other functions. Try to identify
whether y = f (x) lies above the asymptote or below it. In particular, if
f (x) c as x , then there is a horizontal asymptote.
(3) Identify the asymptotic behaviour of y = f (x) near points where y tends to
: if f (x) as x c, what happens at c+ and c , i.e. just to the
right of c and just to the left? It is possible for f to tend to + on one side
of c and on the other, or for it to tend to + on both sides of c, or
on both sides. These are the vertical asymptotes of y = f (x).
(4) Plot easy to calculate key points (x- and y-intercepts, stationary points).
(5) Observe whether y is positive or negative in key regions, greater than or
smaller than an asymptote.
(6) Calculate f 0 : find and classify the stationary points (if any) and note where
the gradient is positive or negative.
(7) Calculate f 00 : find any points of inflexion and note where the function is
concave up and concave down.
7. Tangents, Normals and Inverse Functions
Definition 7.1. Let f : R R be a function and (a, b) be a point on the graph of f
(so that b = f (a)). The tangent to the graph of f at (a, b) is the straight line passing
through the point (a, b) which has the same gradient as f at (a, b). The normal to
the graph of f at (a, b) is the straight line passing through (a, b) perpendicular to the
tangent at (a, b).
Fact 7.2. The gradient of f at (a, b) is f 0 (a), hence the gradient of the tangent to
the graph at the point (a, b) is f 0 (a).
The gradient of the normal to the graph at (a, b) is 1/f 0 (a).
yb
The equation of the tangent to the graph of f at (a, b) is given by f 0 (a) =
.
xa
yb
1
=
,
The equation of the normal to the graph of f at (a, b) is given by 0
f (a)
xa
provided f 0 (a) 6= 0. If f 0 (a) = 0, then the normal has equation x = a.
These equations can be rearranged into the standard form y = cx + d.
The Graph of an Inverse Function
Suppose that f : R R is a function with an inverse f 1 . Then the graph of f
is the set of points in R2 of the form (x, y) where y = f (x) and the graph of f 1 is
the set of points in R2 of the form (y, x) where x = f 1 (y) (note that it does not
matter what letter we use to represent the dependent and independent variables).
Now y = f (x) if and only if x = f 1 (y) and (x, y) the reflection of (y, x) in the line
y = x. Hence the graph of f 1 is the reflection of the graph of f in the line y = x.

MSM1Aa MATHS CORE A: APPLICATIONS OF DIFFERENTIATION

8. Examples
Example. Determine limx0 (cos x 1)/x2 .
Solution. As x 0, both cos x 1 0 and x2 0, so by lHopitals Rule
cos x 1
sin x
lim
= lim
.
2
x0
x0
x
2x
Again, as x 0, both sin x 0 and 2x 0, so we can apply lHopitals Rule a
second time to get
cos x 1
sin x
cos x
1
lim
= lim
= lim
= .
2
x0
x0
x0
x
2x
2
2
00
4
Example. Although f (0) = 0, f (x) = x does not have a point of inflexion at 0.
Example. Let f (x) = x3 + 2x2 x 2, find the regions where f is strictly increasing
and strictly decreasing and find the points of inflexion of f .
Solution. f (x) = x3 + 2x2 x 2 = (x 1)(x + 1)(x
+ 2), f 0 (x) = 3x2 + 4x 1 and
0
f 00 (x) = 6x + 4. The roots of 3x2 + 4x
7)/3,
positive,
1 are (2
so f is strictly

and hence f is strictly increasing on , (2 7)/3 and on (2 + 7)/3, .

f 0 is strictly negative, so f is strictly decreasing on (2 7)/3, (2 + 7)/3 .

For the points of inflexion f 00 (x) = 0, when x = 2/3. So x = 2/3 is a possible
point of inflexion. If x is lightly less than 2/3, 6x is slightly less than 4, so
f 00 (x) < 0. If x is slightly greater than 2/3, then 6x is slightly greater than 4, so
that f 00 (x) > 0. Hence f 00 changes sign at 2/3, so this is a point of inflexion.
Example. Determine the nature of the stationary points of f (x) = x4 6x2 + 8x + 1.
df
(x) = 0.
dx
0
3
Since f (x) = 4x 12x + 8, stationary points occur when 0 = x3 3x + 2. But
x3 3x + 2 = (x 1)(x2 + x 2) = (x 1)2 (x + 2), so stationary points occur when
x 1 = 0 or x + 2 = 0, i.e. when x = 1, or 2.
Case 1, x = 2: Now f 00 (x) = 12x2 12 so, when x = 2, f 00 (x) > 0. Therefore,
by the Second Derivative Test, f has a local minimum at x = 2.
Case 2, x = 1: When x = 1, f 00 (x) = 0 so the Second Derivative Test does not
apply.
x
1 1 1+
f0
+ve 0 +ve
slope
/ /
Consider values of x close to 1, so that x = 1+h for some small positive or negative
h. Then f 0 (x) = f 0 (1 + h) = 4(1 + h)3 12(1 + h) + 8 = 12h2 + 4h3 = 4h2 (3 + h). For
small h (positive or negative), (3+h) is positive and 4h2 is always positive, so sign
analysis shows us that immediately to the left of x = 1 (negative h) and immediately
to the right of x = 1 (positive h), f 0 (x) is positive.
Hence we see that there is a point of inflection at x = 1.
Solution. Stationary points when

Chris Good, Nov. 07