ADDITIONAL MATHEMATICS
PROJECT WORK 2 / 2010
THEORY OF PROBABILITY
NAME : SYAFIQAH NAJWA BINTI KAMARUDIN
CLASS : 5 HARVARD
TEACHER : PN. AZIMA
SCHOOL : MRSM PONTIAN
CONTENTS
PART 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
PART 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
PART 3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
PART 4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
PART 5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
PART 1
Introduction
Probability theory is a branch of mathematics concerned with
determining the long run frequency or chance that a given event will
occur. This chance is determined by dividing the number of selected
events by the number of total events possible. For example, each of
the six faces of a die has one in six probability on a single toss.
Inspired by problems encountered by seventeenth century gamblers,
probability theory has developed into one of the most respected and
useful branches of mathematics with applications in many different
industries. Perhaps what makes probability theory most valuable is
that it can be used to determine the expected outcome in any
situation from the chances that a plane will crash to the probability
that a person will win the lottery.
The Probability and Its Applications sequence issues research
monographs, with the expository excellence to make them useful and
available to advanced students, in probability and stochastic
processes, with a particular focus on:
Basics of probability containing stochastic analysis and Markov
and other stochastic processes
Applications of probability in analysis
Application Point processes, random sets, and other spatial
models
Branching processes and other models of population growth
Genetics and other stochastic models in Application biology
Information theory and signal processing
Communication networks
Application Stochastic models in operations research
The probability theory
The theoretical probability, or probability, P(E), of an event E is the
fraction of times we expect E to occur if we repeat the same
experiment over and over. In an experiment in which all outcomes are
equally likely, the theoretical probability of an event E is
Number of favorable outcomes n(E)
=
= .
Total number of outcomes n(S)
P(E)
(The "favorable outcomes" are the outcomes in E.)
The empirical approach to determining probabilities relies on data
from actual experiments to determine approximate probabilities
instead of the assumption of equal likeliness. Probabilities in these
experiments are defined as the ratio of the frequency of the
occupance of an event, f(E), to the number of trials in the experiment,
n, written symbolically as P(E) = f(E)/n. If our experiment involves
flipping a coin, the empirical probability of heads is the number of
heads divided by the total number of flips.
The relationship between these empirical probabilities and the
theoretical probabilities is suggested by the Law of Large Numbers. It
states that as the number of trials of an experiment increases, the
empirical probability approaches the theoretical probability. This
makes sense as we would expect that if we roll a die numerous times,
each number would come up approximately 1/6 of the time. The study
of empirical probabilities is known as statistics.
PART 2
(a)Possible outcomes when the dice is tossed once
{1,2,3,4,5,6}
(b)Possible outcomes when two dice are tossed
simultaneously
Total Outcome
{ (1,1), (1,2), (1,3), (1,4), (1,5), (1,6)
(2,1), (2,2), (2,3), (2,4), (2,5), (2,6)
(3,1), (3,2), (3,3), (3,4), (3,5), (3,6)
(4,1), (4,2), (4,3), (4,4), (4,5), (4,6)
(5,1), (5,2), (5,3), (5,4), (5,5), (5,6)
(6,1), (6,2), (6,3), (6,4), (6,5), (6,6)}
Chart
DICE2
6 (1,6) (2,6) (3,6) (4,6) (5,6) (6,6)
5 (1,5) (2,5) (3,5) (4,5) (5,5) (6,5)
4 (1,4) (2,4) (3,4) (4,4) (5,4) (6,6)
3 (1,3) (2,3) (3,3) (4,3) (5,3) (6,3)
2 (1,2) (2,2) (3,2) (4,2) (5,2) (6,2)
1 (1,1) (2,1) (3,1) (4,1) (5,1) (6,1)
1 2 3 4 5 6 DICE 1
Table
1 2 3 4 5 6
1 (1,1) (1,2) (1,3) (1,4) (1,5) (1,6)
2 (2,1) (2,2) (2,3) (2,4) (2,5) (2,6)
3 (3,1) (3,2) (3,3) (3,4) (3,5) (3,6)
4 (4,1) (4,2) (4,3) (4,4) (4,5) (4,6)
5 (5,1) (5,2) (5,3) (5,4) (5,5) (5,6)
6 (6,1) (6,2) (6,3) (6,4) (6,5) (6,6)
Tree diagram
PART 3
(a)
SUM OF THE
DOTS ON BOTH POSSIBLE OUTCOMES PROBABILITIES
TURNED UP (X)
FACES
2 (1,1) 1/36
3 (1,2),(2,1) 2/36=1/18
4 (1,3),(2,2),(3,1) 3/36=1/12
5 (1,4),(2,3),(3,2),(4,1) 4/36=1/9
6 (1,5),(2,4),(3,3),(4,2),(5,1) 5/36
7 (1,6),(2,5),(3,4),(4,3),(5,2),(6,1) 6/36
8 (2,6),(3,5),(4,4),(5,3),(6,2) 5/36
9 (3,6),(4,5),(5,4),(6,3) 4/36=1/9
10 (4,6),(5,5),(6,4) 3/36=1/12
11 (5,6),(6,5) 2/36=1/18
12 (6,6) 1/36
(b)Possible outcomes of
A = { (1,1), (1,2), (1,3), (1,4), (1,5), (1,6)
(2,1), (2,2), (2,3), (2,4), (2,5), (2,6)
(3,1), (3,2), (3,3), (3,4), (3,5), (3,6)
(4,1), (4,2), (4,3), (4,4), (4,5), (4,6)
(5,1), (5,2), (5,3), (5,4), (5,5), (5,6)
(6,1), (6,2), (6,3), (6,4), (6,5), (6,6)}
B=ø
P = Both number are prime
P = {(2,2), (2,3), (2,5), (3,3), (3,5), (5,3), (5,5)}
Q = Difference of 2 number is odd
Q = { (1,2), (1,4), (1,6), (2,1), (2,3), (2,5), (3,2), (3,4), (3,6), (4,1), (4,3),
(4,5), (5,2), (5,4), (5,6), (6,1), (6,3), (6,5) }
C=PUQ
C = {1,2), (1,4), (1,6), (2,1), (2,2), (2,3), (2,5), (3,2), (3,3), (3,4), (3,6),
(4,1), (4,3), (4,5), (5,2), (5,3), (5,4), (5,5), (5,6), (6,1), (6,3), (6,5) }
R = The sum of 2 numbers are even
R = {(1,1), (1,3), (1,5), (2,2), (2,4), (2,6), (3,1), (3,3), (3,5), (4,2), (4,4),
(4,6), (5,1), (5,3), (5,5), (6,2(, (6,4), (6,6)}
D=P∩R
D = {(2,2), (3,3), (3,5), (5,3), (5,5)}
PART 4
x f fx Fx2
2 2 4 8
3 4 12 36
4 4 16 64
5 9 45 225
6 4 24 144
7 11 77 539
8 4 32 256
9 6 54 486
10 3 30 300
11 1 11 121
12 2 24 288
From the table,
(i)
(ii)
Variance, 2= fx _ 2
f
=2467 _ 6.582
50
=6.0436
(iii)
Standard Deviation = √∑ fx _
∑f
= √ 2467 _ 6.582
50
= 2.458
