1. Materials Materials used in the Workshop — The main materials used in the workshop can be divided into two groups: 1. Ferrous—containing iron. 2. Non-ferrous—containing no iron. 1. FERROUS GROUP Metal obtained from iron ore—magnetic—will rust. Iron ore is mined in U.S.S.R., U.S.A., China, Canada, France, Sweden, India, Brazil, Venezuela, Liberia, Chile, Australia, Peru, South Africa, U.K., Malaysia, Spain, West Germany. Iron ore (red or rust colour)—extracted by blast furnace process—melted iron flows into moulds—resulting castings known as “pigs”—hence pig-iron. From pig-iron we get: 1. Cast iron. 2, Wrought iron. 3. Steels (mild steel, silver steel, high-speed steel, cast steel, etc.). cast iron Iron ore—pig-iron. wrought iron steels: mild steel silver steel high-speed | known as steel tool steel. cast steel etc. CasT IRON 1, Cast ina mould for some particular purpose—hence name, 2. Very brittle—no elasticity in tension, torsion (twisting). —easily fractured by sudden blow. 3. Very strong under compression. 4 Dark dull grey colour. 141. Materials Materials used in the Workshop The main materials used in the workshop can be divided into two groups: 1, Ferrous—containing iron. 2. Non-ferrous—containing no iron. 1. FERROUS GROUP Metal obtained from iron ore—magnetic—will rust. Iron ore is mined in U.S.S.R., U.S.A., China, Canada, France, Sweden, India, Brazil, Venezuela, Liberia, Chile, Australia, Peru, South Africa, U.K., Malaysia, Spain, West Germany. Iron ore (red or rust colour)—extracted by blast furnace process—melted iron flows into moulds—resulting castings known as “pigs”—hence pig-iron. From pig-iron we get: 1. Cast iron. 2. Wrought iron. 3. Steels (mild steel, silver steel, high-speed steel, cast steel, etc.). cast iron Iron ore—pig-iron wrought iron steels: mild steel silver steel high-speed known as steel tool steel. cast steel etc. CAasT IRON 1. Cast ina mould for some particular purpose—hence name, 2. Very brittle—no elasticity in tension, torsion (twisting). —easily fractured by sudden blow. 3. Very strong under compression. 4 Dark dull grey colour. 1OIA METALWORK NOTES . Sandy in texture. . Cheap to produce. . Easily machined. . Low melting temperature. . Uses: intricate shapes such as slides and bases for machine tool beds. Other general uses: gutters, troughs. WROUGHT IRON DAnPwonwwe - Purified pig-iron—small carbon content. . Bends easily,.hot or cold—does not fracture readily. . Resists atmospheric corrosion well. . Blue-black colour. . Very malleable and ductile. . Uses: rivets, decorative gates, railings, crane hooks, chains, railway couplings. MILD STEEL 1. 2 URW 8. Most-used material in the workshop. Produced by three main processes :— (a) Open Hearth, (b) Electric Arc, (c) Basic Oxygen. - Carbon content up to 0:25% (approximate). . Blue-grey colour. . Obtainable in all shapes, i.e. sheet, wire, rod, bar (all sections), tube. . Easily worked, ie. saw, file, drill, screw, machine, bend. . Cannot be hardened and tempered by usual heat treatment method—only by process of case-hardening. Uses: bridgework, structures, chains, pipes, rivets. SILVER STEEL AwpwWn= - Name refers to its appearance—contains no silver. . Can be hardened and tempered. . Usually supplied in rods 333 mm, | m, and 2 m long. .. Bright finish—accurate size. . Relatively strong—medium weight. . Uses: tools, components. MATERIALS 3 HIGH-SPEED STEEL 1. Mainly used for cutting-tools, i.e. drills, ete. 2. Self-hardening quality. 3. Contains tungsten and manganese. 4. Generally dark blue colour. 5. Avoid overheating when grinding (cracks, fracture). CAST STEEL 1. High carbon steel. 2. Expensive. 3. Brittle and hard—annealed by heating to cherry red— allow to cool slowly. 4. Blue-grey colour. 5. Uses: tools such as punches, scribers, files, vice-jaws, ete. 2. NON-FERROUS GROUP Non-magnetic, non-rusting. The main non-ferrous metals used in the workshop are: Copper found in U.S.A., U.S.S.R., Chile, Zambia. Tin found in Malaysia, Bolivia, Thailand, China. Zinc found in Canada, U.S.A., U.S.S.R., Aus- tralia, Peru, Japan, Mexico, Poland. Lead found in Australia, U.S.S.R., U.S.A., Canada, Mexico, Peru. Aluminium from bauxite found in Jamaica, Surinam, U.S.S.R., Guyana, France, U.S.A. A mixture of two or more of the above gives us alloys, the principal of these being: Brass Copper/zinc. Bronze Copper/tin. Gun-metal — Copper/tin/zinc. Duralumin Aluminium/copper/manganese/magnesium. Solder Lead/tin.4 METALWORK NOTES COPPER 3 Z ZINC . Mined from earth as ore. . Easily worked—forms into intricate shapes. . Bluish-white colour. . Durable. . Coating for iron and steel to prevent rust. . Hardens when hammered. . Alloyed with other metals. . Uses: coating on dustbins, pails, corrugated iron. SPADARWN PHENANAWNS NAWBwWNE . Ore mined from earth—can be found also in pure state. . Malleable and ductile. . Red colour. . Good conductor of heat and electricity. . Valuable for electrical work—drawn into wire. Can be joined by soft and hard soldering, and welding. Work hardens. . Expensive. . Uses: electrical work, alloying, plumbing, roof coverings, ornamental work. . Mineral obtained from the earth. Soft. ; Shiny silvery colour. . Expensive. . Rustless—does not corrode. . Usually mixed with other metals. . Uses: plating, solders, pewter. LEAD NAWAWNE . Mined from earth as ore. ., Low melting point. . Grey colour. . Malleable—easily worked and shaped. . Expensive. A heavy metal. . Resists corrosion. MATERIALS, 5 8. 9, Very little elasticity. Uses: batteries, paint, glass, solder, type metal (printing), shot and bullets, cable covering, D.P.C. flashings, white-metal bearings. ALUMINIUM NHAWRWN \o 90 . Mined as bauxite. . Most abundant metallic element. . Bright white silvery colour. . Very light in weight. . Good conductor of heat and electricity. . Resists corrosion due to tenacious oxide film on surface. . Can be cast, wrought, welded, extruded, spun (easily recoverable as scrap—can be used again). . Generally alloyed to give more strength. . Cannot be soldered in usual way but can be brazed with special silicon—aluminium alloy. 10. Uses: foil, kitchen utensils, aircraft, reflectors, silvering mirrors. BRass 1. One of the best-known alloy systems—copper/zinc. 2. Malleable. 3. Yellow colour. 4. Can be worked hot or cold (70/30 brass has very narrow range for hot working). 5. Takes on high polish. 6. Can be joined by soft or hard soldering/brazing. 7. Uses: marine work, screws, hinges, bushes. BRONZE 1. Alloy of copper/tin. 2. Discovered in ancient times. 3. Dark brown colour. 4. Wears well. 5. High resistance to corrosion. 6. Does not tarnish. . si 7. Alloyed with tin nearly doubles strength. 8. Uses: decorative metal furniture (door handles, letter- boxes, finger plates).GUN-METAL ANPWN= DUuRALUMIN METALWORK NOTES . Alloy of copper/tin/zinc. . Originally used for casting guns—hence name. . Reddish-yellow colour. . Strong and tough. . Resists corrosion. . Uses: marine work, gears, housings for bearings. 1, Alloy of aluminium/copper -+ manganese/magnesium. 2. Valuable property of age-hardening. 3. Silvery colour. 4, Uses: aircraft, bus-bodies, lorries, railway wagons, barges, and superstructure of large vessels, small boats, prefabricated houses. METALS—MECHANICAL PROPERTIES All metals possess, in some degree, the following properties: Brittleness Ductility Elasticity Hardness Malleability Plasticity Strength Toughness Easily broken—little or no deformation at fracture. May be drawn out—strong and plastic. Any deformation produced by a force disappears when force is removed—involves strength. Material offers resistance to penetration or scratching. Able to be hammered out into thin sheets or small bars without cracking—can be pressed or rolled—does not depend on strength. Similar to malleability and involves “per- manent set” without rupture—necessary for forging—(steel is plastic at bright red heat). Ability to resist a force without rupture— forces may be in tension, compression, shear, torsion, or a combination of these. Considerable energy required to fracture— ability to resist sudden blow, bend, or twist. 2. The Workshop ESSENTIAL points to note: 1. . Spaciousness—clear access to any part of the workshop. 2. 3. 4. Safety—accessible coloured switch points—tools in first oN Good lighting. Ventilation. class condition (hammer heads tight, etc.)—fire extin- guishers available—handy first-aid box—no loose clothing on the individual—keep clear of moving parts. . Clothing—protective. —loose ties, scarves, cuffs, etc., tucked in care- fully. . Layout—passages clear and clean. . Decoration—walls light in colour—matt finish. . Lubrication—systematic lubrication of all machines and all moving parts. . “A place for everything and everything in its place.” BENCH 1. 2. Anz Mainly made of wood—absorbs noise and softens metallic sounds. . Solidly built—thick legs—rigidity—space for material storage. . Height—750 mm to 850 mm. depending on the individual. Top of vice waist high (in schools, variation of bench heights advisable to suit height of pupils). . Care—keep clean—edges protected with angle iron. . Space—adequate space between vices essential. . The bench is the workplace of the “fitter”. 73. Tools (Hand) ENGINEER’S PARALLEL VICE (for holding work) SCIADKARWNE . Called fitter’s vice. . Jaw faces always parallel. . Firmly fixed to bench by three bolts. . Placed over bench legs whenever possible (rigidity). . Back or fixed jaw must overhang edge of bench. . Size indicated by width of jaw. . Fitted with plain screw or quick-release action. . Body—cast iron; jaws—cast steel; tommy bar and screw— mild steel. . “Clams” fitted to jaws—protect work—made from “‘soft” material. . Jaw plates detachable and replaceable. . Vice anvil used for light work. . Vice tightened only by hand pressure on tommy bar. . Rubber rings fitted to tommy bar to deaden noise. . Keep clean and lubricated. Jaw plates Fixed jaw and vice body siarngiiew _-Vice anvil Tommy bar ENGINEER’S PARALLEL VICE 8 TOOLS (HAND) BLACKSMITH’S VICE (for holding work) NDAWARWNH MN. -B . Known as leg-vice. . Leg gives support for heavy blows. . Hot metal can be held in vice jaws. . Jaws not replaceable. . Jaw faces not always parallel when open. . Made of wrought iron. . Placed near smith’s forge, hearth, and anvil. Jaws Tommy bar LEG VICE10 METALWORK NOTES HAND, VICE 1. Traditional metalworkers tool for many drilling purposes. 2. Holds thin metal for drilling safely. 3. Made of drop forged steel. HAND VICE MACHINE OR DRILL VICE Te 2. Base machined. 3. 4. Jaws designed to hold square, flat, and round work both 5. Used on drilling machine to keep work steady. Jaws—hardened steel; body—cast iron. vertically and horizontally. Jaws parallel. MACHINE OR DRILL VICE TOOLS (HAND) FILE . Main tool for removing metal. . Instrument of precision. . Can shape metal accurately as no other tool can. Made of cast steel. . Blade of body hardened and tempered—tang left soft. . Sold without handles. . Wide range of shapes, sizes, and “‘cuts’’. . “Cut” is the number of teeth per 25 mm. . Files are specified by: (a) length, (b) cross-sectional form, (c) cut. 10. Most files maintain width and thickness for two-thirds, then taper off. 11. Made in lengths of 100-450 mm by increments of 50 mm retaining same proportions. 12. Teeth have negative rake. 13. Teeth angled to give pairing cut. WKADNARWNS 14. Cut of files: rough 14-22 bastard 22-32 | teeth per 25 mm as second-cut 28-42 )measured on smooth 50-65 | 250 mm file. dead-smooth 70-110. Files—main types (engineers files are generally double cut) Hand Parallel in width and thickness—has safe edge—for general work. Flat Tapered in width—all edges toothed—for general work—-single cut on both edges. Half-round Not a semicircle—for enlarging holes and internal circular forms. Round For enlarging holes. Square For internal corners. Three-square For corners of less than 90 degrees. Files—miscellaneous types Warding Similar to flat file but smaller dimensions. Needle or Swiss For very fine work—self-handled—obtainable in lengths 140 mm and 160 mm.12 METALWORK NOTES Length Hond Flot Holf-round Round Square Three-square Warding NEEDLE FILES ° Round o Square cal Three-square q Holf-round 1 Warding Filing hints 1. Whenever possible, keep work horizontal. 2. Muscles have more control over file when work is in horizontal position. . Correct stance/balance. . Correct grip—two hands required. . Forward stroke cuts—pressure released on return stroke. . Use correct file for each job—keep file clean. Anhw TOOLS (HAND) 13 7. Follow with smooth file. 8. Finish by draw-filing—makes surfaces/edges flat or square. 9. Emery cloth backed by file gives bright finish. 10. Protect file faces from unnecessary wear. 11. File should never be heated. 12. Never use file on hardened steel. 13. Tight-fitting handle important. SAw 1. Chief cutting tool of metalworker. 2. Consists of two main parts: (a) frame, (b) blade. JUNIOR HACKSAW HACKSAW (a) Erame 1. Rigid, 2, Adjustable. 3. Fits blades of various sizes. 4. Blade adjustable to cut at right angles to frame. 5. Pistol grip or wooden handle. 6. Maximum sawing depth approximately 80 mm. (b) Blade 1. Made from carbon, cast, or high-speed steel. 2. All-hard blades—hardened throughout. 3. Flexible blades—hardened on teeth only. 4. Held in tension.14 METALWORK NOTES 5. Teeth point forward—cutting stroke is forward. 6. Specification (of blade). (a) length (hole to hole), (b) width, (c) thickness, (d) number of teeth, in any 25 mm length, (e) temper or degree of flexibility. Hints on saws and sawing 1. Work held firmly in vice—use suitable blade. 2. Saw close to vice jaws—no “‘chatter’’. 3. Cutting stroke is forward. 4. If possible cut vertically downwards (alter position of work in vice to achieve this). 5. Do not cut too fast or force forward (blade heats up unduly and temper is drawn). . Blades can be lubricated (smear of oil etc). . Commence cut initially using finger against saw-blade as guide, 8. Stop sawing before material is completely severed— lever off. 9. Contour sawing: (a) for thin metal use tension file—this consists of flexible file held in standard hacksaw frame, (b) piercing saws. The junior hacksaw is useful for light work—special blades with pinned ends can be sprung into the frame. nA Dritt—for originating holes 1. Twist drill most modern tool for drilling holes. 2. End cutting-tool. 3. Consists of: (a) shank—gripping in chuck, (b) flutes—cutting clearance, (c) land—cutting edge, (d) cutting lip—gives necessary “dig”. . Size of drill is known by its diameter. . Shanks can be parallel. (straight), or taper. . Parallel shank drills known as jobber series in sizes from 0-2 mm to 16mm. Ans ae | _ CD Me TOOLS (HAND) 15 7. Taper shanked drill sizes from 3 mm to 100 mm dia. 8. Made from: (a) high-speed steel—blue finish—best type, (b) carbon steel, (c) cast steel—bright finish. 9. Cutting edges kept sharp and examined regularly. 10. Correct sharpening angles give maximum efficiency and longer life. 11. Both cutting lips must be equal. DRILLS 12. Other drills are made to perform a specific operation: Flat bottom Drilling flat-bottomed holes. Pin Counterboring—spot facing.16 METALWORK NOTES . Slotting Same as flat bottom but has no pip— just a small slot. Slocomb Known as combination centre drill— for originating concentric holes for lathe tailstock centre. Countersink Countersinking. Slocomb SPECIAL DRILLS Countersink Drilling hints 1. Grip drill tightly in chuck. 2. Size of drill governs correct speed. 3, Feed must be correct: (a) too light will overheat drill (draws temper), (b) too heavy will break it. 4. Feed drill steadily and carefully into the work. 5. Lift drill clear from work from time to time in drilling deep holes—helps to clear cuttings and cool drill—add lubricant in certain cases. 6. More accurate holes drilled first by small drills—then finishing to size. 7. Use: (a) soluble oil for steel and malleable iron, (b) turps for hard steel, (c) paraffin for aluminium, (d) dry for cast iron and brass—sometimes jet of air. TOOLS (HAND) 17 8. Drill will not cut if there is no clearance on lips. 9. Drill breakage may be caused by: (a) wrong grinding (sharpening), (b) feed too heavy, (c) not easing drill at “breakthrough”, (d) binding in hole due to worn lands, (e) choking in long or deep holes, (f) not holding work securely. HAMMER Three main engineer’s types: (a) ball pein, (b) straight pein, (c) cross pein. 1. Weight is first consideration. 2. Made of cast steel. 3. Hardened and tempered—eye left soft. 4. Shaft made of ash or hickory (spring). Special hammers are produced for sheet metalwork, the main ones being: (a) Tinman’s mallet—flattening and coaxing tinplate over formers and mandrels. (b) Bossing mallet—hardwood head—hollowing (beaten metalwork). (c) Hollowing hammer—metal head for hollowing (beaten metalwork). (d) Raising hammer—for raising sheet metal (beaten metalwork). (e) Paning hammer—useful for tucking in wired edges (tinplate).METALWORK NOTES TOOLS (HAND) 8 (f) Planishing hammer—for _highly finished work— CHISEL hammer surface highly polished (beaten metalwork). Known as cold chisel—used on cold metal. Four main Soft hammers are used to minimize damage to surfaces. types: Heads renewable and made from: (a) Flat—general purpose—chipping, etc. lead, ee (b) Cross-cut—reducing areas—cutting keyways. rawhide—uncured pig-skin, (c) Half-round or “guttering’—cutting oil grooves in plastic, | bearings—drawing holes. rubber, (d) Diamond—cutting boiler plate—drawing holes—cut- rass. ting corners of square holes. 1. Made from cast steel. 2. Hardened and tempered at cutting end. 3. Top left soft so that hammer face is not damaged or chipped. 4. Top chamfered—this delays spread like mushroom— this can be removed by grinding fresh chamfer. Soft hammer 5. Made from octagonal section steel or “surecut’’. Cus STEEL RULE HEEL 1. Made from spring steel. (Carbon steel, hardened and [ \ [ \ tempered). 2. Used for general measurement. 3. Care of edges essential. 4. Made in various sizes. ScRIBER 1. Point made of cast steel—ground, hardened and tem- pered, CHISELS 2. For scribing lines on metal when marking or setting out. SCRIBER ENGINEERS’ SQUARE 1. Made from cast steel. 7 . 2. Hardened and tempered. J VJ Vl Y 3. Ground to great accuracy. Y 4. For marking out—also for testing external and internal Flat Cross~cut right angles. Half-t id Di id it . oon semen’ on 5. Hold by stock—treat with care.BN % 20 METALWORK NOTES TOOLS (HAND) 2 6. Clearance groove (for overhanging rags or burrs on work). : DIVIDERS , 7. Should be checked for accuracy occasionally. 1. Metalworkers’ compasses. 8. Size determined by length of blade. 2. Made of cast steel with hardened points. 3. For describing arcs and circles (marking out). 4. Generally spring loaded. 5. Quick action nut allows instantaneous opening/closing. Blade ENGINEERS’ SQUARE Clearance groove Stock CENTRE PUNCH 1, Made of cast steel. 2. Point ground, hardened, and tempered. DIVIDERS 3. Other end left soft—usually chamfered to delay “mush- rooming”. 4, For marking work for drilling. 5. Prick-punching (light hammer tap), for outlines. CALIPERS Three main types: (a) Inside—checking diameter of holes. (b) Outside—checking diameters (external). CENTRE PUNCH 1. Use tips at right angles to axis of diameter of work—‘velvet slide”. 2. Jaws must be reasonably tight. 3. Read from edge of rule for both types. (c) Jenny odd legs, or Jennys. 1. Used as marking gauge—well-used tool.22 METALWORK NOTES . 2. Marking lines parallel to an edge of metal (reference edge). | 3. Can be used to mark centre of a rod or shaft. Sizes determined by overall length. Made of mild steel with points case-hardened. O O O (a) (b) (c) ENGINEER’S BEVEL 1, Used for angular marking. 2. Adjustable with clamp screw. 3. Accurately ground—parallel edges. 4. Made of good-quality steel. TOOLS (HAND) 23 STANDARD WIRE GAUGE 1. Checking thickness of sheet metal. 2. Checking diameter of wire. 3. Jaws hardened. 4, Made of tool steel. S.W.G. “A. These gauges are still in use but will probably y become obsolete. DRILL PLATE OR GAUGE 1. Checking sizes of drills. 2. Checking gauges of screws (wood). 3. Ascertaining main tapping drill sizes. SCRAPER Three principal types are: (a) Flat—flat surfaces. (b) Half-round—curved surfaces (internal). (c) Triangular—curved surfaces, 1, Used for removal of material in minute amounts.24 METALWORK NOTES 2. Removal of small irregularities. 3. Finishing-off purposes. SCRAPERS ae 2D Half-round PORTABLE HAND DRILL For use with small drills—up to 6 mm dia. approx. . Drill rotated by crank action of handle. . Pressed onto work by operator. . High velocity ratio. . Versatile—can be used for sander, polisher, etc. UBwWNe Crank and handle Bevel wheel PORTABLE HAND DRILL Tap . Hand tool for cutting internal threads. . Made of tool steel. . Hardened and tempered. . Consists of body (threads and clearance flutes)—shank —square end, . Used with wrench—wrench fits square end. . Usually in sets of three: (a) taper, (b) second, (c) bottoming; or two: (a) taper, (b) bottoming. Pen nun TOOLS (HAND) 25 7. Start thread with taper—follow with other(s). 8. Great care should be taken to enter the tap “square”. 9. Use cutting compound or lubricant to help cutting edges except on cast iron, brass, and copper, which are tapped dry. 10. Cutting action followed by clearance action. 11. Size and type of tap engraved on shank. Taps Taper Second Bottoming Bar type Tap wrenches Chuck type M.N—c27 26 METALWORK NOTES TOOLS (HAND) Dr . PLIERS, COMBINATION 1. Hand tool for cutting external threads. 1. Gripping flat surfaces. 2. Used with wrench known as “‘stocks”—hence “‘stocks 2. Gripping round material. and dies”. 3. Cutting wire (optional). 3. Die made of tool steel. 4. Size measured by overall length. 4. Hardened and tempered. . 5. Jaws hardened and tempered. 5. Generally split for fine adjustment. 6. Jaws must not be used for hot work (draws the temper). 6. Held in stocks by three adjusting screws. 7. Made from tool steel. 7. Thread tapered at edge to facilitate entry on rod. Other pliers seen in the workshop are: 8. Die placed in stocks with engraved details showing. flat nose, 9. Commence cutting thread with engraved details down- round nose, wards. taper nose (half-round), 10. Care should be taken to commence thread ‘‘square with end cutting, rod”’—this will avoid a “drunken thread”. side cutting. 11. Use cutting compound or lubricant to cut good thread except on cast iron, brass, and copper, which are screwed dry. 12. Cutting action followed by clearing action. 13. Chamfering’top of rod eases entry of die to start thread. /* ) PLIERS, COMBINATION CHIPPING PLATE 1. Flat piece of thick mild steel. 2. Generally placed on fitter’s bench. 3. Used as base for punching, flattening, and chipping. SURFACE PLATE 1. Basis for marking out work. 2. Machined flat surface. 3. Made of cast iron (close grained). 4. Underside ribbed—gives great rigidity. SURFACE GAUGE OR SCRIBING BLOCK. 1. For marking work on surface plate. 2. Adjustable for various sizes, heights, and angles.28 METALWORK NOTES ‘TOOLS (HAND) 29 3. Base flat—made of hardened steel. TOOLMAKER’S OR ENGINEER'S CLAMPS 4. Scriber made of tool steel. 1. Gripping metal—strong grip. 5. Scriber points ground, hardened, and tempered. 2. Case-hardened steel. 3. Adjustable to hold large range of material. TOOLMAKER’S OR ENGINEER’S CLAMPS Screws VEE-BLOCK AND CLAMPS 1. Mainly used on surface plate. SURFACE GAUGE 2. Round material held securely by clamps. 3. Keeps round material steady for marking out or drilling. 4. Vee-block made of cast iron—clamps of drop forged steel. ALPHABETICAL/NUMERICAL STAMPS 1. For stamping work. 2. Made of cast steel. 3. Sizes—various. 4, Characters on shank should face operator, ensuring that letters/numerals always correct way, i.e. upright. VEE-BLOCK AND CLAMP30 METALWORK NOTES. CLAMS 1. To protect workpiece from damage by serrated vice- jaws. 2. Made in material softer than the work, i.e. copper, lead, brass, leather, cardboard, etc. FILE CARD 1. Wire brush on wooden back. 2. For cleaning file teeth. PRUSSIAN OR ENGINEER’S BLUE; COPPER SULPHATE; WHITEWASH 1. Applied to bright surfaces to show marking clearly. 2. For showing “high” spots. 3. Engineer’s blue made from blue oil colour and lubricating oil. 4. Whitewash mainly used on cast iron and dull coarse finishes. SCREWDRIVER 1. General tool for insertion/withdrawal of screws (machine or wood). 2. Blade made of tool steel. 3. End hardened and tempered, 4. Handle rigidly fixed to blade. 5. Can be obtained also with ratchet or spiral action. 6. Supplied with standard (slotted), or recess"(Pozidriv), head. Standard Recess (slotted screws) (Pozidriv) TOOLS (HAND) 31 HAND REAMER 1. For making very accurate holes. 2. Made of tool steel. 3. Consists of: (a) body (cutting edges and flutes), (b) shank, (c) squared end. 4. Flutes can be straight or spiral. 5. Cutting edges can be parallel or tapered. 6. Revolving tool shears a minute amount off side of hole. 7. Use lubricant to make good surface finish. COMBINATION SET 1. Has multiple uses for precision work. 2. Consists of three parts with interchangeable rule: (a) protractor head—adjustable protractor—spirit level —machined base, (b) square head—machined surfaces—spirit level, (c) centre head—machined surfaces. 3. Heads made of drop forged steel. COMBINATION SET Scriber_, Centre square Main head32 METALWORK NOTES DIAL GAUGE 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. A checking tool. Indicates concentricity/parallelism (lathe work). Indicates flatness (shaper work). Very accurate and sensitive. Can be attached to surface gauge or tool post. MICROMETER (“MIKE”’) RON . Precision tool for accurate measurement—use with care. . Made in many sizes for various ranges of work. . Capable of measuring to 0-01 mm—easy reading. . Pressure on object gives a reading. Thimble Barrel Ratchet = TOOLS (HAND) 33 5. Ratchet fitted on thimble gives uniform pressure and keeps readings consistent (heavy or light handed user). 6. Range of each micrometer is generally 25 mm i.e. 0- 25 mm, 25-50 mm ete. up to 575-600 mm. SHEARING MACHINE 1. For cutting sheet metal or strip quickly and in large quantities. 2. Manipulated by hand/foot. 3. Body made of cast iron; cutters of tool steel; handle mild steel. 4. Cutters shear metal—cut by “nibbling” (short small cuts), Handle Body SHEARING MACHINE ADJUSTABLE WRENCH 1. Solid tool with parallel jaw. 2. Jaw adjustable to suit size of bolt/nut.OEE eee OE Ee = 34 METALWORK NOTES SPANNER 1. Tool for tightening/loosening hexagon or square-headed nuts, bolts, screws. 2. Utilizes the principle of the lever. 3. Open-jaw or ring types. 4. Single- or double-ended types. 5. Grips across “flats”. FOOTPRINT WRENCH 1, Name is trade mark of original manufacturer. 2. Serrated jaws. 3. Angular jaws. 4. Jaws adjustable to take wide range of sizes. STILLSON WRENCH 1. Similar to “footprint” but more powerful. 2. Serrated jaws. 3. Tightens itself by internal leverage. TOOLS (HAND) 35 BOX SPANNER ' 1. Single- or double-ended types. 2. Requires tommy bar for leverage. 3. Length sometimes important for deep work. | FEELER GAUGE 1. Assorted number of steel leaves of different thicknesses pinned together. 2. Thickness of leaf marked on surface in graduations from 0-03 mm to 1 mm. 3. For checking clearance and small gaps. 4. Made of tool steel.36 METALWORK NOTES THREAD GAUGE 1. For setting correct profile of thread-cutting tool (lathe). ' 2. For setting correct alignment of screw-cutting tool— lay along bar and align point of tool to thread gauge. | 3. For internal and external threads. THREAD GAUGE FILE HANDLE 1. Fitted to tang of file. 2. Generally made of timber. 3. Fitted with metal ferrule to prevent wood splitting. PARALLELS ) 1. Very accurately ground rectangular lengths of tool steel. 2. Hardened. 3. Supports work in shaper vice—keeps it level. 4. A combination of various sizes will raise work to any height. PARALLELS yy TOOLS (HAND) DRESSER 1. For resurfacing grinding wheels. 2. Held by hand on surface of revolving wheels. 3. Various types. aE Drier 1. Generally made from mild steel. 2. For driving out wedged tools in tapered sleeves. — TT THREAD CHASER 1. For rounding off sharp thread crests. 2. Usually manipulated by hand. 3. External and internal thread types. TANK AND WASHER CUTTER 1. For cutting sheet metal. 2. Used with the brace. 3. Cuts washers and holes of varying diameters. SCREW EXTRACTOR 1. For extracting broken studs and screws. 2. Corkscrew spiral is counter-clockwise. 3. Supplied in sets to suit range of sizes. ee: sn 3738 METALWORK NOTES OILCAN 1. Container for lubricant. 2. Many different types. 3. Saves oil and keeps workshop clean. HEXAGONAL SOCKET KEY WRENCH 1. Set of male hexagonal keys. 2. Range of sizes with varying widths A/F. 3. Made with right-angled bend, for leverage. 4. Available in sets, with key ring. HEXAGON SOCKET KEY 4. Tools (Machine) THE main machine tools in a school workshop are: PADMAARKWN— . The lathe. . The vertical drill. . The shaping machine (shaper). . The power hacksaw. . The grinder. . The polishing machine. . The bandfacer. . The milling machine. All are powered by electric motors. Placed in workshop where lighting is good. Systematic lubricating essential. Knowledge of location of switches for quick stoppage. Pupils use all these machines except the grinder. No loose clothing when near these machines. LATHE Main parts are: 1. Headstock—contains driving mechanism. 2. Tailstock—slides on bed—supports one end of work —adjustable. 3. Carriage—carries tool post—9. cross slide—10. top slide. . Bed—accurately ground and rigid. . Gearbox. . Change wheels. . Lead screw (for screw-cutting). . Feed shaft (for automatic travel—in line with or across the bed). ONAKA Method of holding work in lathe (a) Chuck: three-jaw universal self-centring. four-jaw independent. (b) Between centres: live and dead centres. catch plate. lathe carrier. 3940 METALWORK NOTES Ft. Le. (c) Face plate: face plate. clamps or dogs. (d) Collet: precision grip on round work. leaves no marks. concentric squeeze. (e) Mandrel: mounted between centres. very slight taper over its length. work “binds” onto mandrel. Between centres TOOLS (MACHINE) 41 13. at Mandrel . The lathe is a high-precision instrument. . Capacity (size): (a) given by distance between centres, (b) “swing”; maximum diameter of work which can be rotated. . Run at various speeds and cuts at various and different feeds. . Normal direction of rotation counter-clockwise viewed from tailstock—work revolves on point of cutting tool. . Work rotates (tool is static). . Lathe spindle generally hollow to accept long work. - Movable tailstock—can be fixed at any position. . Tailstock sleeve allows for finer adjustment. . Morse taper on lathe spindle and sleeve of tailstock. . Tailstock can accept morse taper centre/drill chuck. . For long work, fixed or travelling steadies can be employed. . Tumbler gears used in connection with power feed— engaging, disengaging—forward and reverse. Reduction gear to enable greater range of speeds. The main lathe cutting-tools are: 1. Roughing—making rough cuts with heavy feed. 2. Feeding—making good finish—light feed—slow speed along the work. M.N.—D42 AR W ] Roughing METALWORK NOTES . Facing—cutting at right angles to axis of work. . Parting—severing the work. . Screw-cutting—making a screw-thread (depends on type of thread). . Knurling—this tool does not cut but the revolving knurl- ing wheels press on the work and leave their impression. Slow speed. 7. Boring—enlarging holes. HB oo Finishing Focing Parting Screw-cutting Knurling Boring GENERAL I 2. Lathe tools sharpened on grindstone—finished with carborundum stick by hand. Lathe tools must be accurately lined up—height of tool edge at dead centre. This should be done before work is commenced—two main methods: (a) align tool edge on to point of centre of tailstock, (b) press tool edge on to rod or diameter of work with small rule held between—if correct height, rule will remain in vertical position. . Lathe tools can be set to correct height with swivel adjust- ment or packing pieces. . Lathe tools have “rake” and clearance. Rake is amount of slope from cutting edge back towards body of tool, i.e. top rake, side rake. Clearance is put on so that every part of tool except cutting point or edge clears the work, i.e. front clearance, side clearance. Prevents tool rubbing on work. . The rakes and clearance depend on: (a) type of material being machined, (b) the lubricant and how it is applied, (c) speed of rotation of work, (d) depth of cut, (e) feed of tool. ere TOOLS (MACHINE) 43 . Side roke Top. rake Small rule pressed against ‘ 4 work by lathe cutting tool hy 1 eet will fake vertical position v | 2 4 if tool is aligned correctly. : End view -»/ |. Front elev’ =) 4. Side Clearance Front clearance . Lathe speeds and feeds depend on: (a) type of material being cut, (b) diameter of work, (c) operation involved. (a) Soft materials (brass and aluminium) machined at high speeds, (b) steels at medium speeds, (c) cast iron at slow speeds. 8. Tool-cutting rated as metres per minute (obviously large diameters have higher peripheral or surface speed than small diameters travelling at same spindle speed. Hence large-diameter work must rotate slower than small.) Cutting speed S= adn metres/min 1000 where S = cutting speed, metres/min, n = rev/min, d = diameter of work in mm. . Using a lubricant on cutting-tool produces a good finish on steels (see Lubricants (b) 4). Lathe operations Sliding 1. Cutting along the work (parallel to axis). 2. Feed the tool towards the chuck (preferably). 3. Hand/automatic feed. Facing 1. Cutting at right angles to axis of work.44 METALWORK NOTES TOOLS (MACHINE) 45 2.. Preferably feed the tool from the centre outwards. VERTICAL DRILL 3. Hand/automatic feed. 1. Fixed machine for drilling holes—capacity | mm diameter Taper-turning to 13 mm diameter. 1. Use of top slide set at angle. 2. Can be run at various speeds. 2. Hand feed. 3. High speeds for small diameters and low for large dia- 3. Alternative method of off-setting tailstock with hand/ meters. automatic feed. . Higher speeds for “‘soft” materials. Screw-cutting . Adjustable table height. 1. Tool cuts thread when moving axially when engaged . Graduated depth gauge. with lead screw. Known as sensitive drill—all strains (and breakthrough) 2. Dependent on chasing dial, pitch of thread, type of transmitted through feed handle to operator. thread and lead screw. . Chuck key for tightening drill in chuck. 3. Automatic feed. . Adjustable table slotted to take clamped or bolted work. Boring/ Drilling 10. Table set horizontally—adjustable to drill at many angles. 1. Enlarging of existing hole by boring tool. 2. Hand/automatic feed. Knurling NAM Som 1. Impression of knurling tool wheels left on surface of pelt duandt revolving work. 2. Slow speed. | 3. Hand/automatic feed. Drill head —— =} Electric motor Feed lever = reer { Dnillichack— Vertical precision —f as Adjustable table. ground column Sliding Facing a Toper turning tr ng Yop aie ot sate ae VERTICAL DRILL Slotted baseplate Screw-cutting (Esters!) SHAPING MACHINE 1. For cutting flat surfaces. 2. Similar cutting tools to lathe. 3. Flat surfaces can be cut at any angle to each other. Sod LZ Screw-cutting Boring Cinternal) Knurling= 46 METALWORK NOTES 4, Cutting stroke is forward. 5. Clapper clears on return stroke. 6. Length of stroke adjustable. 7. Depth of cut actuated by hand. 8. Automatic cross-feed in either horizontal direction. 9. Swivel machine vice for gripping work. 10. Variable speeds. 11. Quick return motion—slotted link—slow cutting stroke and faster return stroke—saves time. 12. Ground parallels an acquisition for accurate work. Swivel tool head Clapper box Tool post. Body Clutch lever Vice Power cross feed direction controlled by ratchet pawl Table Change speed lever Table support Hand cross feed Base SHAPER TOOLS (MACHINE) 47 POWER HACKSAW 1. Cuts all kinds of material. 2. Can be left sawing while fitter does other work. 3. Automatic stop when material is cut through. 4, Saw-teeth point either way—reversal of saw-blade enables more teeth to be used. 5. Work must be gripped tightly in vice. 6. Saw moves through work at its own rate. 7. One speed. POWER HACKSAW GRINDER 1. Mainly used for sharpening tools. 2. Consists of balanced abrasive wheels revolving at speed. 3. Different grades and grains of wheels. GRINDER48 METALWORK NOTES . Coarse and fine wheels for various kinds of work. . Tool pressed against wheels should not be overheated— press lightly. . Wheels “trued” occasionally and rapidly by a “dresser”. . Goggles must be used with dresser. . Bench and pedestal types. . Direction of revolution—top of wheel moves towards operator, . Left-hand and right-hand threads on wheel spindles. . Material placed on rest for steadiness. . Sparks off ground material do not burn fingers. . Dashpot or small water reservoir fitted. . One speed. POLISHING MACHINE NAWPRWN . General finishing. . High-speed revolving polishing mops/circular wire brush. . No rest fitted. . Bench and pedestal types. Mops consist of a number of layers of calico. . Mops treated with polishing compound. . Work must be held under polishing mop—away from operator. . Work moved from side to side. POLISHING MACHINE TOOLS (MACHINE) 49 9. Direction of revolution—top of mop/wire brush moves towards operator. 10. Left-hand and right-hand taper threads on spindles. . 11. Avoid fouling revolving spindle/mop/brush with loose ends of material or clothing. Keeps mops for various types of material, i.e. aluminium, brass, etc. Wire brush used mainly for removal of scale/oxide. One speed. 12. 13, 14. BANDFACER 1. For removing small quantities of metal on fiat surfaces. 2. Consists of endless emery strip band passing over flat table. 3. Mounted on pedestal. 4. Work held by hand on moving emery surface. 5. One speed. BANDFACEREE 50 METALWORK NOTES MILLING, MACHINE 1. SPADARwWHY Mainly used for cutting flats, grooves, slots, flutes, key- ways, and special profiles. . Cutters revolve and work passes underneath. . Cuts can be light or heavy. Operation requires greatest possible rigidity. . Longitudinal traverse—hand or automatic. . Cross traverse—hand. . Vertical traverse—hand. . Various speeds. Cutter Arbor Outer bearing Hand feed Elevating screw MILLING MACHINE 5. Processes FORGE WORK . Blacksmith’s art. . Depends on skill of individual—a craft. . Shaping of metal. . Use of heat. . Uses: ornamented work such as lanterns, gates, railings. ARWNS EQUIPMENT Forge Container for heating metal—sometimes called hearth —made of sheet metal. Bed of coal or coke or coke impurities called “clinker”. Forced air passes through dry or wet tuyere. Quenching trough fitted—made of cast iron. FORGE va 7 (© ‘Dampers S 5152 METALWORK NOTES Anvil . Base on which material is worked— steady foundation of mild steel. Tongs Many types for gripping hot material of various section. Hammers Various types and weights. Poker and rake For spreading coke over work. Miscellaneous tools _ Flatters, fullers, swages, hardie cutters, chisels, scroll iron. Hole for punching Hole for hardie Surfoce for cutting ANVIL AND BASE PROCESSES 53 Hardie Chisel Scroll iron SMITH’S TOOLS OPERATIONS 1. Working with correct heat—cherry red/bright red. 2. Material works easier when hot—more plastic. 3. Tendency to fracture if worked too cold. Bending Bending material over anvil/leg vice. Drawing down Stretching and lengthening material by ham- mering—tendency to reduce section and increase length. Twisting Carried out with wrench or tool that fits the work. Upsetting Thickening the end of the work—bulging— shortens work. Flaring Stretching and spreading material flat. Scroll work Heated material formed round scroll iron.34 METALWORK NOTES a ES Bending over leg vice - 2 B® Twisting ox SS) Bending over anvil Drawing down Upsetting on anvil, {also on vice) Floring SHEET METALWORK-—Sheet metal produced in certain basic preferred thicknesses. Sizes range from 0-020 mm. Many tools used in sheet metalwork have been detailed previously. TINMAN’S SNIPS 1. For cutting tinplate and sheet metal only. 2. Various types—straight or rounded jaws. PROCESSES. 55 3. Made from tool steel. 4, Size measured by overall length. 5. Jaws hardened. TINMAN’S SNIPS FOLDING BARS 1. For turning over an edge, 2. Made of mild steel. 3. Usually gripped in vice-jaws. HAND GROOVER 1. Setting shape of wire edges. 2. Making swages. PUNCH 1. Punching holes in sheet metal. 2. Made of tool steel. 3. Diameter range from 3 mm upwards. 4. Material supported by flat lead block, prevents damage to punch edges. 5. Cutting edges hardened and tempered. HATCHET STAKE 1. Mainly used for turning edges beyond 90 degrees. 2. Angle about 60 degrees. Hotchet stoke Folding bors or Groover Bending bors56 METALWORK NOTES BICK IRON 1. Useful for cylindrical and conical work. HALF-MOON STAKE 1, For throwing up edge to curved or circular work. RIVET SET 1. For closing space between parts to be riveted—in general sheet metalwork. . For doming the rivet head. . Made of tool steel. . Doming end hardened and tempered—other end left soft. . Capacity or size of rivet stamped on body. WS Gla Bick iron Halfmoon stoke Rivet set ARWN There are many other items depending on the type of work required. Tinman’s mallet is a well-used tool for this kind of work. Tinplate work also involves the auxiliary process of soft soldering, details of which are given under that heading. Common tinplate operations: . Safe edge. . Folded seam (soldered). . Grooved seam (soldered). Swage. . Soldered lap joint. . Riveted lap joint. . Patch (soldered). . Butt joint. . Wired edge. . Beaded edge (preferably soldered). SLMPADWAWNE e oe ae a EE =e PROCESSES 57 Preferably use sharp pencil for making marks on tinplate— scriber point may penetrate thin layer of tin—hence rusting will take place. Uses: miscellaneous boxes, cans, tins of various uses, dust- bins, etc. Sofe Folded Grooved Swoge Soldered Wired Beaded seam ‘seam Cop ieint Lap joint ont edge edge HAMMERED OR BEATEN METALWORK 1. Ancient craft—shaping of thin metals. 2. Requires skill and care. 3. Mainly non-ferrous metals used such as copper, brass and gilding metal (alloy of copper/zinc). 4. Material work hardens—hence requires annealing. 5. Silver soldering process carried out for joining—note melting point of spelter. 6. Uses: decorative hammer finish on ash trays, bowls. OPERATIONS Hollowing Concave shape— hammer blows on inside Raising Convex shape— hammer blows on outside Planishing Planishing hammer gives high finish—hammer taps, regular and even—removes lumps—smooth face of hammer imparts smooth high finish. Soldering Joining metals by silver soldering process— spelter at lower melting point than material to be joined. Cleaning Dip in nitric acid momentarily—wash in water— polish-lacquer to prevent discoloration. TOOLS AND EQUIPMENT Ball pein aie | ee and even tapping—light hammer tools: bossing mallet or ball pein hammer. Bossing mallet marks overlapping one another. M.N.—E58 METALWORK NOTES: Leather sandbag—supports metal while hollowing. Former—hardwood block of finished shape supports metal for hollowing. Raising stake—material shaped on this. Tinman’s horse—for holding various stake heads. Former (hardwood) for hollowing PIERCING 1. Decorative treatment of sheet metal. 2. Process of cutting out patterns—similar to fretwork. 3. Use of piercing saws and assorted small files (very similar to fretsaw work). 4. Design set out on sheet metal. 5. Holes drilled or punched at suitable points for insertion of piercing saw. 6. Downward stroke is cutting stroke. 7. Finished to line with assortment of small files. REPOUSSE 1. Decorative treatment of sheet metal. 2. System of raised patterns made by special punches and light hammer blows—embossing. 3. Equipment is simple and can be easily made—mainly punches of varied shapes and pitch block. PROCESSES, . 59 4. Design transferred to metal either by drawing through carbon paper or pasting paper design onto metal. 5. Performed on pitch block which supports work. SOFT SOLDERING Method of joining metals at relatively low temperatures by means of an alloy. Requires heat—gas, electricity etc. Equipment consists of: 1. Solder—lead solder/tinman’s solder/resin cored solder etc. —alloy of lead and tin. 2. Flux—prevents oxide forming when material is heated — two kinds: (a) chemical, (b) protective. 3. Furnace/electrical point (heat source). 4. Soldering bolt—usually copper head on mild steel rod and wooden handle—various types to suit the work, i.e. (a) straight, hatchet, (b) electrical. For good work it is essential to: 1. Have the parts to be joined perfectly clean and fluxed. 2, Soldering bolt at correct heat—copper head retains heat— hot bolt warms area around joint. 3. Solder should be as thin as possible—strength of joint is not improved with heavy layers. Straight Hatchet Soldering stove —— EL Electrical FLUX (a) Chemical—cleans and protects surface of work. —zine chloride (killed spirits), Baker’s soldering fluid,METALWORK NOTES ~-requires washing in alkaline solution, to clear corrosive after-effects. (b) Protective—protects surface only. —tallow, Vaseline, resin, etc. “Sweating” is a method of soft soldering: Surfaces to be joined are tinned with film of solder, then fluxed and brought into contact under some pressure. Heat is applied by flame to work. Layers of solder fuse together (bubbles of surplus solder squeeze out of joint). PROCESSES 61 Procedure: hs 2. 3. 4. 5. Flux the cleaned parts to be joined, by paste made up of borax and water. Build firebricks round work to give even distribution of heat and conserve heat losses. Heat work with blowpipe. When material glows with heat around joint, apply spelter. Spelter will melt and by capillary action will flow into joint. Allow to cool. 6. Allow to cool slowly. 7, Clean when cool. SILVER SOLDERING This is similar to hard soldering process with lower tempera- tures employed. Equipment consists of: Spelter—composed of silver, copper, zinc; proprietary brands. Flux—powdered borax or proprietary brands. Blowpipe—direct heating. Procedure same as hard soldering. HARD SOLDERING/BRAZING When greater strength is required than that obtained by soft soldering, hard soldering is employed. Equipment consists of: 1, Spelter—brass granules or brass wire. 2. Flux—powdered borax or proprietary brands. 3. Blowpipe——direct heating. 4. Hearth—lined with firebricks—helps to conserve and reflect heat around the work. Temper- Type of work ature Medium used Flux Remarks Soft soldering Low Solder tin Killed spirits | By soldering bolt 180-250°C lead Proprietary brands Direct heating. or brazing — | 800-900°C zinc | Proprietary Capillary action brands Hard soldering High Spetter{corPe" Borax Silver soldering] Medium silver | Borax Direct heating. 600-800°C | Spelter} copper] Proprietary Capillary action zine brands MOULDING AND CASTING Process of forming metal into simple intricate shapes— usually done in a foundry. Hearth Equipment consists of: 1. Insulated crucible furnace—supply of heat.62 METALWORK NOTES. Cope Cy Drag Crucible . po Moulding boxes (handles ‘removed to show pins) Insulated crucible furnace Il. 12. . Salamander crucible pot—blast of hot products of combustion envelops this and melts metal. . Pattern—made of any material (usually of wood). —shape of mould obtained from this. —can be flat-bottomed, split or cored. —made with allowance for shrinkage. —tapered edges to facilitate withdrawal from sand. . Moulding-box—consists of two parts: cope (top), drag (bottom)—kept in position by fixed pins. . Moulding sand—Mansfield sand—envelops the pattern; must have (i) strength, (ii) moisture, (iii) permeability. . Moulder’s spade—for mixing sand. —for filling sieve and moulding-boxes. . Moulding board—level surface to place patters. . Levelling bar—for levelling the sand. . French chalk—refining surface of mould. —distributed by dusting bag. . Parting powder—facilitates separation of sand faces. —easy removal of pattern from sand. —distributed by dusting bag. Sieve—various mesh sizes for refining sand. Trowel—for touching up surfaces around sand—‘“sleeking”’. PROCESSES 63 13. 14. 19. 20. Rammer—for pounding sand round pattern. Gate pins—for making a passage for pouring molten metal. . Bellows—for blowing away impurities and granules from mould. . Gloves and apron—protective clothing. . Ladle/tongs—means of pouring metal. . Miscellaneous items such as—spoon tools, swab, sprue and riser pins, moulder’s brush, core boxes. a OF Trowel Bellows Sieve or nddie yn} | 4 b | 4 Misc. tools Rommer Tongs Rapping bar—thin metal rod(s) for withdrawing wooden patterns from mould. Clay—for withdrawing metal patterns from mould. STAGES IN MOULDING—FLAT BOTTOM AND SPLIT PATTERNS 1. 2. 3: Prepare sand—check for correct moisture content (5-7 per cent). Select box parts—place cope on floor, pin holes up. Lay board on upturned cope and place drag on board, pins downwards. . Set pattern flat surface on board, planning layout for best way of flow. Shake parting powder over pattern.METALWORK NOTES . Sieve fine sand to cover pattern—ram sand with fingers —back up sand to level of drag and ram firmly. Fill drag with sand above level of box—tread sand, then pound with rammer. Scrape sand off level. Vent sand to face of pattern. Use trowel to finish levelling. . Prepare soft level bed of sand—ift drag, turn over and lay on sand bed. . Place other half of split pattern on top of flat surface of sunk pattern (split patterns only). . Prepare parting surface by firming any soft sand—‘‘sleek”’ the surface—spread parting powder over surface. . Replace empty cope (remember twist). Situate gate pins (and flowers). . Cover pattern with sieved sand—fill up with backing sand and peen ram. Add sand to above box level. Ram, tread, and dog ram. Scrape off level. Vent mould. Remove gate pin and cut large area at top of gate. Firm. . Ease cope alternately backwards and forwards, and lift away from drag. Turn over onto soft bed of sand. Brush parting powder from drag surface. Lift off split pattern. Moisten round pattern perimeter with swab (this firms the edges of mould). . Shake pattern with spike of rapping bar in four directions to facilitate withdrawal of pattern with drag mould. Finish off mould with tools and spread french chalk on 2s 3. Material squeezed between former and special revolving PROCESSES 65 mould to give refined texture. Blow off surplus chalk and loose sand granules with bellows. 13, Close boxes and lay on weights. 14, Introduce metal into mould with as little turbulence as possible. Regulate the rate of entry of metal into mould cavity. METAL SPINNING 1. Thin sheets of metal (generally non-ferrous) formed into shape over a former on the lathe. Former generally made of hardwood—shaped. tailstock centre or pressure pad. . Modified tool rest, with adjustable pin stops made for movement of tool. . Tool has rounded nose and long wooden handle which is held under the arm. . Material should be annealed to ease the shaping over former. (Material inclined to “work harden”.) . Material surface lubricated with wax or tallow. . Lathe speed high. Thin sheet metal— surface smeared with tallow Distance piece Free running centre Shaped former fixed in chuck or on to face plate Holes for alternative positions Spinning tool MNFee ee 66 METALWORK NOTES Heat Treatment Processes HARDENING Process of making tool steel harder—requires heat. 1. Material is shaped to correct dimensions by standard tools in soft state. 2. Give a high finish (helpful for tempering). 3. Heat to critical temperature (cherry red) and quench in oil/water. (Sperm oil.) 4, Sudden temperature drop makes material hard and brittle—liable to crack and chip. In this state the material is generally unsuitable as a tool and requires to be suitably tempered. (See Tempering Colours below.) TEMPERING Takes some of the hardness (and brittleness) out of hardened steel—gives material the necessary spring/resilience—requires heat. 1. Clean material, which has been hardened, to a bright finish with emery cloth. 2. Heat slowly till appropriate colour (oxide film) appears on polished surface, and quench in oil/water (different temperatures show different colours). 3. This takes out brittleness in the material—makes it tougher. 4. Colour depends on type and function of the material (tool). 5. Success of operation depends on good lighting and skill of operator, Appropriate tempering colours, for the various instruments and tools, and their approximate temperatures are:— Colour Item Temp °C Straw —Hammers, scrapers, scribers, lathe tools 230 Dark Straw—Taps, dies, drills 240 Brown —Punches, chisels 260 Purple —Screwdrivers 270 Blue —Springs, saws, rules 300 lla a aa PROCESSES 67 ANNEALING The softening of metal (ferrous and non-ferrous). 1. Heat to above critical temperature (bright red for ferrous: < rainbow colours for non-ferrous). 2. Hold at this temperature for short period and allow to cool slowly. NORMALIZING The refining of the structure of the material (ferrous). Involves removing strains after metal has been distorted by cold working. 1. Heat to critical temperature. 2. Allow to cool in still air at room temperature. CASE-HARDENING 1. Forms hard skin to resist wear on mild steel/wrought iron—two metals which cannot be hardened in the normal way (due to low carbon content). . Adds carbon to the surface. . Process is not carried out in schools generally. . The favoured method: (a) For small single items: heat to bright red—sprinkle on the case-hardening compound powder—reheat to bright red and maintain heat until powder melts and flows round the job—brush clean and repeat process several times—clean with wire brush and quench in cold water. For quantities: pack items into cast-iron box filled with compound—heat box and contents to bright red—maintain this heat for half an hour—remove items from box—clean with wire brush and quench in cold water. AWN (b PICKLING 1. Process of cleaning copper/brass—removal of oxide film after annealing. 2. Material dipped in dilute sulphuric acid bath (1 part acid to 8 parts water).6. Treatments and Finishes BRIGHT FINISH (all steels) 1. Draw-file the surface. 2. Draw-file backed by emery cloth—finish with worn emery cloth and oil. 3. Gives high finish but is time-consuming. 4. Liable to tarnish. BLUEING (all steels) 1. Protects steel from tarnishing. 2. Cheap and easy to do, 3. Clean thoroughly. 4, Heat metal to tempering blue colour—dip in oil. GALVANIZING (mild steel) 1, Gives rust-proof coating. 2. Clean thoroughly—flux. 3. Dip in bath of molten zinc. 4. Bluish-white colour. 5. Used for dustbins, pails, corrugated roofing. TINPLATE (mild steel) 1. Gives protective tin coating on mild steel sheet. 2. Clean thoroughly. 3. Flux with zine chloride. 4. Dip in bath of molten tin. BRONZING (copper and brasses) 1. Colours metal in tints. 2. Clean thoroughly. 3. Dip in hot solution of sodium sulphide. 4, Wash in hot water. 5. Fix with metal lacquer. 68 TREATMENTS AND FINISHES 69 ANODIZING 1. Carried out only on aluminium. 2. Process of thickening the natural oxide film (not a surface « deposit like electro-plating). 3. Works well on pure aluminium—castings more difficult, especially with traces of silicon and copper. 4. Anodized surface is non-conductive. Process 1. Wrap aluminium wire tightly round article to be ano- dized: (a) this acts as handle and keeps hands off, (b) aluminium wire is the anode connection when current is passing. . Clean thoroughly—degrease. . Rinse in running water. . Place in strong solution of caustic soda (7 g caustic soda to 100 cm water) for 2 min at 50-55°C. . Rinse in running water. . Dip in nitric acid (1 part acid to 20 parts water) at room temperature for 1 min (removes any residual traces of alkali). 7. Rinse. 8. Anodize by passing 12 V d.c. current at 10-15 mA/cm? of surface area being anodized for 30-40 min at *20-25°C in solution of sulphuric acid (1 acid to 7 water). * (No direct heating required, as heat generated by current will raise temperature of solution to 20-25°C.) . 9. Rinse. Bw nun Aluminium being anodized Lead lining (cathode)70 METALWORK NOTES At this stage the process of dyeing can be carried out to colour the article. Procedure 1. Place article in hot dye solution (70°C) for 20 min. 2. Rinse. 3. Seal in boiling water for 30 min. (Life of the film is improved by adding 5 g nickel acetate and 5 g boric acid per litre.) LACQUERING (all metals) 1. Clear metal lacquer. 2. Covers material with thin clear skin, preventing oxidation. 3. Can be applied by spray or brush. KNURLING (all metals) 1. Not decorative but pleasing and essential. 2. Involves impressing a rough surface onto metal to increase coefficient of friction. POLISHING 1. Performed by hand or polishing machine. Various types of polishing wheels, i.e. wood, leather, canvas, cloth, felt, wool, etc. 2. Cloth is popular—made from a number of dises of calico cotton. . Abrasives or polishing compound applied to mop. . Material held against under side of mop. . Abrasives: tripoli compound, pumice powder, jeweller’s rouge, crocus powder. aARw ABRASIVES 1. Emery cloth main workshop abrasive. 2. For removing scratches (by file teeth). 3. Gives a high finish. 4, Made in grades, fine to rough—number 0 fine to number 3 rough. 5. Effective when backed by smooth file. 6. Tears into convenient strips. TREATMENTS AND FINISHES 71 CARBORUNDUM POWDER 1. Produced in grades of fine to rough. 2. For grinding work—valves, surfaces etc. CARBORUNDUM STICK 1. For honing edges of cutting tools (by hand). 2. Available in short lengths, 100 mm—150 mm. 3. Supplied in square, triangular, half-round, and round sections. 4, Fine, medium, and coarse grades. LUuBRICANTS Main workshop lubricants are: (a) Mineral oils—machinery oil, soluble oil, paraffin. (b) Animal oils—lard, grease, sperm oil. (c) Vegetable oils—linseed oil, turps, castor oil. Lubricants are used for: (a) Reducing friction. (b) Assisting in cutting material. (a) Reducing friction 1. Thin film of oil between bearing surfaces or moving parts. 2. Avoids overheating of moving parts. 3. Advisable to use correct grade of oil (i.e. viscosity). (b) Cutting material 1. Assists in cutting work, i.e. drilling, grinding, milling, etc. 2. Keeps tool and work cool. 3. Helps to give good finish. 4. For cutting: Steels and wrought iron—use soluble oil or lard Hard steels —use turps. Aluminium —use paraffin. Copper —use paraffin or lard. Cast iron and brass = —do this dry.7. Methods of Fastening RIVET I, Ak WN a = Sean A rivet is a permanent fastening, i.e. parts cannot be easily separated. . Made in various diameters and lengths. . Made from soft and malleable metals, ie. wrought iron, mild steel, copper, brass, aluminium. . Shape of rivet head gives name to type of rivet. . Main types—snap or round head, countersunk head, flat head, pan head. . Rivet consists of three main parts: (a) head, (b) body, (c) tail. . Generally rivets withstand shear stresses. . Holes for rivets should be correct size. . Head of rivet must be firmly supported while riveting. . The tail end is spread by hammer to required shape. . Main uses: shipbuilding, structural frames, girders, boiler plate. Rivet sets are employed: (a) to keep the plates together prior to riveting, (b) “doming” when a snap head is required. nou Snap Csk. Flat Pan i) 72 METHODS OF FASTENING 3 BOLT AND NUT 1. 2. 3. Bolt and nut used together—generally made from hexa- CONIA 10. 11. A bolt and nut is a temporary fastening—i.e. parts can be readily separated (when required). There are many types. gonal or square bar. . Hexagonal bar is easily held in three-jaw chuck of lathe. . Used to withstand tensile stresses (pull). . Thread of bolt is cut to convenient length down shank. . Bolt head is less thick than nut. . Head and nut generally chamfered. . Chamfering prevents ragged edges protruding and gives good finish. Length of bolt measured from under side of head to end of shank. Specification of bolt: (a) name/type (i.e. I.S.0. metric) (b) diameter (millimetres), (c) length (mm), (d) type of head (hex., square etc.), (e) material. BOLT AND NUTwo 74 METALWORK NOTES SETSCREW 1, Temporary fastening. 2. A setscrew is a bolt with the thread formed right up to the head. 3. Various types of head—hexagonal, square, round, counter- sunk, raised, cheese—also grub and socket screws. SETSCREW MACHINE SCREW 1. Screws with parallel screw threads (as opposed to wood screws (taper threads)). 2. Various types of head—round, countersunk, cheese, raised, grub screw (no head). 3. Slotted/recess/socket. (Screwdriver/Pozidriv screwdriver/ Hexagonal Socket key.) EWE Length “| Round Countersunk Cheese Raised Grub Slotted Recess Socket METHODS OF FASTENING 75 STuD 1. Temporary fastening. 2. Threaded at both ends. 3. One end screwed into metal and generally made permanent. 4. Specification: (a) name/type, STUD I (b) diameter, { (c) length out of metal, (d) material. 5. A nut is required to complete use of this item. 1. Temporary fastening component. 2. Nuts have internal screw threads. 3. Made in various shapes, most common being hexagon, | square, wing, castle, round, knurled. 4. Thickness of nut slightly less than diameter of bolt. 5. Lock nuts are made thinner than standard nuts—they prevent loosening. 6. Nuts have a chamfer on both faces (i.s.o.) SPLIT PIN/COTTER PIN 1, Locking device. 2. Made in various metals, lengths, and diameters. 3. Prevents movement of nut on shank. CARRIAGE BOLT AND NUT 1. Temporary fastening. 2. Many sizes and lengths. 3. Used for joining wood to metal. 4, Head domed—shank has square neck which is forced into timber when hexagonal square nut is tightened—this 1 prevents shank rotating.ee ae 16 METALWORK NOTES COACH. SCREW 1. Temporary fastening. 2. Many sizes and lengths. 3. Used to secure metal article to wood. 4. Coarse sharp-tapered thread—digs into the wood. WASHER Miscellaneous auxiliary. . Usually made of steel—plain and bevelled types. . Usually specified by size of hole. . Bright and black finishes. . Spring washers (various types) prevent loosening of nut due to vibration. 5. Obtainable in many shapes. RwNe Spring Washer ~— Wing nut Split . washer oa Carriage Coach screw bolt & nut WING NUT 1. Temporary fastening component. 2. Made in various metals and sizes. 3. “Wings” or “lugs” turned by fingers, eliminating use of spanners. SELF TAPPING SCREW 1. Used for fastening into sheet metal. 2..Cuts its own thread after metal has been pierced. 3. Obtainable with Round, CSK, Pan, Raised and Flange heads. 4. Available with Slotted/Recess/Hexagon head. S. Miscellaneous THE SCREW THREAD—important detail in engineering. 1. Used: (a) to hold parts together (e.g. bolt and nut), (b) to transmit power (e.g. vice screw). 2. Consists of helical spiral. 3. Specification of screw thread gives: (a) name/type of thread system, (b) size of thread (major diameter), (c) series (coarse/fine/constant pitch). 4. Main types. (a) “Vee” /triangular, AVA AV AVA AG (b) Square, uU LPL (c) Acme (modified square), VW/IVIVSV (d) Buttress, Knuckle. KAQAIKAIK AAU 5. Important Vee/triangular threads are:— Profile Name/type Size Series (diameter) (a) 1.8.0. Metric mm coarse/fine/ constant £0" pitch we b) Unified inches _coarse/fine/ DIV ” special (c) American standard inches “y (d) British Association numbered AWA (BA) 0-16 mm/inches (e) British Standard . Whitworth : ey (B.S.W.) inches becoming SIAM \ (f) British Standard Fine (B.S.F.) inches, (g) British Standard mm/inches retained for Pipe (B.S.P.) depends on pipes only bore of pipe 77Te ee 78 METALWORK NOTES 6. Usually threads are: (a) single-start—thread starts at one place only. (b) right-hand—a thread that advances into engagement when turned clockwise. There are also multiple-start threads such as two-start, three-start, four-start, etc. A more rapid advance is obtained from these. Left-hand threads fulfil certain specific purposes but are not nearly so common: a thread is always right-hand unless specifically stated. x Thread’ orgie 7. Pitch is the distance from a point on one thread to the corresponding point on the next. 8. Other details: (a) crest—top edge of thread, (b) root—bottom edge of thread, (c) depth—measurement between crest and root, normal to axis, (d) lead—the axial distance a screw advances for one revolution, (ec) major diameter—largest diameter of a screw thread —crest diameter (f) minor diameter—smallest diameter of a screw thread—root or core diameter. DESIGN Factors which fundamentally influence design and form: 1. Purpose. 2. Material—qualities govern construction. 3. Skill—practical execution—conception of design—good proportion, detail, and workmanship. 4. Equipment—tools in first-class condition. MISCELLANEOUS 19 SOME TECHNICAL TERMS Jig A piece of material from which repeti- tive work can be marked, guided, and performed. Template Flat shape (any material) from which work can be marked, gauged, checked, and tested. Former Piece of material over which metal can be bent or shaped. Nibbling Small short. cuts by tinman’s snips or shearing machine. True Square—at right angles—straight. Proud When a piece of material protrudes it is said to be proud. Pinning Clogging of file teeth by metal filings (chalking the teeth helps). Rake Is the amount of slope from the cutting edge towards the body of the tool. Ferrule Metal collar on wooden handle—pre- vents splitting. Clinker Impurities of coke and metals that collect in bed of forge. Tolerance Maximum permissible deviation from the given size—varies with type of work and material used. Clearance Clearance is given to a tool to prevent the sides rubbing against the work. Where shaft is slightly larger than the hole it has to fit—close limits specified. Clearance fit Where shaft is always smaller than the hole it has to fit. Sleeking or Sliking | The smoothing of the flat sand surface on cope and drag (in moulding, by a Interference fit trowel). Honing The fine sharpening of a cutting instru- ment or tool, Burr/rag Rough edge left on metal after a filing or cutting operation. Male thread External screw thread. Female thread Internal screw thread.I.S.0. METRIC SCREW THREADS (Coarse Series) TAPPING AND CLEARANCE DRILL SIZES TAP SIZE TAP DRILL SIZE CLEARANCE DRILL mm mm SIZE mm Mi 0-75 0-78 11 M2 1-60 1-65 22 M3 2-50 2:55 32 M4 3-30 3-40 43 MS 4:20 4:30 5:3 M6 5-00 5-10 6-4 M8 6:80 6-90 8-4 M10 8°50 8-60 10-5 M12 10:20 10-40 13-0 M14 12:00 12-20 15-0 M16 14-00 14-25 17-0 M18 15-50 15-75 19-0 M20 17-50 17-75 21-0 M22 19-50 19-75 23-0 M24 21-00 21-25 25-0 M27 24-00 24-25 28-0 M30 26°50 27-00 31-0 M33 29-50 30-00 34-0 M36 32:00 32:50 37-0 M39 35:00 35-50 40-0 M42 37-50 38-00 43-0 M45 40-50 41-00 46-0 M48 43-00 50-0 M52 47-00 54-0 M56 50:50 51-00 58-0 M60 54-50 55-00 62:0 M64 58-00 640 M68 62-00 70-0 80