Electrostatic Potential Energy
Reminder:
Work(r1r2) = Fdr, evaluated from a starting value
r1 to an ending value r2.
For conservative forces, DPE(r1r2) = -W(r1r2).
Whats new:
The electric force is conservative.
So the electric potential energy of a charge q is
DPEE(r1r2)= -qEdr.
And the total energy of a charged object experiencing
only electric forces satisfies D(KE+PEE)=0.
FE,E,PE, and V
Since FE=qE(r) for any charge at the point r, we can
think of E as being the force per unit charge.
We can similarly invent a very useful version of potential
energy difference per unit charge. It the DPE(r1r2) is
the PE change in moving a charge q from r1 to r2, we
define the potential difference, or voltage difference, as
DV(r1r2) =DPE(r1r2)/q.
We will almost always call DV the voltage difference to
avoid confusion. The unit of DV is J/C=volts=V.
It follows that DV=-Edr. This actually motivates a far
more useful and common unit for E, volts/meter or V/m.
Voltage
1. It is possible to construct devices that that reliably
produce voltage differences. First will be the battery,
and then later we will take up the generator.
2. It is possible to carry a voltage to almost any arbitrary
point from a voltage source. This exploits a key
property of conductors; they form equipotential
surfaces.
3. A positive charge place at a point with a positive voltage
difference with respect to a second point will possess
potential energy. E-fields will exist that push the charge
towards lower voltage difference. Currents flow, often
generating heat as the charge moves through the atoms
of the conductor.
Equipotentials
If V1 is chosen to be 0V, what is |V2|? Red = copper
wire.
A. 0V.
B. 9V.
C. Cant tell.
V1
V2
Equipotentials
If V1 is chosen to be 0V, what is |V2|? Red = copper
wire.
A. 0V.
B. 9V.
C. Cant tell.
V1
V2
The gist of a battery
Three key components:
Two different metals separated in space.
A mixture, most simply water, into a which a dilute acid is put in
solution
A path for ions to preferentially flow between the two metals.
A voltage difference develops between the plates
Battery test--1
A.
B.
C.
D.
E.
What is |V2-V1| for 9V batteries connected like this? Red represents
copper wire.
0V.
9V.
18V
27V
Cant tell.
V1
V2
Battery test--2
A.
B.
C.
D.
E.
What is |V2-V1| for 9V batteries connected like this? Red represents
copper wire.
0V.
9V.
18V
27V
Cant tell.
V1
V2
Battery test--3
A.
B.
C.
D.
E.
What is |V2-V1| for 9V batteries connected like this? Red represents
copper wire.
0V.
9V.
18V
27V
Cant tell.
V1
V2
Battery test--4
A.
B.
C.
D.
E.
What is |V2-V1| for 9V batteries connected like this? Red represents
copper wire.
0V.
9V.
18V
27V
Cant tell.
V1
V2
Current Density J
Suppose we have n mobile charges, with value q, per
volume that are moving with speed v through a wire of
cross sectional area A.
In a time Dt, an amount of charge DQ=nvDtA will pass
through the area A.
The current I=DQ/Dt=nqvA=JA; J is known as the current
density.
Next, lets try to find out something about v from
Newtons 2nd Law: F=ma=mdv/dt.
F will have a contribution +qE from the electric field and
a second contribution that can be written as -mv/t that
describes the collisions of charge carriers with the
underlying molecules in the material. The number t is
called the mean collision time.
Ohms Law micro-version
What happens then is something we encountered in EP1
in discussing drag forces. E causes v to increase, but
raising v causes the drag force to increase until
equilibrium is reached.
At equilibrium F=ma=0=-mv/t+qE. Equilibrium results in
a constant drift velocity vD=qEt/m. The speed that goes
along with this is low, just a few cm/s for Cu.
Then from J=nqv, we have J=(nq2t/m)E. We see that
JE; this is the microscopic, physicists form of Ohms
Law. The combination nq2t/m is called s, the
conductivity, and so J=sE.
Note that s is the same for q.
Conductivities
The higher the value, the better the conductor:
Glass: 10-12 W-1m-1
Water (pure) : 410-6 W-1m-1
Water (very salty): 210+1 W-1m-1
Carbon (diamond): 410-1 W-1m-1
Carbon (graphite): 7104 W-1m-1
Metals: (0.1-1.0) 108 W-1m-1
All materials conduct at some level. Metals are good
conductors, non-metals not.
Details matter (pure vs. salt water, diamond vs.
graphite).
Note the 1020 difference between metals and glass!
The best four metals are: 1) silver; (2) copper; (3) gold;
(4) aluminum.
Humans and the earth are decent conductors (like salty
water).
Connection of J to I to V
In many situations, J represents motion through a wire.
If the wire has a cross sectional area A, then I=JA.
In simple geometries like a wire, it is often good enough
to approximated E=DV/L, where L is the wire length and
DV is the voltage difference.
I follows then that DV=JAL/sA.
Defining the resistance RL/sA, we have the
macroscopic, EE form of Ohms law: DV=IR.
Often we drop the D and just write this V=IR.
The units of R are V/A=Ohms=W. It is often written as
R=rL/A, with r=1/s the resistivity.
If were deliberately using a relatively poor piece of
conductor for its resistance, we call it a resistor.
Series and parallel resistance
For the series connection at left the current is the same
in each resistor and the sum of the voltage difference
must match what the battery provides, so
V=IR1+IR2=(R1+R2), and the two resistors have an
effective series resistance RS=R1+R2.
For the parallel connection at right, the voltage difference
across the resistors are the same. The total current is
I=V/R1+V/R2=V(1/R1+1/R2), and the equivalent parallel
resistance is given by 1/RP=1/R1+1/R2.
Meters--1
A digital multi-meter (DMM) may be used as a voltmeter
to measure voltage across a resistor or an ammeter to
measure current through a resistor. How should the
DMM and resistor be connected for these functions?
A. Voltmeter: parallel; ammeter: parallel.
B. Voltmeter: parallel; ammeter: series.
C. Voltmeter: series; ammeter: parallel.
D. Voltmeter: series; ammeter: series.
A fuse
A fuse is a piece of conductor designed to burn up and
break when the current through it exceeds some rated
value. To protect a circuit, it should be wired
A. In series with the rest of the circuit.
B. In parallel with the rest of the circuit.
C. Doesnt matter; it protects the circuit no matter where it is
connected.
Energy flow in a circuit
The battery must do an amount of work dU=Vdq on each
charge it moves from low to high voltage, so the rate of
work performed, the power, is PB=dU/dt =VBdq/dt=VBI.
In a resistor a charge loses an amount of energy
dU=dq(I/R) as it passes through. This lost energy
appears as heat production at a rate
PR=(I/R)dq/dt=I2R=VR2/R=VI.
In general, any device X with a voltage VX across it and
a current IX running through it will be perfoming work at
rate PX=VXIX at any istant in time.
A battery produces electrical energy so PB>0, a resistor
converts electrical energy to heat, so PR<0.
Light bulb 1
A.
B.
C.
D.
Light bulbs are sold by their power consumption. How
much current does the 6 W light bulb shown below draw
when operating at V=120V?
0.02 A.
0.05 A.
0.1 A.
0.2 A.
Light bulb 2
A.
B.
C.
D.
What is the resistance of the 6W light bulb when
operating in a 120V circuit?
600 W.
1200 W.
2400 W.
4800 W.
Light bulb 3
A.
B.
C.
D.
Suppose the voltage between the ends of the red wires
are the same for each circuit. What is the relative
brightness of each bulb in the 2-bulb circuit vs. the 1bulb circuit?
2-bulb is 2brighter.
2-bulb is 1brighter.
2-bulb is 0.5brighter.
2-bulb is 0.25brighter.
Light bulb 4
A.
B.
C.
D.
Suppose the voltage between the ends of the red wires
are the same for each circuit. What is the relative
brightness of each bulb in the 2-bulb circuit vs. the 1bulb circuit?
2-bulb is 2brighter.
2-bulb is 1brighter.
2-bulb is 0.5brighter.
2-bulb is 0.25brighter.
