LITERATURE REVIEW
Forklift related accidents contribute a significant proportion of workplace fatalities all over the
world. No more severe is this problem than in the USA, the location where the majority of
forklifts are manufactured. “OHSA estimates forklifts cause about 85 fatal accidents per year,
34,000 accidents result in serious injury and 61,800 are classified as non-serious”. (Hall, 1996)
Furthermore, forklift accidents occur indiscriminately across all industry sectors, however a
significant fatality ‘blackspot’ exists for plant and machine operators within the Manufacturing
industry (NOHSC, 1998). A high density of pedestrian workers exists within this environment,
which in addition to vehicle roll-overs comprise the main accident mechanisms. Conditions
like narrowed aisle ways and carrying loads were found to increase the likelihood of such
accidents nearly two fold. (Collins et al (a), 1999)
Certain risk factors were found to be inherent, due to the design and functional requirements
of the forklift. The narrow track coupled to a variable centre of gravity makes stability a
primary concern whilst operating. Cornering and the responsive steering characteristics of
forklifts are two unbridled determinants of the vehicle’s stability. Toyota was found to be the
only forklift manufacturer to address the issue of forklift stability, and does so with the advent
of SAS technology introduced on their new 7 Series forklift. (Thomas, 1999)
Stability becomes even more of an issue when handling loads, especially when adjusting the
mast whilst the forks are elevated. Both Toyota and Komatsu forklifts now have an automatic
mast-levelling feature, which is an initial step towards reducing the impact of this hazard
(Robertson, 1999). Further development of this feature is required so that the effects of
steering actions, uneven terrain and positioning the load is represented therefore making this
an even more desirable feature.
Whilst the challenge of maintaining stability for forklifts is renowned, a great concern exists
due to the absence of an effective means to warn or restrict operators from handling unsafe
loads or performing unsafe actions. Adaptation of attitude indicators as used in aviation to
inform pilots of the aircraft’s dynamics, may be an example of a more effective means of
relaying stability safety information rather than a basic load chart (Allstar Networks, 2000).
This could be the first stage of technological advancement, which prevents actions from
occurring that may contravene the vehicle’s safety dynamics.
Speed is a particular determinant that appears as a root causal factor in many powered vehicle
accidents, with forklift trucks being no exception. Given the environment in which forklift
operate, the rate of travel at which they operate has a direct bearing on the level of risk to which
pedestrian workers are exposed. As pedestrian workers are involved in around 45% of
accidents a need exists to control the speed of forklifts when they are in a close proximity to
pedestrian workers so as to reduce the potential risk severity. (Larsson & Rechnitzer, 1994)
The means by which to coordinate speed in relation to pedestrians requires the integration of
a proximity sensing system with an appropriately moderated means of automated braking. The
likely model will employ laser technology to triangulate a safe passage between identified
stationary and mobile objects with the central receptor on-board the forklift (Forger, 1998).
A delicate balance exists between establishing a means of braking that prevents the forklift
from colliding with objects, whilst ensuring that the stability of the load being transported isn’t
compromised. Possible means of meeting this requirement could see ABS technology used as
means of proximity based speed moderation, as has been introduced on some Mercedes
passenger vehicles (Mercedes-Benz, 1997).
Meticulous logistics planning is the essential ingredient in order for speed control and
proximity sensing to be successfully introduced. This is the over-arching process that identifies
all potential hazards, initiates the segregation of pedestrians from mobile plant and assigns the
appropriate flow of materials. Following consideration of these factors speed zoning for
mobile plant can be tailored to suit the requirement of specific areas. With around 75% of new
warehouses engaging in systems integration today with the view of improving productivity,
safety consideration inclusive of ITS technology is the next essential step. (Cooke, 1998)
Whilst the hazards associated with forklift operation are well known, risk controls thus far
have been low level interventions, centred around operator protection and training. Therefore,
little has been done to curb the presence of these hazards instead a culture reliant upon
education preventing the incidence of erroneous behaviour exists. This project is specifically
targeted at controlling these hazards by means of engineering and administrative developments
that address the key issues of stability, proximity, speed and logistics planning. This
methodology ensures that an effective reduction in accidents involving forklifts can occur,
which wouldn’t have occurred whilst solely relying upon the absence of operator errors.
‘Powered industrial trucks’ is a common term referring to forklifts, containerhandling trucks,
reach-trucks, turret trucks and the like. Since their introduction forklifts have been an integral
ingredient for materials handling across a multitude of industries. Global injury/fatality data
identifies forklifts as a prominent occupational hazard that has occurred as a by-product of
automation and bulk material handling. (Feare, 1999)
With the introduction of forklifts came a shift in plight of materials handling towards adopting
a bulk oriented approach. This derived jointly from the need to improve productivity and to
reduce the instance of workplace manual handling injuries. As a result, a niche` market was
created for specific plant and equipment to cater for such demand, but also unfortunately
released a new ream of hazards to the workplace.
A lack of consideration of the interface between pedestrian workers and forklifts in the
workplace has resulted in forklifts comprising many of the more serious injuries and fatalities
in the workplace. These effects have been felt throughout industries ranging from
manufacturing to retail environments, and require an array of engineering and administrative
interventions to combat the exposed risks. These interventions should extend from the current
hygiene and ergonomic focus and look towards integrating automated logistics planning, with
on-board intelligent vehicle technology. (Janicak, 1999)
In Australia during the period 1989-1992, there were 52 forklift related fatalities, with most of
these fatalities occurring as the result of persons being hit by falling objects (40%) (NOHSC,
1998). Recent data for Victoria indicates that this trend has only changed marginally, with
around 500 claims and 2 fatalities reported annually between 1993-1997 (VWA, 1999).
The corresponding data in the USA identifies that nearly 100 forklift related fatalities are
recorded annually (94 in 1995), which most often resulted from forklift rollovers (25%) (BLS,
1997&1998). Such is the profile of forklift safety in the USA, that OSHA developed standard
29 CFR* 1910.178 for powered industrial trucks (inclusive of forklifts) as a means of trying to
stem the flow of incidents from forklift related operations.
At least two provinces in Canada have also identified the occupational hazard, which forklift
operation poses. In Ontario 18 fatalities were recorded for the period 19901995 (MOL, 1999),
whilst the Workers’ Compensation Board in British Columbia reported 3 fatalities in 1997
bearing great similarity to the data reported here in Victoria (WCBBC, 1998)
The design features of forklifts is in many ways is at the heart of many forklift related accidents.
The intersection between the shifting centre of gravity and the narrow track of the forklift,
combined with the requirement to handle loads at height can have detrimental effects on the
vehicle’s stability. Much of the problem lies is in the success of the operator maintaining the
forklifts centre of gravity within the triangle formed by the three suspension points. “If the
centre of gravity goes out of this area by lifting a load that is too heavy, or by carrying a load
too high and tilted forward, the forklift will tip over”. (AMIC, 1999)
Shared pathways and close interaction between forklifts and pedestrian workers was seen to
contribute around 35% of the total accidents occurring in a motor vehicle manufacturing plant
in the USA. Whilst 923 of 926 of these accidents resulted only in an injury, 41% of these
required time off work, at an average of 61 days per incident. Thus far the majority of
interventions have revolved around the training of forklift operators and promoting segregation
of pedestrian and motorised traffic. (Collins et al (a), 1999)
The list of contributing factors to the instance of falling loads extends above and beyond the
lack of information provided in many load charts. The practice of not properly securing loads
and working under a raised load severely magnifies the scope of the hazard. Additionally,
inappropriate/modified forklift attachments and lifting loads without setting the tines to the
appropriate width of the load are also causal factors to the instance of falling objects. (Scott,
1996)
As highlighted by international data the primary mechanism of forklift related accidents are
vehicle rollovers. This is largely the product of forklifts weight distribution forming a ‘stability
triangle’ of sorts, which is further destabilised by its high centre of gravity and narrow wheel
track. (Thomas, 2000)
As has been the case previously the road safety paradigm has been at the forefront of
development of safety innovations. Stability control systems are already widely used for motor
cars in Europe and are gaining rapid momentum in the USA. Whilst the systems do vary
slightly, the ingredients are much the same. Each of the systems adds three sensors to each
wheel where the antilock braking system is applied.
The first of these sensors detects steering wheel angle whilst the second sensor detects vehicle
spin (yaw), and the third monitors turning force. When the system detects variance from pre-
programmed vehicle behaviour patterns it briefly applies the brakes to one wheel, therefore
preventing the vehicle ‘fishtailing’ and eventual loss of control. (Hyde, 2000)
In specific cases The Ford Motor Company in the USA is in the process of incorporating such
systems on all SUV’s (Sports Utility Vehicles). The introduction of the ‘Advancetrac system’
to SUV’s was deemed necessary as a means of improving vehicle stability, due to the
propensity for rollovers. This exposure group is magnified due to the doom market for SUV’s,
which are expected to account for around 20% of total industry sales in the USA. (Driving
Sense, 2000)
General Motors offers a similar system to consumers under the guise of a system referred to
as ‘StabilTrak’. This system has been fitted to certain models under the Buick and Cadillac
banner, with already more than 400,000 units finding there way on to the road since 1997.
Where StabilTrac differs lies within the front wheel drive configuration of the Cadillac Seville.
This in essence total vehicle stability can be influenced by use only of the front brakes.
(Cadillac Eldorado, 1998)
The Mercedes M Series and BMW X5 typifies European interest in automatic stability control
technology. Mercedes refers to its system as the Electronic Stability Program (ESP), which
again monitors the vehicle’s response to driver steering and braking inputs. If over or
understeer is detected individual front or rear brakes are applied and/or reduced excess power
so as to maintain control of the vehicle. (Mercedes-Benz, 2000)
The inter-relationship between passenger vehicles and forklifts is somewhat under developed.
This relationship is blurred to a degree by the ideology perceiving the base configuration of a
forklift as being similar to that of a passenger vehicle, without considering its inherent hazards
(Feare, 1999). Effective risk reduction for forklifts in industrial environments may benefit
from the extraction and application of established road safety ideology. Aided computer vision
and automated logistic planning are likely to be essential ingredients for such development to
occur. (Garibotto et al, 1998)
Findings of a previous forklift related study conducted by Larsson and Rechnitzer (1994), states
that many forklift related hazards stem from not treating forklift trucks as ‘vehicles’ requiring
systematic traffic management in the working environment. When using this definition as a
point of origin a systematic traffic management plan for forklift use in the workplace can result.
From this foundation many aspects of the road safety model can be incorporated and applied.
Warehouses can be designed, mindful of factors like maximising traffic and material flow
whilst moderating the forklift truck and pedestrian worker interface. Additional safety features
can also be added to the forklift under the guise of ITS (Intelligent Transport Systems)
innovations, much in the manner suggested by Stuckey (1996).
Toyota is the first forklift manufacturer to apply these design principles, as is seen with the
introduction of their System of Active Stability (SAS) to the new 7-Series forklift. This system
is described as an electro-hydraulic control system designed to increase operator safety by
reducing the risk of roll-over. The application of such technology to forklifts, is an example
of gains that can be made when recognising forklifts as vehicle’s, that have similar issues and
design solutions to passenger vehicles.
The SAS technology is designed to maximise latitudinal and longitudinal stability by
regulating the active control rear stabiliser and active mast functions, as opposed to the
independent application of ABS technology commonly used on passenger vehicles. Four
sensors are used to monitor the height of the fork, the load on the fork, the speed and yaw of
the forklift. This data is fed into an on-board computer that drives adjustment to the rear
stabiliser and mast controller. (Thomas, 1999)
The Active Rear Stabiliser is a hydraulic cylinder subject to computer control, which closes
the flow of hydraulic fluid locking the rear axel. This occurs in response to detection of
instability, when lateral forces pose the risk of potential roll-over. In conjunction to improved
operator safety, this system has the added potential benefit of improved productivity by safety
guarding against shifting loads. (LMDR, 1999)
The system also incorporates a system referred to as Active Mast Controller. This function
moderates the speed at which and angle of the mast, ensuring that the mast moves in a smooth
fashion. This function also limits the mast from angling more that 1-2 degrees off level which
guards against forward tip-overs. In complement to the active mast function controller is the
automatic fork-levelling device. This allows the operator to quickly re-level the forks up to the
height of 196cm, thereby assisting with the precision of the stacking of loads. (Thomas, 1999)
The end product of SAS technology is a stabilisation of the load and vehicle by ensuring the
centre of gravity can shift safely whilst maintaining solid contact with the ground. This
testimony is compounded by demonstrations of SAS equipped 7-Series Toyota forklifts,
performing 180 degree power slides at full speed without roll-over. (Thomas, 1999)
