NEWSLETTER

AUSTRALIAN CENTRE FOR GEOMECHANICS Vo l u m e N o . 3 4 May 2010

IN THIS EDITION
• Shaft boring systems, Page 1
• Strategic block caving, Page 5
• Caving 2010 symposium, Page 8
• Seal blistering at Lake Grace, Page 10
• Slopes and saprolites, Page 12
• ACG news, Page 19
• ACG event schedule, Page 20

First International Seminar on

the Reduction of Risk in the
Management of Tailings
and Mine Waste
Shaft boring systems for
29 September – 1 October 2010,
Perth, Western Australia mechanical excavation of deep
Mine Waste 2010 will tackle the full
range of issues that constitute risks
shafts by Christian Frenzel and Werner Burger, Herrenknecht AG,
in the management of mining wastes, Germany, and Fred Delabbio, Rio Tinto, Australia
particularly tailings and waste risk. This
forum will encourage debate amongst
practitioners, researchers and regulators Introduction For excavation of declines, tunnel boring
about the key shortcomings in industry’s machines (TBM) can be used in many cases.
current understanding of the performance For the development of block caving These provide, in certain rock conditions,
of mining waste storage facilities and mines fast access to the orebody is critical. considerably higher production rates
associated risks faced by owners and In some cases the mineralised area is more compared to drill and blast excavation.
operators of these facilities. More than than 1,500 m below surface. Excavation of Herrenknecht AG has developed a vertical
70 abstracts were accepted. shafts or declines is typically a critical path shaft sinking machine (VSM) that allows
of the project schedule. Saving time on these excavating shallow shafts in soil and medium
Early bird registration
activities can significantly increase the net soft rock. The ground is excavated by a
expires 16 August 2010 present value of the mining project. roadheader boom. The muck is removed by
[Link] Mechanical excavation methods are a step- a slurry system or a pneumatic system in
change in excavation performance and labour combination with hoisting of skips. These
safety compared to drill and blast operations. machines have been applied successfully on
The views expressed in this newsletter are those of In hard rock conditions, roadheaders cannot shafts down to 100 m. Recently, a pre-sink for
the authors and may not necessarily reflect those be used effectively, so disc cutting is the first a deep mine shaft has been excavated by this
of the Australian Centre for Geomechanics. choice. technology.
Continued page 2
 For deep hard rock shafts, a new shaft Vertical shaft machine
boring system (SBS) has been developed
by Herrenknecht AG in collaboration with The VSM has been developed for the
Rio Tinto. Based on proven technologies, mechanised excavation of shallow shafts
the system utilises a unique arrangement of in water-bearing soils (Suhm, 2006). This
existing technologies. The system integrates technology is based on a roadheader boom
excavation, mucking, primary rock support, with a cutter drum equipped with cutter
installation of the final lining, and shaft bits or soft ground chisels. A typical setup
infrastructure. This new system dramatically is shown in Figure 1.
improves the health and safety of shaft
construction. Detailed performance
estimates indicate significantly higher shaft
construction rates are possible compared
to conventional shaft sinking methods.
Figure 2 Work stage of VSM for installation of rock support
Mechanical excavation
One of the options to increase VSM technology has been used on a
overall mine performance is mechanised number of projects in soil and soft rock
excavation, mainly because more process conditions with rock strengths of up to
steps can take place simultaneously, e.g. 120 MPa. As a conveying system, a slurry
excavation and muck removal. In some circuit is used for soft soil below ground
cases, the installation of rock support can water level and a pilot hole for dry
be performed simultaneously. conditions.
Two main types of mechanical excavation Up to now this method has been used
tools are used: predominantly in civil construction such as
• cutter bits (or picks) deep shafts for sewage tunnels. Currently,
• disc cutters. a VSM rig is used to excavate the pre-sink
Cutter bits act with high impact loads Figure 1 Core component of vertical shaft for a deep mine [Link] technology
under a low angle to the rock surface, machine is used to substitute the usual solutions
while disc cutters typically operate by of consolidation by grouting or ground-
rolling over the surface and penetrating the The roadheader boom is attached to a freezing methods, as well as the use of
rock in a perpendicular direction. mainframe which can be equipped with the slurry wall method. The VSM method
It should be noted that the advantages gripper pads to stabilise and support the can save valuable time and decrease risks
of cutter bits are lower cutting forces machine. The whole machine is designed to associated with ground cementation,
and more flexible cutting kinematics that operate in submerged conditions; remotely ground-freezing shaft sinking methods or
lead to comparably small and lightweight controlled from the surface. increased alignment difficulties for very
equipment suitable for a more flexible Two options are available for rock deep slurry wall shafts.
excavation geometry. support: A vacuum suction system with
Once the rock strength exceeds • pre-cast concrete segments (segmental exchangeable skips is in development which
the range of 100–120 MPa unconfined lining) will enable the VSM system to excavate
compressive strength, rock excavation • rockbolts, wire mesh, and sprayed blind shafts to depths greater than 100 m.
with cutter bits becomes increasingly concrete. In addition, alternative partial face cutting
infeasible due to low penetration rates The segments are erected on the surface systems are under evaluation to increase
and high bit consumption. Disc cutters are and the whole lining is lowered as the shaft the maximum rock strength that can be
able to excavate rock with a compressive is sunk — the usual option for soft ground excavated.
strength of more than 300 MPa, but require conditions. In stable to poor soft rock
Shaft boring system
significantly higher cutting forces which conditions, rockbolting, installation of wire
lead to heavier and less mobile equipment. mesh and shotcreting can be performed The SBS is a development for the
To achieve high excavation rates, disc from special designed working platforms mechanised excavation of deep vertical
cutters are usually employed on rotary with permanently installed rockdrills and blind shafts in hard rock conditions. The
full-face TBM. shotcreting equipment (Figure 2). semi full-face sequential excavation process

© Copyright 2010. Australian Centre for Geomechanics (ACG), The University of Western Australia (UWA). All rights reserved. No part of this newsletter
may be reproduced, stored or transmitted in any form without the prior written permission of the Australian Centre for Geomechanics, The University of
Western Australia.

The information contained in this newsletter is for general educational and informative purposes only. Except to the extent required by law, UWA and the
ACG make no representations or warranties express or implied as to the accuracy, reliability or completeness of the information contained therein.
To the extent permitted by law, UWA and the ACG exclude all liability for loss or damage of any kind at all (including indirect or consequential loss or
damage) arising from the information in this newsletter or use of such [Link] acknowledge that the information provided in this newsletter is
to assist you with undertaking your own enquiries and analyses and that you should seek independent professional advice before acting in reliance on the
information contained therein.

2 Australian Centre for Geomechanics • May 2010 Newsletter

 Underground
is based on the use of a rotating cutting because of the free face adjacent to the
wheel excavating the full shaft diameter cutting face. Analysis of similar conditions
in a two stage process for one complete during partial face excavation with regular
stroke. An overview of the system is shown TBM, e.g. pre-excavated station areas,
in Figure 3. revealed a decrease of up to 65% in cutting
The excavation process is divided into force.
two steps: For safe and comfortable access to the
• trench excavation to a depth of one cutting wheel, an inspection and cutter
stroke with the cutting wheel rotating replacement area is located in the upper
around its horizontal axis and being part of the cutting wheel support close
pushed downward in the shaft direction to the 12 o’clock position of the cutting
• excavation of the entire bench (face) wheel.
area by slewing the rotating cutting
Mucking system
wheel 180° around the shaft vertical axis.
The SBS machinery consists of three The cutting wheel layout follows the
major areas of equipment and operation principle of a bucket wheel. The bucket lips
which are (starting from the bottom): at the periphery (shown in Figure 3(1))
• shaft boring machine with excavation, are arranged so that the buckets pick up
muck transport and gripping system the cuttings from the bench during the
as well as equipment for primary rock rotation of the cutter wheel. Once in the
support and probe drilling buckets, the rotation of the wheel lifts up
• primary platform decks for SBS supply the muck which starts at a certain position
infrastructure and power packs to slide along internal muck channels
• secondary platform decks for final lining towards a stationary muck ring–hopper
installation, muck handling and services arrangement. Here, the muck is finally
extension. discharged into the loading area of a centre
The SBS machine can be separated into arranged vertical conveyor. The vertical
the main functional areas (starting from the conveyor slews inside the SBS mainframe
bottom): at the cutting wheel and the cutting wheel
• excavation chamber with cutting wheel, support. The conveyor skewing does not
cutting wheel drive assembly, mechanical affect outside installations like grippers,
Figure 3 Overview of the SBS
machine support structure, shotcrete thrust cylinders or rockbolting units.
and probe drilling equipment A full mining cycle consists of the The bucket lips are at an ‘aggressive’
(Figure 3(1)) following steps, once the SBS is reset: shallow angle design for high muck loading
• adjustable front support with slew • trench excavation (plunging) efficiency and rapid muck removal, as well
bearing/drive assembly cutting wheel • bench excavation (slewing) as for efficient invert cleaning.
support and dust shield (Figure 3(2)) • extend SBS support legs
Rock support
• regular rock support area for rockbolts • retract and reset main gripper system
(Figure 3(3)) • adjust SBS vertical alignment with rear The first step of rock support is the
• SBS mainframe with gripper carrier, gripper system shotcrete application from the front, below
gripper system and thrust cylinders • activate main gripper system. the dust shield. The shotcrete nozzles
(Figure 3(4)) In case the SBS support legs cannot slew with the cutting wheel which allows
• rear alignment system (secondary provide sufficient safety due to weak rock the nozzles to apply a complete ring of
gripper) conditions in the bench, the front support shotcrete while bench excavation occurs.
• muck handling system (Figure 3(5)). in combination with the rear gripper The second step of rock support is
The cutting wheel circumference and system can secure the SBS during reset of generated by rockbolts installed from
periphery of both sides are equipped the main gripper system. behind, above the dust shield. In this non
with appropriate cutting tools and muck slewing area, all rock support activities can
Cutting wheel and excavation process
buckets to excavate the rock and remove take place while the excavation is ongoing.
the cuttings while rotating. Excavation and The cutting wheel has a diameter that To achieve a complete bolt pattern, the
muck removal is a continuous process. The equals the excavation diameter of the shaft rockbolting units are able to pivot around
cuttings are guided along internal muck (10–12 m). It is equipped with disc cutters the vertical axis of the SBS.
channels and discharged by gravity onto at the periphery and the side areas. The For both pre-excavation grouting and
a centre arranged secondary conveying frontloading disc cutters have a diameter of probe drilling, two pivoting probe drilling
system. 48 cm with a narrow cutter ring design. units are installed in front, below the
All reaction forces of the excavation The cutting paths of the disc cutters dust shield. To access the bench to install
process are transferred into the shaft are circular. During a full revolution of the standpipes and blowout preventers,
walls by grippers arranged in the rear. cutting wheel the penetration rate of each retractable platforms are installed.
During the gripper reset operation after cutter varies due to the slewing angle and
Gripper system
each excavation cycle, the machine can be cutter position. In contrast to regular disc
adjusted along its vertical axis for alignment cutting with TBM, there is a significant The gripper system is crucial for the
control. reduction in cutting forces during slewing overall safety of the SBS since the dead

Australian Centre for Geomechanics • May 2010 Newsletter 3

weight of the SBS needs to be supported Machine support structure Both mechanical excavation systems
by this system. Redundancy, fail-safe allow for a significantly enhanced level of
controls and appropriate factors of safety In order to achieve vertical SBS support, health and safety due to the high degree of
for structural design are key elements when the main gripper unit is not in use, mechanisation and industrialisation.
of the safety concept. There are three i.e. when vertical adjustment occurs, Due to high production performance,
independent gripper levels on the SBS. independent extendable structures are the SBS and the VSM can create a positive
The first gripper level (starting from installed at the bottom end of the SBS. impact on the overall mine development
the bottom) is the dust shield with its These structures are also designed schedule and help increase the net present
extendable segments and it is located as an emergency support which can be value of the mine project.
at the upper end of the cutting wheel. extended at any time after the vertical With the VSM systems, a number of
Gripping is accomplished by hydraulic rotation of the cutting wheel stops even shafts have been completed including a
cylinders extending the dust shield though bench excavation is not finished yet. pre-sink for a deep mine shaft. The detailed
segments to form a closed support ring For this reason the mechanical machine engineering of the SBS system is currently
and bulkhead. The main purpose of this support structure is designed in a manner underway and a prototype will be built
unit is to stabilise the SBS during trenching. that three of the individual structures are soon.
While trench excavation is occurring, the sufficient to carry total SBS weight.
cylinders are under medium pressure to This edited article has been reproduced from
Guidance system
allow the segments to slide vertically on the following paper:
the rock at the same time. In the bench The guidance system of the SBS is based Frenzel, C., Delabbio, F. and Burger, W. (2010)
slewing excavation step there is no more on an inclinometer mounted on the same Shaft boring systems for mechanical excavation
vertical movement of the SBS. Therefore, part of the machine as the cutting wheel. of deep shafts, Proceedings of the Second
the dust shield cylinders are under high After the machine is adjusted to the International Symposium on Block and Sublevel
pressure to achieve maximum lateral vertical the difference between the centre Caving, Y. Potvin (ed), Australian Centre for
support and transfer the resulting torque of the shaft and the centre of the machine Geomechanics, Perth, Australia.
into the shaft walls. is detected by scanners. To get an accurate
The second gripper level is the main and redundant position of the machine Please contact the ACG for the full paper and
references.
gripper unit, which consists of four gripper axis in relation to the scanned shaft centre,
shoes and a common gripper carrier. Each three scanner levels are planned. If this
shoe is connected to the gripper carrier difference is out of a defined tolerance,
by two gripper cylinders and directly a correction to the steering is needed. Christian Frenzel,
Herrenknecht AG,
to the SBS mainframe by two thrust Therefore, the machine has to be tilted
Germany
cylinders. Together with the dust shield outside of the vertical direction.
segments, the main gripper unit assures To support the steering of the SBS
the lateral support of the SBS. It is the only out of the vertical, a function in the
vertical support for the SBS weight while navigation system is planned. This shall be
undertaking trench excavation. implemented by a pre-calculated point of
The third gripper level is the rear the machine axis in one advance direction.
adjustment system which is located on By moving the SBS out of the vertical this ACG INTERNATIONAL FORUM
the upper end of the SBS mainframe. It pre-calculated point can move onto the ON SAFE AND RAPID MINING
consists of four adjustment pads, each planned shaft axis. This system shall be PRODUCTIVITY DEVELOPMENT
equipped with two cylinders. Its function is controlled and calibrated frequently by
the adjustment of the SBS axis during the independent control measurements. 24 March 2011
re-grip operation to control the vertical
Conclusions
alignment. National Convention Centre,
In certain operating conditions the rear Mechanical excavations systems can have Canberra, Australian Capital
adjustment system and the dust shield significant advantages over conventional Territory, Australia
segments together can be used as a backup drill and blast methods for sinking of shafts.
system for vertical SBS support. Herrenknecht AG has developed two Following on from the success of the
The two pairs of main grippers are fed systems for drilling large-diameter blind ACG’s First International Seminar on Safe
by independent hydraulic power packs. shafts. and Rapid Development Mining held in
The rear adjustment cylinders and the The vertical shaft machine is designed for Perth, Western Australia in May 2009, the
dust shield cylinders are supplied by shallow shafts in groundwater bearing soil ACG looks forward to hosting a highly
independent hydraulic power packs as well. and soft rock which allows for excavation interactive forum on safe and rapid mining
In summary, the following systems are of pre-sinks. Further development will productivity development next year.
independently capable of supporting the focus on extending the depth limitations. Forum themes include: scheduling; rock
stability; hydrogeology; ground support;
SBS system: For deep shafts in hard rock, the shaft
shotcrete; blasting; equipment selection
• one pair of main gripper pads boring system has been developed in
and utilisation; and automation.
• two pairs of adjustment pads collaboration with Rio Tinto. The system
• all segments of the dust shield. uses conventional disc cutting in a unique
In case of a power loss there is an set up. The mucking system is an integral For event updates, please visit
emergency hydraulic power pack installed part that utilises the principle of a bucket [Link]/events_and_courses/
to supply these cylinders. wheel excavator and vertical conveyors. current_courses

4 Australian Centre for Geomechanics • May 2010 Newsletter

 Underground
Strategic considerations in block caving

by R.J. Butcher Barrick Gold of Australia Ltd, Australia, and G. Smith Barrick Gold of Australia Ltd,
Australia the company owners are faced with three
alternatives:

Strategic considerations Introduction • stop the project

• suspendinthe
Over the last twenty years there have been considerable advances project until
geotechnical prices recover
techniques used in the

in block caving design of block caves. However, despite these advances the• successful
relies heavily on many non geotechnical factors. This article
reconfigure
economic
the project
development
describesviability.
factors on a block caving project and how these factors ultimately shape
In the first
of to ensure
a block better
caving
the influence of non geotechnical
twothecases,
direction
project

of the geotechnical
if exploration
programme. In this respect key non geotechnical factors which are going to
development hasbenot
considered
started theare:
• commodity price geotechnical impacts would be minimal.
However, if shafts or adits had been sunk
• exchange rate then some form of geotechnical impact
• exploration development timing would be seen. This geotechnical impact
would most notably take the form of:
• end of life dilution.
• securing workings for abandonment
In order to study these factors a conceptual block cave • study was undertaken
increasing using
support levels of data from to
workings Barrick
records. In this respect it should be understood that most ofprevent
the models’
time outcomes
dependantdescribe the impact of
failure during
by Richard Butcher and
non-geotechnical George
factors in termsSmith,
of copper deposits. commodity price downfalls
Barrick Gold of Australia Ltd, Australia • increasing the corrosion resistance of
Conceptual model description support elements in shafts and tunnels
The conceptual model considered a vertical copper orebody,• with investigating the maintenance
a high grade core of 1.4% of copper reducing
to a grade of 0.5% at the outer extremity. Three different caving block heights
dewatering were and
measures considered: namely
the impact of 300,
500 and 700 m. The same undercut and extraction level layouts were utilised
excavation for all
flooding onscenarios, based on that
the environment
Introduction indicated purposes,
by Butcherfollowed
and Thinclosely
(2007)by
and Butcher (2003). and on a potential future project.
a haulage
Over the last twenty years there haveAccess toshaft the orebody was assumed to be initially via declineHowever,
for production. in geotechnical
for exploration terms theclosely by a
purposes, followed
been considerable advances in geotechnical haulage shaftTheforphysical characteristics of each
production. most notable impacts of lower commodity
techniques used in the design of block scenario are shown in Table 1. prices are in terms of potential project
The physical characteristics of each scenario are shown in Table 1.
caves. However, despite these advances reconfiguration.
the successful development of a block Table 1 Table 1 Scenario physical characteristics
Scenario physical characteristics
caving project relies heavily on many non-
geotechnical factors. This article describes Parameter Scenario 1 Scenario 2 Scenario 3 Scenario 4
the influence of non-geotechnical factors Ore diameter 120 m 170 m 230 m 300 m
on a block caving project and how these Hydraulic radius 30 42.5 57.4 75
factors ultimately shape the direction
Incremental grade 1.4% 1.1% 0.8% 0.5%
of the geotechnical programme. In this
respect key non-geotechnical factors which Average grade 1.4% 1.25% 1.05% 0.82%
are going to be considered are: Undercut development metres 4,006 5,409 6,707 7,652
• commodity price Extraction development metres 4,519 6,139 8,886 11,333
• exchange rate
Infrastructure development metres 828 828 828 828
• exploration development timing
• end of life dilution. Production rate (Mtpa) 2.2 4.4 8.0 13.6
In order to study these factors
a conceptual block cave study was
undertaken using data from Barrick Commodity price and exchange This project reconfiguration could take
records. In this respect it should be rate four potential forms:
understood that most of the models’ Due to the long life of block caving • the block height of the cave is increased
outcomes describe the impact of non- projects and the long project development to improve returns
geotechnical factors in terms of copper times, factors external to geotechnical • the footprint of the cave is reduced to
deposits. issues sometimes have a profound impact mine a high grade core
on the project’s nature. In some cases it • the footprint is expanded to improve
Conceptual model description
is necessary that commodity prices are returns
The conceptual model considered held to their current levels for at least • both the block height and footprint are
a vertical copper orebody, with a high 20 years to ensure viability. In the last expanded.
grade core of 1.4% copper reducing to 20 years block caving has been used to An illustration of how the block
a grade of 0.5% at the outer extremity. extract very low grade copper deposits geometry can change is given in Figures 1
Three different caving block heights were and hence the impacts of commodity and 2. Figure 1 shows that as copper prices
considered: namely 300, 500 and 700 m. price are heightened. Today many block fall below the US$ 2.75/lb mark, block
The same undercut and extraction level caves are mined with copper grades in heights have to be increased substantially.
layouts were utilised for all scenarios, based the region of 0.4–0.8% copper. In certain In many cases block heights are doubled
on that indicated by Butcher and Thin cases, such projects are only viable when and can exceed the limits of current mining
(2007) and Butcher (2003). copper prices are greater than US$1.5 lb. experience, in the region of 500 m (Flores
Access to the orebody was assumed Should the copper price fall during the and Karzulovic, 2004). In geotechnical
to be initially via decline for exploration project development or exploration stages, terms, Figure 1 shows that when copper

Australian Centre for Geomechanics • May 2010 Newsletter 5

prices fall below US$ 2.25/lb, caving undercutting method but the dip and dip Figure 2 shows the impact of trying to
becomes geotechnically risky. The main direction of the stress field. expand footprint dimensions to improve
issue with increasing block height is that Not only does increasing the block project viability after cave heights have
operational depth increases and the risk height and increasing depth impact the been increased to their maximum
of cave stall also can increase as the height geotechnical design of a block cave, but experiential limit of 500 m. Figure 2 shows
to width ratio of the block to be mined also there is a risk that rock masses could that as copper prices increase, the lower
increases beyond acceptable norms, become weaker or stronger at depth. grade material at the larger footprint scales
i.e. greater than two or three. This risk again leads to challenges in become viable.
Footprint expansion as a means of
Cave Economic Comparison - 170m Footprint (HR 42) improving the economics of a project again
attracts a certain degree of geotechnical
600
risk. One of the main geotechnical risks
500 in such a strategy is that the undercut
400 front will have to be large. Areneda and
300
Sougarret (2007) show that undercut
fronts should be kept to a maximum of
200
300 m for stress and seismic control.
NPV ($M)

100
Butcher (2003) suggests that when cave
0 hydraulic radii of greater than 28 have
1.50 1.75 2.00 2.25 2.50 2.75 3.00
-100 to be mined, stress control and cave
-200
propagation becomes an issue. In practical
terms, Areneda and Sougarret (2007)
-300
also show that a further risk of pre-
-400
undercutting is the amount of development
-500 that has to be excavated in front of the
Copper Price (US$/lb)
cave. Experience from South America has
300m Block Height 500m Block Height 700m Block Height shown that developing large cave fronts
can be challenging and can lead to crushing
Figure 1 Economic comparison for varying block heights of the undercut front. Such experiences
have also challenged the concept of pre-
undercutting as a method of stress control.
In discussion of the first point, an terms of fragmentation, extraction As described previously, not only does
increase in operational depth poses certain level protection and siting of auxiliary commodity price have a profound impact
challenges. The first one of these challenges excavations. It also means that geotechnical on the geometry of a caving project, but
is that undercutting strategies can change investigation programmes expand as the foreign exchange rates can also have a
from post-undercutting to advanced, or need to gain information from greater material impact. In this regard, the impacts
pre-undercutting for stress protection. depth becomes important. The most of foreign exchange can be considered to
This change in undercutting strategy has notable aspect is that the amount of be similar to that of commodity prices
material impacts in terms of project costs exploration drilling increases. for a project reporting in local currency,
and cave development time. As a general
rule, the following applies for development
of an undercutting strategy (Butcher, 1999, Cave Economic Comparison - 500m Block Height
2000; Bartlett and Croll, 2000):
600
• post-undercutting can be successfully
used to a depth of 500 m 400
• advanced-undercutting is viable as a
stress protection method from 200

500–700 m
0
• stress protection requires pre- 1.50 1.75 2.00 2.25 2.50 2.75 3.00
NPV ($M)

undercutting below a depth of 700 m. -200

The above rules are considered as first

pass guidelines to give design engineers an -400

understanding of the impacts of increasing

-600
block height to improve viability. However,
numerical analysis will be required to -800

confirm the first pass rules. Beck et al.

(2006) show a case of a potential cave -1000
Copper Price (US$/lb)
where a horizontal stress regime changed
the current perception of undercutting 120m Footprint (HR 30) 170 Footprint (HR 42) 230m Footprint (HR 57) 300m Footprint (HR 75)

strategies. In this case, Beck et al. (2006)

showed that it was not only the depth Figure 2 Comparison of varying footprints for 500 m block height
below surface that had an impact on the

6 Australian Centre for Geomechanics • May 2010 Newsletter

 Underground
as revenues will fluctuate inversely to exploration shaft/decline. major impact on the geotechnical design
movements in the exchange rate. It also may be preferable to investigate of a block cave. In taking cognisance of
if the exploration development can be this, it is important at the initial stages of a
Exploration development timing
integrated into the main cave plan to save caving project to understand the potential
A major consideration when commodity costs and consider options to conduct impacts of such non-geotechnical factors.
prices fall is the timing of cave exploration limited salvage mining to cover capital costs Such factors not only have an effect on
development. At the present time, with if the project does not prove viable. cave design stages, but also during the
large caving projects it is considered operational phase in terms of dilution
End of life dilution
necessary that shafts and adits are assessment. The decision to commit to
developed to collect geotechnical data. Pretorius (2007) describes how the ore exploration development is also considered
Whereas most people would tend to agree reserves of the Palabora underground to be at a higher risk during lower
with the necessity of this development, mine were affected by dilution from a large commodity prices, but by ensuring that the
the debate can rage regarding when open cut failure. Pretorius notes how the project is robust both geotechnical and
such development should start. At original ore reserve was reduced by 30%. mining viability aims can be achieved.
present, some geotechnical engineers are This figure was confirmed by the use of
advocating that exploration development physical models to calibrate cave dilution This edited article has been reproduced from
should commence during the scoping entry points. Even though geotechnical the following paper:
study stage. Since this development can engineers are mainly concerned with Butcher, R. J. and Smith, G. (2010) Strategic
cost upwards of US$ 100 M in the case of the draw profiles and waste ingress considerations in block caving, Proceedings of
a large caving project, to commit to this percentages, a further impact that is not the Second International Symposium on Block
expenditure before the project’s viability normally considered is that of commodity and Sublevel Caving, Y. Potvin (ed), Australian
has been confirmed could be seen as a price. In essence, as commodity prices Centre for Geomechanics, Perth, Australia.
major risk. This debate is heightened during increase, the amount of waste reporting
times when commodity prices fall and to drawpoints can increase with ore Please contact the ACG for the full paper and
references.
exploration projects can take many years. reserves still being economic. Obviously
The need to gain geotechnical data and the impacts of cost escalation as well as
have a look at the rock mass are important, potential process cost reductions due to
but this will entail considerable expenditure
without a return if the project proves to be Cut Off Variation and Dilution Curves
non viable. It should be further understood
1.00% 140%
that exploration development cannot
totally give a full understanding of the rock 0.90%
120%
mass as the width of exposure is limited to 0.80%

the width of the tunnel being developed. 0.70% 100%

It therefore has to be challenged if such
Cut Off / Shut Off

development is prudent before the 0.60%

80%

Dilution
project has proved viable. In this respect 0.50%

many companies may well be prepared 0.40%

60%

to undertake this risk if the rewards are

0.30%
large enough and exploration capital is tax 40%

deductable. However, where a company 0.20%

20%
may be risk adverse, Butcher (2004) gives 0.10%

guidance in terms of criteria that should

0.00% 0%
be adhered to before commencing such
$1.50

$1.75

$2.00

$2.25

$2.50

$2.75

$3.00

$3.25

$3.50

exploration development, namely: Current Metal Price

• the project concepts have been finalised Cut Off Variation $1.50 Base Price $1.75 Base Price $2.00 Base Price $2.25 Base Price $2.50 Base Price $2.75 Base Price $3.00 Base Price $3.25 Base Price

• the project risks/potential risks have

been determined Figure 3 Variation in cut off grade and dilution curves
• the project appears viable with strong
discounted cash flow indicators when “A major consideration
related to corporate hurdles reduced milling with fine ore at the end of when commodity
• the resource has been geologically the block cave have got to be taken into
defined to an indicated category account in this regard. Figure 3 illustrates prices fall is the timing of
• all existing geotechnical data has been this impact in terms of a simple shut off
analysed, compiled and the conceptual grade calculation. It therefore becomes cave exploration
geotechnical model has been formulated evident that cave dilution levels should be development.”
• the potential impacts of mining stresses periodically assessed for viability in terms
are understood of commodity price fluctuations.
• the aims of the exploration programme Richard Butcher,
Conclusions Barrick Gold of Australia
are defined
• a geotechnical investigation and risk This article illustrates that a number Ltd, Australia
study have been undertaken for the of non-geotechnical factors can have a

Australian Centre for Geomechanics • May 2010 Newsletter 7

Caving 2010 – advancing block and
sublevel caving practices
cave /kerv/
1 a hollow in the earth, esp. one opening more or less horizontally into a hill, mountain etc.
2 to explore caves , as a sport
3 to fall or sink - the roof caved in under their weight
4 Caving 2010 – advancing block and sublevel caving practices.

The Australian Centre for Geomechanics One of the missing items in the overall methods that can approach the high
held the Second International Symposium process is a simple, but technically sound, productivity and low mining costs of
on Block and Sublevel Caving, 20–22 April method for assigning the damage radius open pit mining. Excellent presentations
2010, in Perth, Western Australia. produced by a particular explosive-hole- from Australian operations, including
The MassMin Symposia is held every four rock combination. Through the application Newcrest Mining Ltd’s Cadia East panel
years and is recognised as the main vehicle of careful perimeter blasting practices, caving project and Telfer Mine; Rio Tinto’s
to disseminate mass mining technologies. the damage to the remaining rock will Lift 2 North extension cave project; and
However, Professor Dick Stacey of be minimal, the shape of the opening will Argyle Diamond’s block cave project,
the University of the Witwatersrand, be similar to the as-designed and the demonstrate that local industry is well
South Africa identified the need for succeeding operations such as scaling and poised to benefit from this rapidly evolving
more frequent “meetings”. The ACG, rock reinforcement will be easier and more methodology and practice. It is exciting
in collaboration with the University of effective. This translates into improved to note that many local operations are
Toronto, Canada, and the University of safety and better economy, both of which applying preconditioning to their block
the Witwatersrand, initiated a specialised are essential to modern mining.” and panel caving operations. This technique
series of international symposia on block Day two was opened with a keynote aims to modify the properties of the in
and sublevel caving. The first symposium address by Dr Gideon Chitombo, situ ore, prior to mining, by inducing new
was held in Capetown, South Africa in Sustainable Minerals Institute, The discontinuities using hydraulic fracturing
2007. It is envisaged that the third caving University of Queensland, ‘Cave mining – or confined blasting. Preconditioning
symposium will be held in 2014 in the 16 years after Laubscher’s 1994 paper ‘Cave objectives may be to improve cavability,
southern hemisphere; following MassMin mining – state of the art’.’ Dr Chitombo, increase fragmentation or to reduce the
2012, Sudbury, Canada. as the leader of the International Cave seismic risks associated with cave mining.
More than 200 caving practitioners Study and Mass Mining Technology was well Presentations from major mining
attended the Caving 2010 symposium positioned to provide a comprehensive countries from throughout the world were
that featured state-of-the-art technical account of the research outcomes in cave also very well received. Patrick Frenette’s
presentations and case studies mining during the last sixteen years. His presentation gave a powerful insight into
concentrating not only cave mining paper sought to provide “a snap-shot of the advanced mining methods undertaken
methods, but the key aspects of engineering the contemporary caving designs (and by Goldex Mine, a sublevel open stoping
design such as undercutting, fragmentation, practices), highlighting achievements mine near Val-d’Or, Quebec. From the
numerical modelling, preconditioning and made be the cave mining industry since paper, ‘Monitoring open stope caving
ground support. the introduction of mechanised caving in at Goldex Mine’, Frenette outlined the
Prior to the symposium, the ACG primary ores. It concludes by listing the development of a new mining method –
hosted a highly interactive Preconditioning developments made in the last 16 years as long hole shrinkage. This new method was
Workshop that was attended by more than well as the current and future challenges. devised after considering the suitability of
60 delegates. The author concludes that contemporary the block caving method. It was found that
Dr Bill Hustrulid, Hustrulid Mining designs and the number of design rules “because of the high quality of the rock
Services, USA, a world expert in cave in Laubscher (1994), while still remaining mass, numerical modelling suggested the
mining, opened the caving symposium in use, may be reaching their limit when cave would choke itself before the orebody
with an excellent keynote address, ‘Some applied to large-scale operations or super was completely recovered.”
comments regarding development drifting caves and they need to be supplemented “The orebody was divided in three
practices with special emphasis on caving by a number of the emerging techniques. stopes each consisting of sublevels about
applications’. Dr Hustrulid outlined the The attributes which make super caves 80 m apart. Each sublevel was drilled and
situation that many operations need to be unique are presented. The opportunity is blasted in a sequence where the extremity
aware of and he provided comments from to continually improve and to test these stopes are blasted first and a central
his research undertaken at NIOSH. emerging methods.” stope is mined at a later stage. In the first
“Effective drifting practices are a very The strong attraction of large mining stages, only the swell of the blasted ore is
important part of modern caving systems. companies to cave mining methods in extracted, the objective being to leave as
Today, available drilling and blasting recent years is driven by the typical much ore as possible in the stopes to act
technology has developed to the point low cost and high productivity of these as support for the walls. Once the orebody
that there is no reason why the rock mass methods. In particular, block and sublevel is completely blasted, the ore is removed
cannot be ‘cut as with a knife’, is so desired. caving are the only underground mining from the lowest level and any dilution

8 Australian Centre for Geomechanics • May 2010 Newsletter

 Underground
coming from the roof or wall is left on top project.”
of the ore.” One area generating solid industry
This very innovative method to mine an interest was the ongoing challenge to
orebody, which otherwise could not be control mine seismicity and rockburst
exploited economically, uses concepts from conditions. The technology and knowledge
different mining methods such as: surrounding the identification and
• “the high efficiency haulage level of a management of ground control hazards is
block cave operation evolving rapidly. The ACG’s Mine Seismicity
• wall stability of a shrinkage stoping and Rockburst Risk Management project
method aims to develop innovative tools to assist
mine operators to manage seismic risk
• fragmentation of a long hole stoping
method omnipresent in the ground conditions. The A special thanks
• large blast and mucking flexibility of a
vertical crater retreat method.”
ACG project team also seeks to develop
analytical tools to better quantify the
to our sponsors
Frenette reported that Goldex Mine hazards associated with rockbursts and
had achieved an amazing 1.8 million t blast mine seismicity. During the three day event, attendees
in one shot (this may well be considered While geomechanics engineers and had the opportunity to forge new
a world record for underground mining), mine managers are becoming increasingly friendships and catch up with peers and
followed by 2 million t caving. It will aware of seismic monitoring systems, more friends alike. Delegates were also able
be interesting to see if this novel and information and resources are needed to to keep up with the latest products and
aggressive open stope mining method will address the dangers associated with what services by visiting the trade exhibition
be taken up by industry. geology is throwing at us – look at the booths. The ACG was proud to have the
Cave mining is a capital intensive recent Iceland volcanic eruption and the support from the following sponsors
method and as such it exposes significant Kalgoorlie earthquake. It is widely accepted and exhibitors.
investments to various technical risks. that the problem of rockburst and mine Principal Sponsor: Stratacrete; Major
Therefore, successful cave mining in seismicity in mines is highly complex, and Sponsors: Dyno Nobel and Geotechnical
challenging conditions requires extremely at best, only partially [Link] the Systems Australia; Industry Sponsor:
high levels of engineering design. The consequence of industry’s ignorance can be Cubex; Trade Exhibitors: Beck Arndt
increasing focus on cave mining and the catastrophic! Engineering, Geobrugg, Inflatable
engineering work required to mitigate The ACG looks forward to hosting the Packers International, Itasca, JK Tech
the technical risks has stimulated new Advanced Application of Seismology in SMI Technology Transfer, Orica Mining
waves of research in this area. This is Mines Short Course, 8–11 June 2010, Perth, Services and SRK Consulting.
clearly demonstrated in the presentation Western Australia to disseminate the latest The symposium covered a range of
given by Christian Frenzel, Herrenknecht ideas and technologies from worldwide diverse topics. Questions and comments
AG, Germany for the paper entitled, research activities. It is based on a Masters from the audience clearly demonstrated
‘Shaft boring systems for mechanical level post-graduate course offered at that cave mining is undergoing rapid
excavation of deep shafts’. Herrenknecht Laurentian University, Canada. evolution and that the global mining
AG , in collaboration with Rio Tinto, have industry must strive to mitigate the
developed a new shaft boring system for technical risks associated with its
deep hard rock shafts that significantly Proceedings of the Second growth.
improves the health and safety of shaft International Symposium on
construction. The new system integrates Block and Sublevel Caving
the excavation, mucking, primary rock “The most well organised symposium
I have attended.”
support, installation of the final lining, and
shaft infrastructure. “A good and useful symposium. Really
“The vertical shaft machine (VSM) is well coordinated.”
designed for shallow shafts in groundwater
bearing soil and soft rock which allows “Great quality papers and presenters.”
for excavation of pre-sinks. Further
development is focusing in extending depth
limitations. For deep shafts in hard rock
the shaft boring system (SBS) has been
Caving 2010 attracted excellent
developed in collaboration with Rio Tinto.
international participation with
The system uses conventional disc cutting contributions from 11 countries. Fifty
in a unique setup. The mucking system is high calibre papers are published
an integral part of the system and utilises in the Caving 2010 proceedings.
the principle of a bucket wheel excavator Accompanying these proceedings is a
and vertical conveyors … Due to high CD Rom containing many of the paper
production performance the SBS and VSM figures in colour.
can create a positive impact on the overall To order your copy online, please visit
mine development schedule and help to [Link],au/shop or contact
increase the net present value of the mine acgsales@[Link]

Australian Centre for Geomechanics • May 2010 Newsletter 9

 slight variations in base density near the
surface, or variations in seal mat thickness
related to slight variations in the texture of
the base finish, or variations in application
across the bitumen spray bar.
The cohesionless fluffy appearance of
the soil in the blisters can be explained
by venting moisture through the ruptured
blisters, the growth of salt crystals and
possibly a change in the basecourse fines
from a dispersed to a flocculated state
because of the presence of salt.
A testing programme was proposed to
confirm the pavement material properties

Seal blistering on the and the assumptions made concerning the

diagnosis of the causes of the problems. A

Lake Grace Airstrip number of potential rehabilitation options

were also proposed for consideration by
the local government authority. In order of
increasing risk they were as follows:
• Construct a new raised pavement so
that the highest water table likely is well
below the bottom of the basecourse, and
prime and seal it with a heavy double
coat seal.
by Andrew Cray, Golder Associates, Australia • Remove the moist, salt contaminated
base, replace, compact, prime and
The blistering of sprayed seals on de-compacted to a ‘fluffy’ loose layer. seal with a heavy double coat seal
granular pavements is an infrequent but The severity and frequency of these (this option could include cement
destructive event. In February 2007, defects can vary widely, but in the case modification of the new base).
Golder Associates undertook the task of of the Lake Grace Airstrip it was the • Remove the blistered seal and the fluffy
evaluating the likely causes and potential most extensive and severe example ever cohesionless upper base (about 20 mm),
rehabilitation requirements resulting from encountered by the author. Blisters were overlay with new base material, compact,
such an event on the Town of Lake Grace widespread over the airstrip, with very prime and seal with a heavy double coat
Airstrip. This town facility is a typical spray high concentrations in specific areas. It seal.
sealed airstrip used for light aircraft in rural is understood that the area affected was The decision the Shire of Lake Grace
areas of Australia. Aircraft use tends to be spreading (above photo). makes would be expected to reflect
relatively limited. Nevertheless, the strips The type of blistering and fluffing the risk they are willing to assume, plus
provide a valuable means of contact to observed has been reported and associated costs and the level of service
rural communities. investigated both nationally and they wish to provide. The solution selected
The Lake Grace Airstrip is situated just internationally. It was fairly common on was to tyne the bituminous surfacing into
outside the town of Lake Grace, which is sections of the Eyre Highway but has the basecourse using a recycling machine
a centre for local farming in the Wheatbelt occurred over a wide range of conditions and to leave the runway unsealed.
area of Western Australia and the main in Western Australia. There is some
Acknowledgement
town in one of the largest agricultural debate as to the mechanisms involved
shires in the state. The strip lies alongside and they probably vary from site to site. The permission of the Shire of
a salt lake and had only been sealed in It is, however, generally recognised that Lake Grace to publish this article is
December 2005 using a 7 mm sprayed problems are more likely in high water acknowledged and much appreciated by
treatment. The base was a local, naturally table or salt water situations. Some Golder Associates Pty Ltd.
occurring laterite gravel. An extreme research associates the problem with
rainfall event in January 2006 had resulted slightly porous seals.
in widespread flooding in the general area The most likely cause in the circumstance
and the level of water in the lake rising of this airstrip was a suddenly rising saline
suddenly. The blistering was first noticed in water table due to flooding, resulting in
April of 2006, but may have been present an increase in air pressure in the base
on a small scale prior to this. material voids, which did not dissipate Andrew Cray,
The form of failure involves the lifting laterally and slowly lifted up the relatively Golder Associates,
of areas of seal in roughly dome-shaped soft new seal. Eventually blisters formed, Australia
blisters that then rupture, leading to the developed holes or cracks, and moisture
collapse of the top of the blister into escaped leading to the deposition of salt.
the wider deformation. The soil within There was a tendency for blisters to form
the blister is generally disrupted and in longitudinal lines that may be related to

10 Australian Centre for Geomechanics • May 2010 Newsletter

 Tailings
ACG First International Seminar on the Reduction
of Risk in the Management of Tailings and Mine Waste
29 September – 1 October 2010, Sheraton Perth Hotel, Western Australia

KEYNOTE SPEAKERS
The ACG is delighted to have Gary Bentel, Australia, ‘The real value to the mining industry of of leading-practice waste
management’; Michael Shelbourn, Barrick Gold of North America, Inc., USA, ‘Geotechnical design verification and
performance assessment of tailings storage facilities’; and Graeme Spiers, Laurentian University, Canada, ‘Development
of a future from a mining legacy’, give keynote addresses at Mine Waste 2010.

KEY DATES
Submission of papers: 31 May 2010
Managing Tailings and Waste Rock Drainage – Quality and Quantity Workshop: 28 September 2010
Mine Waste 2010 Seminar: 29 September – 1 October 2010

PRINCIPAL SPONSOR MAJOR SPONSOR INDUSTRY SPONSOR OFFICIAL MEDIA PARTNER

AUSTRALIAN TAILINGS CONSULTANTS

For event updates and to view the list of more than 70 accepted abstracts,
please visit [Link]

14th International Seminar on Paste

and Thickened Tailings
5–7 April 2011, Esplanade Hotel Fremantle,
Perth, Western Australia
Major Sponsor
Abstracts due: 20 September 2010

This volume contains the proceedings

T RA D E E X H I B I T OR
of the 13th International Seminar Seminar Themes
on Paste and Thickened Tailings
• Thickening
held in Toronto, Canada in May • Underground and backfill
2010. It contains 46 technical papers • Transportation S u p p o r ti n g S p o n s o r s
contributed by operators, consultants, • Rheology
suppliers and academics from around • Surface disposal
the world. • Case studies
• Emerging issues and technologies
o f f i c i a l medi a p a r t n e r
To order your copy, go to
[Link]/shop [Link]

Australian Centre for Geomechanics • May 2010 Newsletter 11

Obtaining appropriate design parameters
for slopes in highly weathered saprolites
by Andy Fourie, The University of Western Australia, Australia and Allan Haines, South Africa

Introduction Choice of appropriate permeability

Africa are discussed. The soils are
This article focuses on the near surface characterised as saprolites, where the It is much easier to test the intact
moderately to extremely weathered definition used is, “thoroughly decomposed (continuum) permeability of a saprolite
material found overlying most open pit rock, a clay rich soil formed in place than it is to test the permeability of a
mines. The parent rock has undergone by chemical weathering of igneous or residual discontinuity (assuming it can
significant alteration due to weathering metamorphic rocks”, as given in Geological be identified in the first place). However,
and can no longer be considered in rock Society Engineering Group Working Party often surface water penetrates saprolite
mechanics terms. It argues that we cannot (1990). profiles very rapidly, causing rapid changes
simply adopt conventional soil mechanics in pore water conditions, leading to slope
Do micro-features or macro-features
approaches either, but need to develop instabilities (Gerscovich et al., 2006). Such
dominate?
specific sampling and testing procedures rapid inflow of water can only occur along
when designing slopes in this weathered Typically a material considered as discontinuities and therefore they need to
material. soil-like is expected to behave as a be identified and characterised.
3.1 Choice
continuum ofand
appropriate
the material [Link] It is appropriate to consider both
What is a residual soil?
Strength much
It is certainly would easier
also betocharacterised
test the intact intensity
in (continuum) and duration
permeability of aofsaprolite
rainfall asthan it is to test the
Blight (1997) described a residual soil permeabilityterms ofofa acontinuum
residual discontinuity
approach, where (assuming it can be identified
important in the to
contributors firstpotential
place). However, there is
as “a soil-like material derived from the in much the evidence, both anecdotal
shear strength is mobilisedand through
published, that stormwater penetrates
instability (Lumb, 1975, saprolite profiles very rapidly,
Fourie, 1996).
situ weathering and decomposition of rockcausing an rapid changes
essentially in pore
intact matrixwater conditions, often Recognising
of particulate leading to slope instabilities
this effect, design(Gerscovich
and et al., 2006).
which has not been transported from its Such rapid inflow
material. of water canwhen
In comparison, only occur along discontinuities
considering management and oftherefore
an openthey need to be can
pit operation characterised.
original location.” The key phrase in this a competent rock mass, it would be more be tailored to suit local conditions. It may
definition is ‘soil-like’. A residual soil has usual to consider water flow along joints be possible, for example to:
many mechanical properties that are similarThere or arefissures,
many studies
and to ofbethe effect
more of rainfall on the •
concerned stability
operateofcertain
naturalsections
slopes inoftropical
the pit and residual soils
(Lumb, 1975, Fourie, 1996) and the lessons from these studies are equally relevant to excavated slopes such
to those of transported soils where we about the strength properties of these only during the dry season and avoid
as those in open-pit mining. For example, it is now accepted that it is inappropriate to consider potential
can use classical soil mechanics, however, discrete features than the properties of susceptible areas during the period when
rainfall impacts only in terms of rainfall intensity (such as setting a threshold intensity above which potential
the intact
there are aspects that in fact differentiate instability may bematerial. Whenbut
expected), dealing that antecedentsudden
ratherwith and unpredictable
conditions are critical, andrainfall
that events
both intensity and
these materials from conventional soils andduration saprolites we need to consider both these are possible.
are important contributors to potential instability. Recognising this effect, design and management
therefore, simply adopting soil mechanics of an open possibilities or an interaction
pit operation can be tailored and todesign • monitor
suit local conditions. It changes in pore water
may be possible, for example to:
approaches can be misleading. for the most likely case. pressure providing early warning of
Residual soils retain relict fractures or • Design certain sections of the pit for operation onlypotential during the dry season,
problems. This thereby avoiding excavation
does require
fissures. They may have some residual and other work during the period when sudden anddetermination unpredictable of rainfall events are
the fracture possible, and
network
cementing, or bonding, which provides • Install systems that monitor changes in pore water pressure and thereby track
in order to locate the piezometers the antecedent moisture
conditions in a slope, providing early warning of potential problems. The difficulty with this technique
some degree of true cohesion between appropriately.
is the non-continuum nature of many saprolite profiles mentioned earlier, which makes it difficult to
particles. As a result they may display no
know where to locate a piezometer to provide a representative measure of in-situ pore pressures.
apparent effect of preconsolidation, even if
erosion of overburden has occurred. This
is because the competent cemented bonds
may prevent void ratio changes due to Angle of internal friction, φ´
loading and unloading. Another apparently Shear
stress Apparent
anomalous consequence of the retention
cohesion, c´
of cemented bonds are the extremely
high void ratios that are sometimes
encountered in these materials. It is not
uncommon to find void ratios in excess of
one or even two.
As it is a soil-like material, the effect of
pore water pressure cannot be ignored,
which means that use of a total stress
approach is inadequate. It is necessary to Mean stress
think in terms of effective stresses, but
even then the impact of residual structure Figure 2: Illustration of definition of stress
effective stress strength parameters
Figure 1 Illustration of definition of effective strength parameters
must be remembered and understood.
Residual soils from a project in West
3.2 Choice of appropriate strength parameters
In the analysis of soil slopes using limit equilibrium methods, the required strength parameters for an
effective stress analysis are the angle of internal friction, φ´, and the apparent cohesion, c´. It must be
emphasised that c´ is not a true cohesion, but is in fact merely an artefact of the way that strength test results
12 Australian Centre for Geomechanics • December 2009 are plotted. This is explained in Figure 2, which shows typical results from triaxial compression tests on
Newsletter
three specimens consolidated to different initial stresses, shown as the solid semi-circles. The failure
 Open pit
circles, such as shown in Figure 1, the not display the brittle behaviour illustrated
Choice of appropriate strength parameters
question then arises which value of shear in Figure 2, as the sample will be dilative
For soils, we can determine the effective strength to use, the peak or the residual? (due to the higher density) virtually from
angle of internal friction, φ´,Strain
and thesoftening is illustrated in Figure 2. This shows a typical
Using the peak value may be unsafe, the startstress-strain plot for awhich
of testing. The brittleness, test on a saproli
apparent cohesion, c´ (this isshown,
not a true because if the peak strength is mobilised,
the shear stress reaches a peak, indicated as τp, after which the availablewillshear
can have severe consequences, be strength dec
cohesion, but due to the way that strength even only locally, the load carrying
until a residual value, τr, is reached. When plotting the totally Mohroverlooked
stress circlesas a result and the test
such as shown in Figure
test results are plotted as shown in capacity in this region will decrease and results aggressive.
question
Figure 1). At low effective stresses, the
then arises which value of shear strength
progressive failure of the entire slope may to use, the peak or the residual? Using the peak valu
be unsafe, because if the peak strength is mobilised, Appropriate
even only sampling
locally, the loadprocedures
carrying capacity
mobilised strength is in fact lower than occur very suddenly (Troncone, 2005).
region
that given by the straight line envelope will decrease and progressive failure
However, using the residual strength will of the entire to ensure
slope may samples
occur are
very suddenly (Troncone,
shown in Figure 2 (coinciding with near in the requirement of very flat representative
However, using the residual strength will result in the requirement of very flat slopes, which will be no
result
expensive
surface conditions in pit walls). The true but also perhaps
slopes, which totally
will be notunnecessary.
only expensiveAfter all,Awe are then
sensible approachignoring two would
in saprolites factors that resu
failure envelope is tangentialstrength
to the circle but also perhaps totally unnecessary. After be to
that is higher than the residual value – the peak strength and the contribution dueobtain block samples if possible. Theto matrix su
shown dotted in Figure 1. However, in most all, we are then ignoring two factors that disadvantages of block sampling are the
Design needs to take account of the expected strain in the slope.
saprolites the y-axis intercept is a true result in a strength that is higher than the time required to obtain a decent block, and
cohesion, due to the cemented The brittleness of many saprolites can result in a distortion
bonds, and residual value – the peak strength and the of samples
the fact that the available
cannot beshear strength, if su
recovered
therefore can be relied on even under low contribution due to matrix suction. Design
sampling and testing techniques are not used. The vast majority of soil samplesrather from the base of a borehole, but for strength testin
stress conditions.
recovered in the needs field tousing
take account of the expected
one of a variety of tube sampling require a few square metres of working
techniques. The assumption is that
The shear strength of a soil, τf , is usually strain in the slope. area. However, given the high cost of even
defined as: process is carried out carefully and the resulting
The brittleness of many saprolites can soil samples
conventionalbe
will undisturbed.
sampling procedures, Whenthe tested, the sa
will
τf = c´+ σ´tan ø´ provide representative
(1) strengths. However,
result in a distortion of the available shear as shown potential for obtaining truly representative strains in
by Baligh (1985), the compressive
by very careful insertion of a thin walled
strength, if suitable sampling and testing sampling tube are still
samples of theandorder
for testing designofpurposes
2% to 4%. This m
sufficient to cause enough compression of the residual soil sample to severely damage the cemented b
where σ´ is the effective stress acting techniques are not used. The vast majority will far outweigh the negative aspects.
normal to the plane on which resulting
the shearin densification
of soil samplesof the
forsample
strengthand an are
testing increase in strength.
strength is mobilised.
Typically we are dealing with unsaturated
soils and negative pore water pressure,
or suction, that occurs when the degree Shear stress (kPa)
of saturation falls below about 85%.
Referred to as matrix suction, it has the 1600
effect of increasing the effective stress, 1400
τp
σ´, referred to above, and therefore the 1200 τr
available shear strength. This suction can
1000
change with time. It is because of this effect
that many soil slopes are able to remain 800
stable at slope angles that are steeper 600
than would be predicted by Equation (1). 400
Many of these slopes fail during periods
200
of heavy or prolonged rainfall as the
degree of saturation of the soil increases, 0
without necessarily reaching 100%, which 0 5 10 15 20
causes the matrix suction to decrease Axial strain (%)
and the additional strength component to
disappear. This time dependent response
and time to failure is difficultFigure 2:
to predict. Illustration of strain
Figure 2 Illustration of strainsoftening and
softening and the the difference
difference in peak
in peak and residual and residual strength
strength

If the increase in the sample density is significant, subsequent triaxial testing will not display the
Taking account of brittleness when defining recovered in the field using one of a Case history
behaviour illustrated in Figure 2, as the sample will be dilative (due to the higher density) virtually fro
strength parameters variety of tube sampling techniques. The The following case history presents an
start of testing. The brittleness, which can have severe consequences,
assumption is that if this process is carried
will be totally overlooked as a
example of a suitable sampling and testing
and the
There is another potential issue to be test results aggressive.
out carefully the resulting soil samples programme for determining saprolite
considered when defining appropriate will be undisturbed and when tested will properties.
shear strength for use in limit 4 Appropriate sampling procedures toBackground
equilibrium provide representative strengths. However, ensure samplesto the mining are representativ
conditions
stability evaluations. This relates to the as shown by Baligh (1985), the compressive
potential brittleness, or strainA softening,
sensible approach strainsininduced
saprolites would
by very carefulbeinsertion
to obtain block SRKsamples
Consultingif possible.
was appointedThebydisadvantages of
that is characteristic of many sampling
[Link] the of
time required
a thin to obtain
walled sampling tubeaare decent
still ofblock, Société
and the fact that
Ashanti samples
Goldfields cannot be recovered
De Guinée
Strain softening is illustrated the order
theinbase of a borehole, butofrather
2 to 4%.require
This maya be sufficient
few (SAG) of
square metres to carry
workingout anarea.
investigation
However, of a given the hig
Figure 2. This shows a typical stress–strain to cause enough compression of the slope failure in the Sanu Tinti Stage 1 pit
of even conventional sampling procedures, the potential for obtaining truly representative samples for t
plot for a test on a saprolite. As shown, residual soil sample to severely damage the and to initiate a re-design of the Sanu Tinti
and design purposes
the shear stress reaches a peak, indicated
will far outweigh the negative aspects.
cemented bonds, resulting in densification Stage 2 and Eureka open pits in Guinea.
as τp, after which the available shear of the sample and an increase in strength. Previously in 1998, the Stage 1 pit at Sanu
5 value,
strength decreases until a residual Case
τr, History
If the increase in the sample density is Tinti had failed on both the footwall and
is reached. When plotting the Mohr stress significant, subsequent triaxial testing will hangingwall slopes. All of the pit slopes
The following case history presents an example of a suitable sampling and testing programm
determining saprolite properties.

Australian Centre for Geomechanics • May 2010 Newsletter 13

were in saprolite. The footwall slope had failed as a classical circular slip along its entire 250 m length while the hangingwall had failed
through discrete wedge style block failures.
The existing design for the saprolites was for overall slope angles of between 42 and 55° for the slope above the ground water surface
and slopes of between 22 and 35° for slopes below. The higher values were for slopes <25 m in height and the lower values were for slopes
up to 100 m in height. The bench face angle was recommended as 68° with a 10 m bench height above the ground water surface and 5 m
below. A view of the footwall slope failure is provided in Figure 3. The dark line of vegetation curving half way down the face was originally
at ground surface. The slope height shown in the figure is approximately 50 m.

Figure 3 View of the footwall slope following the failure at Sanu Tinti in 1998

Block sampling of the saprolites

High quality samples of the saprolites were obtained for determination of appropriate design parameters. Conventional tube sampling
procedures were rejected in favour of block sampling procedures and three blocks in all were recovered from two exposures. Two of these
were from the Sanu Tinti pit and one from the nearby proposed Eureka Hill pit. The blocks were typically cubic, with side lengths of about
40 cm. After excavating and trimming the blocks, they were coated with layers of wax and plastic film, before being packed into individual
wooden crates that were then filled with sawdust. The crates were air-freighted to the laboratory.
Description of material and index test results
Table 1 summarises the key characteristics obtained from laboratory tests on the saprolite. The particle size distribution curves for the
three materials are shown in Figure 4. Particular care was taken when preparing samples for the Atterberg Limit tests (the liquid and plastic
limits) and the particle size distribution tests. As discussed by Fourie (1997), oven drying of these soils results in major alterations to the
material structure that causes inconsistent test results when the above tests are conducted. All samples were therefore air dried before
testing.

Table 1 Key characteristics of saprolite from the Siguiri mine site

Sanu Tinti 1 Sanu Tinti 2
Characteristic Eureka Hill
Footwall Slope Hangingwall Slope
Liquid limit (%) 53 46 41-45
Plasticity index (%) 36 23 33-35
Specific gravity 2.82 2.71 2.7
Void ratio 0.83-0.92 0.48-0.52 0.78-1.09
In situ degree of saturation
52 63 48
% - dry season
% - wet season - - 89
USCS classification ML CL ML
Mineralogy (in order of decreasing Kaolinite, Quartz, mica Quartz, montmorillonite Quartz, kaolinite, illite,
proportion) microcline
Intact permeability (cm/sec) - - 3x10-6
Cohesion (kPa): see note 106 227 28
Friction angle (º): see note 20 22 21

Note:The laboratory derived shear strength parameters are for saturated, consolidated and drained test conditions.

14 Australian Centre for Geomechanics • May 2010 Newsletter

 Open pit
All the materials are essentially clayey
silts, with the percentage of silt typically ST1 ST2 EH
between about 75 and 80%. The clay
100
fraction is, however, consistently significant
90
and probably plays a major role in the

Percent passing (%)

80
strength behaviour of the saprolite. For
70
example, the friction angle values shown 60
in Table 1 are much lower than would 50
be expected for a silty material, an effect 40
that is due to the high clay content. 30
Although only one complete test was 20
carried out, the high in situ permeability 10
is consistent with that reported for many 0
sites in saprolitic soils around the world. 0.001 0.01 0.1 1
It is also consistent with the coefficient Particle size (mm)
of consolidation that was determined
from one-dimensional consolidation tests
and was very high, around 350 m2/year. Figure 4 Particle size distribution curves for three saprolite materials from Siguiri mine
Information on the change in degree of
saturation at the Eureka Hills site illustrates 500 600 800
the effect whereby a significant change in
moisture content occurs during the rainy 900 0.6
season, potentially destroying the strength 800
contribution from the matrix suction that 0.4

Volumetric strain (%)

700
Shear stress (kPa)

occurs in drier material. 0.2

600
Shear strength parameters 500
0
400
An example of the results that were
300 -0.2 0
typically obtained from consolidated,
200 -0.4
drained triaxial tests are shown in
100
Figure 5, where Figure 5(a) shows the -0.6
0
stress–strain data and Figure 5(b) shows
0 5 10 15 20 -0.8
the variation of volumetric strain with axial
strain. As can be seen from (a) Axial strain (%)
Figure 5(a), peak shear strengths are
reached at about 2 to 4% axial strain, after
which there is a drop in 500
the mobilised600 800 500 600 800
shear resistance, with residual shear
900 0.6
strengths being about half of the peak
800
values. Poor quality sampling techniques 0.4
Volumetric strain (%)

700
would probably have damaged the
Shear stress (kPa)

600 0.2
structure of the samples to such an extent
that500
this brittleness may well have been 0
400
disguised. In Figure 5(b), the post-peak -0.2 0 5 10 15 20
300
behaviour can be seen to be dilative,
200 -0.4
particularly at the lower value of confining
100
stress, probably due to the initial (pre- -0.6
peak) 0compression of the specimens
0 5 10 15 20 -0.8
causing the density to increase to a point
Axial strain
where dilation becomes possible. It is(%)
also (b) Axial strain (%)
important to note that no dilation occurs
prior to the peak strength being reached,
Figure 5 Results from consolidated, drained triaxial compressive test, in terms of shear stress versus axial
which implies that the true (bond-induced)
strain (a), and volumetric strain versus axial strain (b). Numbers in legend refer to the effective confining stress
cohesion must first be overcome before in the triaxial test in kPa
the large strain frictional strength is
mobilised.
In addition to conventional triaxial and shear box tests, two triaxial tests were carried out in which a negative pore water pressure was
applied to the base of the specimen being tested, using a high air-entry ceramic disk, which meant that negative pore pressures could be
ensured throughout the shearing phase. In these tests, the maximum shear strength was found to be between 10 and 60% higher than
the maximum strength of saturated specimens. As noted earlier, the matrix suction has the effect of increasing the mean effective stress
throughout the specimen, meaning that higher shear strengths can be mobilised.

Australian Centre for Geomechanics • May 2010 Newsletter 15

 SLOPE STABILITY DESIGN SECTION

450
25o Overall
ACG Mining in
425
Saprolites Workshop
25o Overall

400 N
N
26 July 2010,
Elevation (m)

380
Burswood Convention Centre, Perth
375 50 N
370
N

350 FW HW
50
The main objective of the workshop is
to identify what is known and what is not
325 320
known in the investigation, analysis and
design of pit slopes in saprolites, transported
300
materials and laterites.
0 100 200 300 400 500
Length (m)
Most open pit mines in Australia,
Indonesia, Brazil, Africa and several in
Figure 6 Slope stability design section
North America, start mining in completely
weathered to highly weathered materials.
Slope design considerations otherwise the entire exercise is futile. The depth can vary from a few metres to
However, the potential benefits of carrying the deepest recorded pit to date at
A series of slope stability analyses were out such a sampling procedure, and of 170 m below surface. Often, sampling
carried out to determine the appropriate undertaking appropriate laboratory testing in these materials is poorly undertaken,
slope angle, slope height and drainage on the recovered samples, should prove to resulting in strength estimates that are
constraints to achieve stable slopes. Both far outweigh the inconveniences. significantly greater than the true in situ
2D FLAC and limiting equilibrium analyses The benefits of this study are that it strength. The influence of clay alteration,
were carried out to generate a set of clearly shows that for major excavations in leaching and variable cementation makes
slope design recommendations. The design saprolitic material, and indeed it is true for generalisation of material behaviour
section used for these analyses, illustrating most residual soils, a simplistic approach to difficult. The orientation spacing and
both the existing and proposed final pit shear strength selection is inappropriate continuity of relic structure is often difficult
slopes and dewatering scenarios, is shown and likely to be unconservative. This is to determine unless there is exposure,
in Figure 6. because higher estimates of both cohesion and then it may be smeared by the mining
The laboratory testing of the intact and the angle of internal friction may be process. Structural data may be available in
material (for saturated, drained conditions) obtained. the fresh rocks but is often ignored for this
produced maximum values of 106 kPa important aspect.
Acknowledgements
cohesion and 20° friction, although some
of the tests produced cohesion values of The authors thank the mine management Workshop Themes
as low as 20 kPa, with friction angles once at Société Ashanti Goldfields De Guinée Geological impact; structural setting;
again as low as 20°. The higher cohesion (SAG) for their permission to publish the hydrothermal alteration; soils; dispersive
value is indicative of the material without case history study. Allan Haines thanks the behaviour; slaking; smectites; pore
relic structures and remote from major staff at SRK Consulting, Perth for their pressure; hydro-mechanical coupling;
discontinuities. It is evident that water assistance with the preparation of this relict structure; mechanisms of failure;
management and drainage can have a article. deformation response; analysis techniques;
beneficial impact on the shear strength and run-out; operational constraints; effective
resultant performance of the pit slopes. This edited article has been reproduced from dewatering; mining residual soils; sampling
The resultant overall slope angle for the the following paper; and testing; engineering geology of
final 100 m high pit slope would be 25° Fourie, A.B. and Haines, A. (2007) Obtaining saprolites; monitoring; case studies.
(with drainage) and 18° (limited drainage). appropriate design parameters for slopes in
Lead presenters
highly weathered saprolites, Proceedings of
Phil Dight, Australian Centre for
the 2007 International Symposium on Rock
Conclusions Geomechanics; and Andy Fourie, The
Slope Stability in Open Pit Mining and Civil
University of Western Australia.
Selection of shear strength parameters Engineering, Y. Potvin (ed), Australian Centre for
for the design of open pit slopes in Geomechanics, Perth, Australia.
saprolites is not straightforward. The This ACG workshop will be held immediately
recommended approach is to utilise results Please contact the ACG for the full paper and prior to The AusIMM’s Seventh Large Open
from laboratory tests of specimens taken references. Pit Mining Conference 2010 to be held at the
from high quality block samples. Burswood Convention Centre, 27–28 July
The process of excavating, trimming and [Link] [Link]/lop2010/
transporting blocks of undisturbed soil
is not trivial. It requires personnel who Andy Fourie, Please visit
The University of Western
appreciate the importance of the sampling [Link]/events_courses
Australia, Australia
procedure being adopted, as it is vital that for the workshop programme and to
truly undisturbed samples are recovered, register for this event.

16 Australian Centre for Geomechanics • May 2010 Newsletter

 Open pit
BOOK REVIEW
Mine closure planning in South America
by Phil Dight, Winthrop Professor of
Geotechnical Engineering,
Australian Centre for Geomechanics

Guidelines for Open

Pit Slope Design
PUBLISHING
Editors: John Read and Peter Stacey

These guidelines were published in the project. There are chapters on dealing This of course leaves room for a second
2009 as one of the results of the Large with data uncertainty and quantitative risk edition.
Open Pit (LOP) project sponsored assessment. Slope design methods are The reference list is comprehensive for
by Anglo American plc, Barrick Gold presented. An important aspect is covered people needing to know more about the
Corporation, BHP Billiton Innovation Pty in the design implementation; a subject topic.
Ltd, Corporacion Nacional Del Cobre De often forgotten by analysts. Slope stability Guidelines for Open Pit Slope Design can be
Chile (CODELCO), Compania Minera monitoring, risk management and pit purchased from CSIRO Publishing.
Dona Ines de Collahuasi SCM (Collahuasi), closure are also covered.
[Link]
DeBeers Group Serices Pty Ltd, Debswana The guidelines provide comprehensive
Diamond Company, Newcrest Mining tables of what should be undertaken at
Recommended reading
Limited, Newmont Mining Limited, the Rio different stages of a project which will
Tinto Group,Vale, and Xstrata Queensland help geotechnical engineers to develop • CANMET (1977) Pit Slope Manual,
Limited. Contributions to the guidelines appropriately funded investigations. Chapter 5 ‘Design’, Energy, Mines and
were provided by 18 authors. The guidelines are squarely aimed at Resources Canada, Ottowa.
This guideline is a must have publication deep, hard rock mines predominantly • Hoek, E. and Bray, J. (1981) Rock Slope
that can be used by mine based controlled by structural failure mechanisms. Engineering, 3rd edition, IMM, London.
geotechnical engineers, geologists and There is mention of mining in saprolites • Hustrulid, W.A., McCarter, M.K. and
mining engineers, as well as in consulting and weathered rock masses cautioning Van Zyl, D.J.A. (2000) Slope Stability
practices. It is a welcome addition to the reader, but this was not covered in in Surface Mining, Society for Mining,
CANMET’s “Pit Slope Manual” (1977b), any detail. The section dealing with the Metallurgy and Exploration.
“Rock Slope Engineering” (1981), and synthetic rock mass model compared
“Slope Stability in Surface Mining”(2000). to more widely adopted rock mass
The guidelines follow the logical characterisations, e.g. RMR, MRMR,Q,
sequence from project development to and/or GSI, is still a work in progress.
mine closure. It includes chapters on While all slope failures involve a driving Phil Dight,
field data collection, development of a stress exceeding the available strength, Australian Centre for
geological model, structural model, rock it was a surprise that the topic of stress Geomechanics,
Australia
mass model and hydrogeological model, measurement and stress induced failure
culminating in the geotechnical model for had limited coverage.

Slope Stability 2007

Proceedings of the ACG’s 2007 International Symposium on

Rock Slope Stability in Open Pit Mining and Civil Engineering
held in Perth, Western Australia.

To purchase online, please visit [Link]/shop

Australian Centre for Geomechanics • May 2010 Newsletter 17

 Events of interest
Seventh Large Open Pit
Mining Conference 2010
27–28 July 2010, Perth, Western Australia A workshop and meeting will
High demand for commodities, record fuel prices and a scarcity of skilled personnel
be held on 27–28 May 2010
have been replaced and surpassed by the recent global financial crisis as the primary in Brisbane on “Application
issues facing the mining industry. As demand for commodities improves, the incentive of Various Ground Control
to continue to drive operational and safety improvements will become paramount. Techniques to Specific
The Seventh Large Open Pit Mining Conference 2010 (LOP 2010) will provide the Mining Methods: An Industry
opportunity to chart that progress in large open pit mines around the world.
Perspective”. A keynote
The conference will provide the forum for operations with major achievements, along address will be given by Dr
with those operators implementing changes, the chance to outline their innovations William Bawden, University
and to share and explore experiences with others. Consistent with the aims of The of Toronto, Canada. Please
AusIMM, the conference will allow members and the industry to keep abreast of contact the EAGCG for details.
technical developments and provide a forum to share views and opinions within the
large open pit sector.
eagcg@[Link]
For more information, please contact:
Belinda Martin, The AusIMM
Phone: +61 3 9658 6125
Fax: +61 3 9662 3662
bmartin@[Link]

5 th
International Conference on Mine Closure
5 th
International Seminar on
Deep and High Stress Mining
6–8 October | Santiago - CHILE

2010
23 ---> 26 november 2010. Viña del Mar, Chile
Early Bird Registration
until 23 August

Responsible closure: living up to Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile, in

communities’ and stakeholders’ expectations collaboration with the Australian Centre for
conference themes Geomechanics, the University of Toronto,
Over 120 abstracts that promise a diverse and solid technical and the University of the Witwatersrand, is
programme have been approved for mine closure 2010. The hosting the 5th International Seminar on
conference will explore the following areas: Deep and High Stress Mining.
– Community development – Long term water management For more details contact
– Proactive stakeholder engagement – Mine site reclamation & deepmining2010@[Link] or visit http://
– Mine cluster, redeployment, rehabilitation [Link]/~deepmining2010/
redevelopment & decommissioning – Control & monitoring
– Retrenchment – Soil ecology
– Mine legacies & relinquishment – Legal & regulatory issues Collaborating Organisations
– Designing & planning for closure – Mining heritage & tourism
– Progressive closure planning – Recent closure case studies.
– Closure costs & financing
enquiries Hosted by Founding Bodies

Olga Cherepanova
event coordinator
Telephone: + 56 2 652 1519 Principal Sponsor
E-mail: mc@[Link]

Register now at
[Link]

18 Australian Centre for Geomechanics • May 2010 Newsletter

 ACG news
ACG Board of Management Paul joined Curtin two and a half ACG Corporate Affiliate
years ago and oversaw the significant Memberships
Currently, the ACG Board of development of the School of Mines. He
Management comprises of Joint Venture played a prominent role in enhancing the Excellent support and encouragement for
Partner representatives: Associate research base of the School and made the Australian Centre for Geomechanics
Professor Peter Kinny, WA School of Mines, important contributions to faculty planning. initiatives and activities by industry is
Curtin University of Technology; Dr Steve He also initiated the development of a far- demonstrated by our Corporate Affiliate
Harvey, CSIRO Exploration and Mining; sighted strategic plan for WASM which he Memberships. The ACG presently has 15
Professor John Dell, The University of was working on even when his health was highly valued affiliate members that receive
Western Australia; Professor Yves Potvin, deteriorating noticeably. Although he was exclusive benefits such as discounted
ACG, and industry representatives Ian sadly unable to complete this work, he has ACG event registration fees and reduced
Suckling (chairman), Newmont Asia Pacific; left a legacy for others in WASM to follow. costs for the centre’s publications and
Richard Butcher, Barrick Gold of Australia; The ACG is very appreciative of Paul’s training products. These memberships are
and Christopher Stone, BHP Billion Nickel outstanding contribution to its Board. fundamental in assisting the centre to play
West Pty Ltd. The Board meets up to four His dedication and active promotion of a critical role in indentifying and developing
times a year to provide strategic direction the ACG and industry to the general research projects and professional
for the centre, review and approve community helped advance a positive education in Australia and more recently
activities and operations and to provide mining industry image throughout the overseas. This is significant as industry
counsel. world. Paul’s knowledge, experience and enters a new growth phase and increases
The Board assists the centre to focus strong business acumen were instrumental the number of large open pits and deeper
on activities that intensely support the in assisting the Board to develop new underground mining operations.
mining industry by way of applied research directions and initiatives for the ACG.
projects that have a direct, practical Our deepest sympathy goes to Paul’s 2010 Corporate Affiliate Members
application to operations, and the relevant family and peers.
training and education required to optimise
their application.
The ACG Board and staff members
express their sorrow for the recent passing
of Board member Professor Paul Dunn.
Professor Dunn, Director of the WA AUSTRALIAN TAILINGS CONSULTANTS

School of Mines (WASM), Curtin University

of Technology passed away after a battle
ACG Fourth International
with cancer. Paul was a relatively young Seminar on Strategic
man of enormous energy who enthused versus Tactical
his staff and was universally liked and Approaches in Mining
respected.

9–11 November 2011,

Novotel Langley Perth,
Western Australia

Since 2005, this series of

international seminars on strategic
versus tactical issues in mining
has been well attended by senior
mining professionals and manages
in Australia, South Africa and
Canada. The ACG is pleased to
bring this innovative and highly
topical seminar back to Perth.

promoting best practice

in strategic planning
Professor Paul Dunn, Director of the WA School of [Link]
Mines (WASM), Curtin University of Technology

Australian Centre for Geomechanics • May 2010 Newsletter 19

 ACG Event Schedule*
Environmental Geochemistry of Mine Site Pollution – An Introduction Short
Perth, 26–27 May 2010
Course
Advanced Application of Seismology in Mines Short Course Perth, 8–11 June 2010

Mining in Saprolites Workshop Perth, 26 July 2010

Open Pit Rock Mass Modelling Seminar Perth, 29–30 July 2010

Ground Support on Mining (Basic Level) Short Course Perth, 25–27 August 2010
Managing Tailings and Waste Rock Drainage – Quality and Quantity
Perth, 28 September 2010
Workshop
First International Seminar on the Reduction of Risk in the Management of Perth, 29 September –
Tailings and Mine Waste 1 October 2010
Blasting for Stable Slopes (Open Pit) Short Course Perth, 17–19 November 2010

In-Pit Waste Storage and Management Seminar Perth, 8–9 December 2010

International Forum on Safe and Rapid Mining Productivity Development Canberra, 24 March 2011

14th International Seminar on Paste and Thickened Tailings Perth, 5–7 April 2011

Geotechnical Engineering for Open Pit Mines Seminar Perth, 17–18 May 2011

Data Driven Slope Design Workshop Perth, 19 May 2011

Fourth International Seminar on Strategic versus Tactical Approaches in
Perth, 9–11 November 2011
Mining
* The ACG event schedule is subject to change. For event updates, please visit [Link]/events_and_courses

ACG Underground Drilling and Blasting – A safety training DVD

for underground metalliferous mine workers
All underground mine workers will be exposed to drilling and blasting processes. The aim of this new DVD is to provide workers with critical
knowledge on drilling and blasting to aid appreciation of the importance of these mining processes and their related hazards. The DVD will feature
an introduction to the rock breaking process in mining and a description of explosives and how they work. The second part of the DVD will cover
development drilling and blasting practices; while the third part will cover production drilling and blasting. The new ACG DVD will be available in late
2010. The ACG acknowledges the project sponsors’ generous support.

For many mining companies, ACG training products have become an integral and essential component of their training programmes. For the full list of
the ACG’s geotechnical mine worker training DVDs, please visit [Link]/training_products.

Australian Centre for Geomechanics PO Box 3296 – Broadway, Nedlands, Western Australia, AUSTRALIA 6009
Ph + 61 8 6488 3300 Fax +61 8 6488 1130 acginfo@[Link] [Link]
20 Australian Centre for Geomechanics • May 2010 Newsletter
 ACG May 2010 Newsletter
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Rapid Mine Development, pp. 523–536.

Strategic considerations in block caving

by Richard Butcher and George Smith, Barrick Gold of Australia Ltd, Australia

Areneda, O. and Sougarret, A. (2007) Keynote Address: Lessons learned in cave mining: El Teniente 1997–2007, in Proceedings First
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Johannesburg, South Africa, pp. 73–81.

Obtaining appropriate design parameters for slopes in highly

weathered saprolites
by Andy Fourie, The University of Western Australia, Australia, and Allan Haines, South Africa

Baligh, M.M. (1985). Strain path method. Journal of Geotechnical Engineering, ASCE, 111, pp 1108-1136.
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Engineering. 119, pp 211-218.
Fourie, A.B. (1997) Classification and index tests, Chapter 5 in: Mechanics of Residual Soils, Ed. [Link], [Link], 237 p.
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Geology, 23(1), pp 1-101.
Gerscovich, D.M.S., Vargas, E.A. and de Campos, T.M.P. (2006). On the evaluation of unsaturated flow in a natural slope in Rio de
Janeiro, Brazil. Engineering Geology, 88, pp. 23-40.
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