CHAPTER- 3

MEANING, CHARACTERISTICS
AND
CODIFICATION STAGES OF INDIAN TRIBES

1. Meaning of Tribe

In Oxford Dictionary of socilogy1 ‘tribe’ is defined as a social group

bound together by kin and duly associated with a particular territory; members

of the tribe share the social cohesion and associated with the family together

with the sense of political autonomy of the nation.

The New Encyclopaedia Britannica2 defines it as type of human social

organisation based on small groups defined by traditions of common

descends and having temporary or permanent political integration above

the family level and a shared language, culture and ideology. In the ideal

model of a ‘tribe’, members typically share a tribal name and contiguous

territory; they work together in such joint endeavours as trade, agriculture,

house construction, warfare and ceremonial activities. Tribes are usually

composed of number of smaller local communitiesN(e,g. bands, villages or

neighbourhoods) and may be aggregated into higher order clusters, called

nations.

In the New Columbia Encyclopaedia3 a tribe is defined as ‘social group,

usually with a distinguishing area, dialect, cultural homogeneity and unifying

social organisation. It may include several sub-groups such as sibs or villages.

A ‘tribe’ ordinarily has a leader and may have a common ancestor, as well as

a patron deity. The families or communities making up the ‘tribe’ are linked

through economic, social, religious, family or blood ties’

W.H.R. Rivers4 defined a tribe as 'a social group of simple kind, the

members of which speak a common dialect, have a single government, and

act together for such common purposes as warfare’.

The tribal communities represent an important social category of Indian

social structure. They are often referred to as ‘tribals’, ‘primitives’, ‘adivasis’

and so on. At present India has the second largest tribal population in the

world next only to Africa. It is equal to or even more than the total population

of the United Kingdom.5The Constitution of India has accepted to use the

term ‘Scheduled Tribes’ (ST), which was introduced for the first time by

Simon Commission in 1928. It was Dr. B.R. Ambedkar6, the chairman of

drafting committee of the Constitution, who preferred the concept of

‘scheduled tribe’ to ‘Adivasis’ for it enumerates the tribes and hence has a

specific meanig.

2. The Anthropological Definitions

The term ‘tribe’ is used indiscriminately by different Anthropologists as

follows.7

Risley V. Elwin and others used the word ‘aboriginals’ to mean tribals.

Sir Bains called the tribal community ‘the hill tribes’. Dr. Hutton preferred to

use the term ‘primitive tribes’. Takkar Bapa called the tribal ‘Adi Praja’, Dr.

G S. Ghurye called them ‘backward Hindus’. Gandhi pupularised the word

as ‘Harijan’. Tribes are also known as ‘Vanavasis’, ‘Aranyavasis’, ‘Vanyajatis’

etc.
 38

There is no definition but reference only in the Constitution for the

term ‘scheduled tribe’. Article 366(25)8 of the Constitution says that

‘scheduled tribes’ are the tribes or tribal communities or parts of or groups

within such tribes or tribal communities which the Indian President may

specify by public notification under article 342(1 ).9 The ‘Backward Classes

Commission’ states10 that the scheduled tribes lead a separate excluded

existence and are not fully assimilated in the main body of the people.

Scheduled tribes may belong to any religion. They are listed as scheduled

tribes because of the kind of life led by them. International Labour

Organisation (ILO)11 used the expression ‘indigenous people’ to refer to

the tribals.

There is no agreement among the sociologists and anthropologists

regarding the origin of the term ‘tribe’. Some more definitions may be

examined here. A ‘tribe’ is 'a collection of families bearing a common name,

members of which occupy the same territory, speak the same language and

observed certain taboos regarding marriage, profession, or occupation and

have developed a well obligation’ defined by emineent sociologist D.N.

Mazumdar.12

According to Imperial Gazetteer of India ‘a tribe is a collection of families

bearing a common name, speaking a common dialect, occupying or

professing to occupy a common territory and is not usually endogamous,

though originally it might have been so’.13 ‘Tribe’ is ‘an ethnic category, defined

by real or putative descend and characterised by a corporate identity and a

wide range of commonly shared traits of culture’ explained by sociologist

S.C. Dube.14‘A‘tribe’ is a group of local communities, which lives in a common

area, speaks a common dialect and follow a common culture’ said by

sociologist Gillin and Gillin.15

Another socilogist W. J. Perry explained that16, a ‘tribe’ can be defined

as ‘a group speaking a common dialect and inhabiting a common territory’.

Andre Beteille defined ‘we have described the tribe as a society with a political,

linguistic and a somewhat vaguely defined cultural boundary, further, as a

society based upon kinship, where social stratification is absent.’17

3. Anthropological Meaning and its Limitations

Anthropologist Andre Beteille opined that there are some limitations of

the anthropological definition of Indian tribes which stands as follows,

3.1. No Separate Political Boundary18

No tribe in India has a completely separate political boundary, In some

cases, in the NEFAfor instance, a certain amount of political separateness

has been remained within the wider structure. In most cases even this is

absent. The large tribes of Chhota Nagpur, the Oraons and the Santhals are

territorily disperse. In several instances, the boundaries of different states

cut across the tribal divisions.

3.2. Changing Linguistic Boundary19

The linguistic boundary which is supposed to be more explicit, has also

been changing. The Bhills, who constitute one of the largest tribes in India,

have been using a dialect of Hindi for many years Several tribes in middle

and south India, speak Dravidiyan languages, which have close affinities

with the languages spoken by the advanced communities of India. The

abandonment of tribal dialects in favour of one of the regional languages

appears to have accelerated during the last few decades.

3.3. Vague Cultural Boundary20

Cultural boundary of the tribe is also not explicit in the case of Indian

tribes. In the culture of the tribal people there are many elements of continuity

with the more advanced regional cultures. It cannot, therefore, be considered

distinctive in a rigid and clear cut way.

3.4. Vainshing Homogeneity of Indian Tribe21

According to Beteille, even regarding the absence of stratification, the

situation in India is distinctive. Large sections of tribal population have been

entering into the productive system of the country. This has resulted in the

breaking down of homogenous nature of the tribal society.

Thus, Beteille conclude22 that in contemporary India, tribes with these

features with anthropological conception of the 'ideal type’ are rarely found.

He remarks, ‘In India, we cannot have a ready-made definition with which to

go into the field and locate a tribe. The greatest emphasis has to be placed

on an historical perspective. The process by which tribes have been

transformed is an historical process. And only by going into the antecedents

of a group we cannot say with any confidence whether or not it should be

considered as a tribe.

4. Characteristics of Tribe

From the discussions made above regarding various definitions of tribe,

the following characteristics may be derived fot the tribe including the Indian

varities.

4.1. Common Territory23

A tribe is a territorial community. It means that the tribe has a definite

territory in which its members reside. For Example, the Naga, Rengma Naga,
 41

Sema Naga and other tribals reside in Nagaland; Garos, Khasis, Khasas

live in Assam; Bhils in Madhya Preadesh; Soligas in Mysore; Thodasln in

Niligiri Hills of Tamil Nadu, and so on. In the absence of a common locality or

territory a tribe would lose its uniqueness.

4.2. Collection of Families 24

As the definitions of tribe cited above clarify, tribals constitute a collection

of families. These collections may have various sizes. These families which

normally have blood relationships among themselves could be matriarchal

or patriarchal in nature.

4.3. Common Name 25

Every tribe has its own name. Each tribe is known to other tribes by its

distinctive name. Example of some Indian tribes: Garo, Khasi, Khasa, Naga,

Rengma Naga, Sema Naga, Limbu, Santhal, MUnda, Gond, Kota, Badaga,

Urali, Thodas, etc.

The members of a tribe speak a particular language. Different tribes

speak different languages. These languages are not only different from the

language of the civilised people, but they themselves differ from one another.

Common language contributes much to the development of community

feeling. Since these languages do not have a script of their own, education

of the tribals has become problematic.

4.5. Common Ancestor27

The tribals claim that they have a common ancestor. A major cause of

the sense of communal unity in the tribe is “the tie of blood relationship”

between its members arising out of common ancestry. The tribals are bound

by kinship bonds.
 42

4.6. Common Religion28

Religion plays an important role in the tribal organisation. The members

of a tribe usually worship a common ancestor. Also, ‘nature worship’ is

common among them. In addition to the Ancestral worship and nature worship

the tribals practise other types of faith such as -festishism, animism and

totemism. Magic is also widespread among them. The tribal social and political

organisations are based on this religion. Participation in common religious

ceremonies functions and festivals contributes to the unity of the group. A

sizeable proportion of Nagas, Mizos, Santhals, Oraons and Munda, etc. have

embraced Christianity while some tribals such as Butia, Lepcha Chakma

have largely identified with Buddhism.

4.7. Common Culture 29

Each tribe has a way of life of its own. Each tribe has its own way of

behaving, thinking, feeling and acting. Each has its own customs, traditions,

morals, values, its own peculiar institutions in brief, its own culture. The very

peculiarities of a tribe reveal that it has a distinctive culture of its own.

4.8. Common Political Organisation 30

Each tribe has its own political system. The tribal chief normally

exercises authority overall the other members. The chieftainship is normally

hereditary. He occupies an important position in the tribal society. The tribals

do not possess a government in the modern sense of the term. But, they do

have their own tribal government, tribal council and tribal court or judicial

system. Santhai, for example, an advanced tribe, has a village council the

members of which are democratically elected. Nagaland emerged on the

first of December 1963 as the 16th State of the Republic of India and

Meghalaya in 1972.
 43

4.9. Feeling of Unity 31

The members of a tribe always feel that they are united. This sense of

unity is essential for them to retain their identity. Tribals are normally cohesive

and they fight against common enemies as one man. They are ever ready to

avenge the injustice done to the group or the individuals.

4.10. Common Economic Organisation 32

As against 73% national average, 91 % of the tribal workers are engaged

in agriculture. About 3% of tribals are engaged in manufacturing against the

national average of 11%; and 5% in tertiary servicing [against the national

average of 16%]. Just 1 % tribals are engaged in forestry and food gathering.

Their economic position is very poor. Though they are poor, against the

national average of 43%, nearly 57% of tribals are economically active. In

spite of that, they get very poor returns for their efforts.

4.11. Organisation of Clans33

The clan or sib is an important part of tribal-organisation. The clan

includes all the relatives of mothers orfathers and the children of one'ancestor.

People belonging to a clan trace their origin to one ancestor. The descendants

of a clan are of either matrilineal or partilineal lineage. The tribal society may

include in itself many clans. There exists mutual helpfulness among the

members of different clans.

4.12. Prevalence of Dormitories 34

Tribal community has a peculiar feature which is evident in the form of

common sleeping chambers or dormitories. Such organisations train the youth

in the tribals ways of life. These are the centres which preserve tribal legends,

music, dance, paintings, etc Young boys and girls spend much of their time
 44

in the night in these dormitories and often they are vested with the

responsibility of giving protection to the community people. Till they get married

they continue to become the members of the dormitories and are supposed

to maintain secrecy relating to their activities. After their marriage their

membership of the dormitories get cancelled. Members of the dormitories

are expected to follow the rules and regulations strictly34.

4.13. Simplicity and Self-Sufficiency35

A tribal society is not complex but simple in character. Hunting, fishing

and collection of roots, fruits, nuts, berries, honey and forest products are

their main means of subsistence. Some have taken to cultivation also. They

do not posses, neither do they enjoy the facilities of civilised people. There

was a time when the tribals were self-sufficient. Due to the increase in their

population and changed economic conditions, their self-sufficiency has gone.

They are becoming more and more dependent on the civilised community

and also the government help. They are simple, honest, frugal and some of

them are very hospitable also. They are not educated neither are they

interested in it.

4.14. The Need for Protection 36

The tribals always experience the need for protection. Hence, they are

a cohesive group. The tribe is a homogeneous group also. There is less

diversity and more unity and uniformity. Ethnic, political, religious and other

kinds of prejudices and mutual distrust between the civilised and the tribal

people have made the tribals feel insecure. Hence, they experience the need

for protection. Their political organisation is established mainly to protect

themselves.
 45

4.15. Endogamous Group(?)37

Though not always, the members of a tribe generally marry among

themselves. Marrying within one’s own group is called endogamy. Each tribe

has many clans within itself and these are exogamous in nature. The tribals

practise endogamy probably to maintain the purity of blood and cultural

peculiarities and to preserve the property within the group. But today, due to

the influence of the civilised people and increased contacts, exogamy is also

practised. The tribe is not necessarily an endogamous group, though originally

it might have been so, says, Imperial Gazetteer of India. Ail known tribal societies

have laid stress on the rule of exogamy. An individual is not allowed to marry

inside a definite set of his own kin-group, that is, clan. In conclusion, it can be

said that taken together as a unit, each tribe is largely endogamous, but various

sub-groups that it consists, namely clans, are mostly exogamous.

5. Stages of Codification of Indian Tribes

In this discussion we shall discuss the three stages of codification

relating to tribes in India with special reference to Assam. Here the pre-

British, British and post-British period’s development have been analyzed

respectively in a brief way.

5.1 The pre-British Era

In the early period, before the advent of the British, while in the rest of

India (baring tribal areas) disputes were resolved generally according to the

principles laid down in the Smriti and Dharmasutrasi38. In the tribal society

these were settled on the basis of parental customs. These customs varied

from ruthless retribution to preaceful amicable settlement sometimes verging

on extreme leniency.
 46

The authorities which dispensed justice were also different39. After the

Vedic period, either the king or the judges appointed by the king dispensed

justice among the people of India, though Panchayats in some areas

continued to dispense of certain types of cases. In the tribal areas of the

sub-Himalayan region of the northeast, the village council dispense of all

cases including those relating to commission of heinous offences like murder,

arson, rape, robbery etc. Among them, only a few tribes like the Mizos and

the Karbis was the chief, the absolute judicial authority, though even there

he used to take the advice of his council of elders.

Though some may claim that emperor Ashoka was the first one to

initiate the process of tribal development by creating the post of Anta-

mahamatya to 'look after the downtrodden, but nothing is known about the

steps taken in this regard.40 The first concrete mention of tribals is found in

Kautilya's Arthasastra41 wherein it has been mentioned that they knew each

and every inch of the areas they live in. Their services can be sought for

local tasks including spying, but they are not trustworthy. The comment shows

that not much was known about tribals.

5.2 Trbes in Assam During Ahom Regime

The Ahom evolved a distinct policy to deal with the tribes some of

whom has been living within their territorial jurisdictions and some have been

inhabiting the boardering areas. The distinct policy of the Ahoms had three

main aspects42, namely; (i) non-interference with the internal affairs of the

tribes, (2) supply of essential commodities to meet their day to day economic

needs, and (3) regulation of the trade between the plains people and the

tribal people living in the negihbouring hills. Ofcourse, those tribes who violated
 47

the agreements and committed raids in the plains were punished by sending

soldiers with capable captains.

5.3 Tribes During the British Rule

After the advent of the British, although they initiated tribal development,

they never concealed their motive in following the ‘task of mercy’43. The aim

was either to keep the tribal isolated from the ‘national’ mainstream, thus

keeping them away from the menace of freedom struggle; or by the same

process, to convert them to the religion of Christ so that they identify

themselves more with the crown and its interests in the Country.

While during the Ahom rule44, there were cordial relationship and free

intercourse between the plains and hill people, the introduction of Inner Line

Regulation Act, 1873 by the British government which had restricted free

intercourse between the plains people and the hill tribals, was infact a policy

of isolation which created a feeling of distrust between these two peoples.

The British, however, followed rather a mixed policy45. In principle they

more or less followed the policy of Ahoms in respect of some tribes. But, at

the same time, they also followed the policy of annexation in respect of

majority of numerically strong tribes like the Akas, Daflas (now called Nishis),

Miris, Abors, Mishimis, Khamtis and Singhphos living in the northeastern

tracts who were also subjugated by annexing their kingdoms, but allowing

the tribal kings or chiefs to manage their own internal affairs.

The Assam Land and Revenue Regulations, 1886 was primarily meant

for the plains districts only excluding the hill districts. For the hill districts,

therefore, there was no land revenue and the British administrators collected

house tax only.46 House tax collection had given an idea to the administrators
 48

the number of household as well as the approximate number of population

that a particular tribal community might have, and this enable them to prepare

their own defence as well as administrative strategy.

In India, during the colonial period, the British used forces from time to

time, to control the unrest among the tribal people.47 To deal with the tribal

unrest on a long term basis the British promulgated special laws for

administering the tribal areas as the simple people were culturally and

economically backward from the neighbouring communities. As early as 1874,

they enacted the Scheduled District Act, to administer and delinate the

schedule areas. These areas were called by different names; such as,

backward track, agency areas etc.48 The Government of India Act, 1935

classified these areas into two categories as (i) The Wholly Excluded Areas

(the northeastern Tribal Areas); and (ii) The Partially Excluded Areas.

The idea of administration of underdeveloped areas originated with the

British administration in the later half of the 18th century. With the declaration

of Regulation 1 of 1976, the concept of having a distinct and special

arrangement specially for the isolated tribal regions gained general

acceptance and in turn, special laws came into practice for administering

these areas.

The Government of India Act, 1919 had separate administrative

arrangement for these areas and they were kept out of the purview of the

legislatures49. Subsequently, on the basis of recommendations of the Simon

Commission, the Government of India Act, 1935 provided for declaration by

an 'order in council’ of 'Excluded Areas’ and ‘Partially Excluded Areas’

(Sections91 and 92). Under the provisions, no Act of the federal legislature
 49

or the provincial legislature would apply to these areas except on the direction

of the Governor, who was empowered to make such exceptions and

modifications, as considered necessary.

5.4. The post-British Development

In 1946 Cabinet Mission sent by the British government came to India

to suggest the ways and means to protect the rights and interests of the

religious minority communities and tribes. One recommendations of the

‘Advisory Committee’ on ‘Fundamental Rights of Minorities and Tribals and

Excluded Areas’ with Sardar Vallabh Bhai Patel as its Chairman. The

committee set-up another four Sub-Committees one of which was for the

‘North East Frontier (Assam) Tribal and Excluded Areas’ under the

Chairmanship of Gopinath Bordoloi. The Committee came to be known as

‘Bordoloi Sub-Committee’.50 The other members of the Sub-Committee were

Rev. J.J. Nichols Roy, Rupnath Brahma and A.V. Thakkar. The Sub-

Committee co-opted two members each of the hills districts they visited.

When the Sub-Committee studied the problems of the tribal of the region, it

realised that these areas needed protection and safeguard so that they might

be able to preserve their way of life and at the same time participate in the

political life of the country alongwith others.

The Bordoloi Sub-Committee after great deliberations submitted its

report on 28.07.1947 to the Chairman of the Advisory Committee on

Fundamental Rights etc. Shri Vallabh Bhai Patel and Jawaharlal Nehru moved

the historic resolution which was adopted on 22 January 1947. Those

objectives51 have actually shaped the making of the constitution. The free

Indian Constitution has inserted article 189 (b) and 190(2) of the draft
 50

Constitution into the present article 244(1) and 244(2) respectively. There

are two schedules52 in the Constitution of India, but in a sense are also

outside it. These are the fifth and Sixth Schedules, provided for the

administration and control of the tribal areas of the country. Some judges

have described them as ‘codes’,53 but that word is not apposite. The word

means a system or collection of law, which these two schedules are not.

6. The Tribal ‘Panchasheela’

Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru in 1957 in his foreword to Verrier Elwins “The

Philosophy for NEFA”, laid down five principles known as “Panchasheela”54,

as part of the policy of integration. The tribal “Panchasheela” as has been

enunciated by him are as follows;

(i) Nothing should be imposed on the tribal people. They must be allowed

to develop along the lines of their own genius. We should try to encourage in

every way their own traditional art and culture.

(ii) Tribals right on land in which they are living and also on the forests

must be respected.

(iii) Attempt must be made to train and build up a team of their own

people to the work of administration and development. Some technical

personnel from outside will be of great help for them in the beginning. But

too many outsiders must not be sent to the tribal territory.

(iv) Over-administering the tribal areas or overwhelming them with too

' many schemes must be avoided. We should not work in rivalry to their own

social and cultural institutions.

(v) The results of the work must be adjudged by the quality of the human

character that is evolved and not by statistics or the amount of money spent.
 51

In pursuance of article 244(1 )55, under the coverage of Fifth Schedule

of the, Constitution it includes present 10 states of India other than

northeastern region, such as, Andhra Pradesh, Bihar, Chhattisgarh, Gujarat,

Himachal Pradesh, Jharkhond, Madhya Pradesh, Maharastra, Orissa and

Rajastan Article 244(2)56 of the Constitution provides for a Sixth Schedule

which shall apply to the administration of Tribal Areas in the States of Assam,

Meghalaya, Tripura and Mizoram. Article 275(1 )57 of the Constitution also

makes a passing reference to the Sixth Schedule. Para 20 of the Schedule

provides a list of Tribal Areas covered by three parts58.

Paragraph 20 has been amended in its application to the state of Assam

by the sixth schedule of the Constitution and inserted after entry 2, namely-

3. The Bodoland Territorial Areas District.59

The Sixth Schedule introduced the concept of District Autonomous

Councils (ADCs) and Regional Autonomous Councils with separate

legislative, executive and judiciary powers according to tribe’s customary

law. Since the formation of Autonomous District Councils (ADCs) for the two

tribal majority hills districts of Assam on 27 June 1951, it has undergone

changes again and again. The major change was brought by the 1995

amendment. This very amendment has reflected four core aspects that is60-

(1) changing the name of the two Autonomous Councils as North Cachar

Hills Autonomous Council (as it was then called) and Karbi Anglong

Autonomous Council respectively by omitting the word 'district’ from both

the councils.

Secondly, the law making subjects of the two councils have been

increased from earlier 10 to 15 by inserting an additional sub-paragraph (A)

to paragraph 3 of the Sixth Schedule. The original 10 subjects were the

allotment, occupation or use or the setting apart of land other than reserve­

grazing-residential and non-residential land, the management of any forest

not being a reserved forest, the use of any canal or water course for the

purpose of agriculture, the regulation and practice of Jhum, establishment of

village or town committees or councils, matters relating to village or town

administration including police and health, appointment or succession of

Chiefs and Headmen, inheritance of property, marriage and divorce, and

social customs.61

The additional powers are - industries (subject to entries 7 and 52 of

list 1 of the Seventh Schedule), communication (road, bridge, ferries),

preservation-protection and improvement of stock and prevention of animal

diseases etc., primary and secondary education, agriculture, fisheries, water

(supply, storage, canals, irrigation etc.), social security and social insurance,

flood control; public health and sanitation, minor irrigations, trade and

commerce, library, museum and other similar institutions and alienation of

land.62

The third impact63 of this amendment is that, it has reduced the

‘discretionary’ powers of the Governor by amending almost 13 paragraphs

of the Sixth Schedule. These are against the establishment of autonomous

regions for the different scheduled tribes inhabited within the autonomous

district, a provision relating to include-exclude-create-increase-diminish-unite-

alter and define the territory of the council (para 1 (2), (3)), fixation of elected

and selected members for the district council within 30 members-constitution

of first District and Regional Councils-any changes required in addition to

normal 5 years tenure at the pleasure of the Governor-rules for the fresh

constituted district or regional council etc. (para 2(1), (6), (6A), (7)), laws

made by the council (para 3(3)), administration of justice (para 4 (4)),

conferment of powers under the Code of Civil Procedure 1908 and the Code

of Criminal Procedure 1898 (para 5), establishment of primary school,

dispensaries-markets-ferries-fisheries-roads-cattle pounds-transport and

waterways by the district council (para 6 (1)), management of the council’s

fund (para 7 (2)), assesement and collection of land revenue and to impose

taxes (para 8 (4)), licenses or leases for the purpose of prospecting for or

extradition of minerals (para 9 (3)), regulation for the control of money lending

and trading by non-tribal within the council areas (para 10 (3)), appointment

of commission to enquire into and report on the administration of council

(para 14 (1)); annulment or suspension of Acts and resolutions of the councils

(para 15 (1)); and dissolution of councils (para 16 (1), (2)) etc. All these

matters which could be exercised by the Governor earlier under his discretion

alone henceforth (w.e.f. 12 September 1995) it required the mandatary

obligations of consultation with the State’s Council of Ministers as well as

the concerned autonomous council.

Finally64, all laws made by the earlier council should have only to be

submitted forthwith to the Governor for his assent, but the sequel of the

1995 amendment empowered the Governor to reserve the laws for the

consideration of the President also

The Assam Legislative Assembly has passed the ‘Assam Administration

of Justice in Karbi Anglong District Bill, 2009’ on 21 July 200965 in order to

brought in line the administration of justice of the council with the rest of the
 54

Country. But the Autonomous State Demand Committee (ASDC) alleged

the move to be violative of the Sixth Schedule provisions pertaining to sub­

clause (2) and (3) of clause 2 of the Bill.66 The Assam Cabinet has resolved

to changed the name of the North Cachar Hills Autonomous Council to ‘Dima

Hasao district on 10th February 2010.67 Accordingly, this has been made on

that day.68

7. The Differentiation as ‘Scheduled Areas’ and ‘Tribal Areas’

The scheduled tribes of India have been divided and placed under two

separate categories by the Constitution as -’Scheduled Areas’ and Tribal

Areas’. Article 34269 prescribe the procedure to be followed in the matter of

specification of scheduled tribes. Within the ambit of this article President

may, with respect to any State or Union Territory, after consultation with the

concerned state government or Governor, as the case may be, notify tribes

or tribal communities or parts of these as scheduled tribes. The Parliament

is empowered to enact law in this context to include or exclude any tribe or

tribal community or in respect of such groups. The President can also issue

Ordinance after consultation with the concerned State or UTs respectively in

this regard subject to pending approval of the Parliament in its immediate

session the failure of which stands automatic cancellation of its effect. Under

this provision no scheduled tribes can be listed in all India basis but as State

or Union Territory wise only.

The criteria followed70 for specification of a community as a scheduled

tribe are:

(i) indication of primitive traits,

(ii) distinctive culture,

(iii) geographical isolation,

(iv) shyness of contact with the community at large, and

(v) backwardness

This criteria is not spell out in the Constitution but has been well

established. It is derived from71 the definition of 1931 census, report of the

Backward Class Commission (Kelelkar) 19,55, the Advisory Committee on

Revision of SC/ST list (Lokur Committee) 1965, the Joint Committee of

Parliament on the Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes Orders

(Amendment) Bill 1967, and Chanda Committee 1969. In exercise of powers

conferred by clause (1) of article 342 of the Constitution the president has

promulgated total 9 orders till this date72 specifying the scheduled tribes and

out of these 8 are in operation at present in their original or amendment form

except the Goa, Daman and Diu scheduled tribes Order 1968.

The President is empowered to notify any area as 'Scheduled Areas’

specifying the criteria under Fifth Schedule as- preponderance of tribal

population, compactness and reasonable size of the area, viable

administrative entity such as district block or taluk and the economic

backwardness of the area as compared to neighbouring areas. The same

applies for altering, increasing, decreasing, incorporating new areas or

rescinding any order for the purpose.73

In the ‘Schduled Areas’ Governor is empowered to make regulation for

the area, prohibit the application of any Central or State Act in the area,

restrict transfer of land from tribal, regulate money lendering and excise policy

and execute any administration of the area. Tribes Advisory Council (TAC)

may be established having ‘Scheduled Areas’74 and Tribal Areas’75 by the

State to advice the government on matters pertaining to the welfare and

advancement of tribes in the State. Tribal Areas generally means areas having

preponderance of tribal population. However, the Constitution refers Tribal

Areas within the States of Assam, Meghalaya, Tripura and Mizoram specified

in para, I, II, IIA and III of the table appended to paragraph 20 of the Sixth

Schedule. These councils are elected bodies and have powers of legislative,

executive, administration of justice, and financial responsibilities.

8. The Tribal Zone

There are over 500 tribes (with many overlapping communities in more

than one State) as per notified schedule76 under article 342 of the Indian

Constitution spread over different States and Union Territories of the Country.

Dr. B.S. Guha has given a three-fold77 territorial distribution of tribals as

follows;

1. the north and northeastern zone,

2. the central or the middle zone, and

3. the southern zone.

C. B. Memoria adds to this list the fourth zone a small one, consisting of

Andaman and Nicobar Island.

The north and northeastern zone78 consists of the sub-Himalayan region

and the hills and mountain ranges of northeastern frontier of India. It includes

Himachal Pradesh, northern U.P., Sikkim and seven States of northeast

consisting of Arunachal, Assam, Meghalaya, Mizoram, Nagaland, Manipur

and Tripura. The tribal of this zone mostly belong to the Mongoloid race and

speak languages belonging to Tibeto-Chinese family.

The central zone79 scattered all over the mountain belt between the
 57

rivers Godavari and Narmada covering West Bengal, Orissa, Bihar, Southern

U.P and Rajasthan, Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh and Maharastra. The southern

zone80 falls south of the river Krishna and includes Andhra Pradesh, Tamil

Nadu, Karnataka, Kerala alongwith two Union Territories Andaman Nicobar

Island and Lakshadeep. The anthropologically important India’s aboriginal

smallest tribes are81 Tarawas, Onge, North Sentinelese, the Andamanese

and Nicabarese. As per 1991 census they constitute 9.34 pc. out of the total

population of 27,000 of the Island.

In addition to these divisions B.K. Roy Barman classified five territorial

grouping82, such as; northeast India, sub-Himalayan region, central and east

India, south India and western India region taking account their territorial,

ethnic and socio-cultural relations. Moreover Verrier Elwin classified the tribal

groups into four classs according to their cultural development and Ghurye

also categorised tribal on the same basis into three classes.83 According to

A.R. Desai84 such classification suggests that the problems of tribal population

belonging to varius categories qualitively different and demand different

solutions.

REFERENCES

1. Marshall, G. (ed.), Oxford Dictionary of Sociology, Oxford University

Press, Oxford, New York, 1998, p. 674.

2. The New Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc. [Link], Micropaedia, The

University of Chicago, 1988, (15th edn.), p.918

3. Harris, Wiliam H. and Judith S. Levey (eds.), The New Columbia

Encyclopaedia, Columbia University Press, New York and London, 1975,

p 2784.

4. Encyclopaedia Britannica, Vol-22, Encyclopaedia Britannica Inc. The

University of Chicago, 1966, p. 465.

5. C.N. Shankar Rao Tribal Life in India’, in Socilogy of Indian Society,

[Link] & Co. Ltd. New Delhi, 2009, p. 342.

Also, see G.S. Narwani, The Tribal Problem’, in Tribal Law in India,

Rawat Publications, Jaipur-Delhi, 2004, p.11

6 Ibid. pp. 342-343

7. Ibid., p. 343

8. Article 366(25) of the Indian Constitution defines 'scheduled tribes’

means such tribes or tribal communities as are deemed under article

342 to be scheduled tribes for the purpose of the Constitution.

9. Article 342 of the Constitution of India explains 'scheduled tribes’ as --

(1) The President may with respect to any State or for Union Territory,

and where it is a State, after consultation with the Governor thereof,

by public notification, specify the tribes or tribal communities which

shall for the purpose of this Constitution be deemed to be

scheduled tribes in relation to that State or Union Territory, as the

case may be.

(2) Parliament may by law include or exclude from the list of scheduled

tribes specified in a notification issued under clause (1) any tribe

" or tribal community, but save as aforesaid a notification issued

under the said clause shall not be varied by any subsequent

notification.
 59

10. Suora note, 5. Citing to C.B Memoria’s ‘Social Problems and Social

Disorganisation’, p.170

11. Id.

12. Ibid , p. 344

13. Id.

14. Id.

15. Id.

16. Id.

17. Id.

18 Id.

19. Id.

20. Id.

21. Id.

22. Ibid.’ p. 345, Citing from Dr. M.A. Chingumani’s pp. 281-282

23. Ibid, p, 345

24. Id

25. Id.

26. Id.

27. Id.

28. Id.

29. Ibid. p. 346

30. Id.

31. Id.

32 Id.

33. Id
 60

34. Id.

35 Id.

36. Ibid p. 347

37. Id.

38. J.N. Das, ‘General Background or Basic concepts’, in A study of

Administration of Justice Among the Tribes and Races of North-Eastern

Region, Law Research Institute, Eastern Region, Gauhati High Court,

1990, p 1

39. Id.

40. Id. chp. I

41. Id.

42. Dr. B.N. Bordoloi, Transfer and Alienation of Tribal Land in Assam with

special Reference to [Link] of the Karbi Anglong District, Western

Book Depot, Guwahati, 1991, p.12, cited from RN. Dutta’s Glimpses

into the History of Assam, Shillong, 1988, p. 241

43. Supra note, 38. p. 23

44. Bordoloi, op. cit. p. 13. Also see Kusumbar Bhuyan, Sixth Schedule in

North East India, DVS Publishers, Guwahat -1 2008, p. 94

45. Ibid. p. 12

46. Id.

47. Jayprakash, Rao. P., Conspiracy of Silence: Panchayat Raj in Tribal

and the Scheduled Areas, New Delhi, 1996, p.1

48. Justice Hidayatullah, M., The Fith and Sixth Schedule to the Constitution

of India, at Anandaram Boruah Law Lectures, Second Series, Guwahati,

1979, p 1
 61

Also, see B.L. Hansaria, Sixth Schedule to the Consitution of India: A

Study, Guwahati, 1983, pp. 1-2

49. G S. Narwani Tribal Administration in North Eastern States’, in Tribal

Law in India, Rawat Publications, Jaipur-New Delhi, 2004, p.48

50. Supra note. 42. p 100

51. The complete Constituent Assembly Debates on Sixth Schedule

was held on 5-7 September 1948. This was printed by the Lok

Sabha Secretariat, Vo!.9, pp. 1001-1082. Gopinath Bordoloi,

Kuladhar Chaliha and Ruhini Kr. Choudhary participated in this

debate.

52. Supra note, 48 pp. 1 -2

53. Ibid., p. 2

54. Supra note, 5, p. 385

55. Article 244 : Adminstration of Scheduled Areas and Tribal Areas --

(1) The provisions of the Fifth Schedule shall apply to the

administration and control of the Scheduled Areas and scheduled

tribes in any State other than the State of Assam, Meghalaya,

Tripura and Mizoram.

(2) The provision of the Sixth Schedule shall apply to the

administration of the Tribal Areas in the States of Assam,

Meghalaya, Tripura and Mizoram.

56. Id.

57. See infra note, 49, at chp. 5. p. 116

58 Paragraph 20 (3) of the Sixth Schedule of the Constitution of India has

contained a Table comprising three parts as follows;

TABLE

Part -1

1. The North Cachar Hills District (Now Dima Hasao)

2. The Karbi Anglong District

Part- II

1. Khasi Hills District

2. Jaintia Hills District

3. The Garo Hills District

Part - IIA

Tripura Tribal Areas District

Part - III

1. The Chakma District

2. The Mara District

3. The Lai District

59. The Constitution (Amendment) Act, 2003 (44 of 2003).

60. P.M. Bakshi, The Constitution of India (10th edn.), Universal Law

Publishing Co. Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi, 2010, p. 361. Also, see Kshireswar

Borah, Uttar Cahar Svayatta Parishad Nitamban Prasangat, Dainik

Baton, Guwahati; 16 and 17 June 2009.

51. Id.

62. Id.

63. Id Also, see Paragraph 20B A of the Sixth Schedule of the Indian

Constitution After Paragraph 20B, the following Paragraph has been

inserted in its application to the State of Assam by the Sixth Schedule

to the Constitution (Amendment) Act, 1995 (42 of 1995), sec, 2 (w.e.f.

12.9.1995), namely- ‘20B A, exercise of discretionary powers by the

Governor in the discharge of his functions,- The Governor; in the

discharge of his functions under sub-paragraphs (2) and (3) of

Paragraph 1, sub- paragraph 1), (6), sub-paragraph (6A) excluding the

first proviso and sub-paragraph (7) of Paragraph 2, sub-paragraph (3)

of Paragraph 3, sub-paragraph (4) of Paragraph 4, Paragraph 5, sub-

paragraph (1) of Paragraph 6, sub-paragraph (2) of Paragraph 7, sub-

paragraph (4) of Paragraph 8, sub-paragraph (3) of Paragraph 9, sub-

paragraph (3) of Paragraph 10, sub-paragraph (1) of Paragraph 14,

sub-paragraph (1) of Paragraph 15, and sub-paragraphs (1) and (2) of

Paragraph 16 of this Schedule, Shall, after consulting the Council of

Ministers and the North Cachar Hills Autonomous Council (as it was

then existed) or the Karbi Anglong Autonomous Council, as the case

may be, take such action as he consider necessary in his discretion.’

64. Id.

65. The Assam Tribune, Guwahati, 10 August 2009. Also, see Infra notes,

42 and 43, at chp. 6, p. 142

66. The Assam Tribune, Guwahati, 11 April 2009

67. The Assam Tribune, Guwahati, 11th February 2010

68. Dainik Asam, Guwahati, 11 February 2010

69. Supra note, 9

70. Supra note, 1, at chp. 2, p. 3

71. Id.

72. Id.

73. Id.
 64

74. Ibid , p. 21

75. Ibid., pp. 21-24

76. Ibid., p. 22

77. Ibid., p.6

78. Supra note, 5, p. 351

79. Id.

80. Ibid., p. 352

81. Id.

82. Id.

83. Id.

84. Ibid. p. 353