MOBILE ADHOC NETWORKS

Dr. [Link] KUMAR

Dept. Of Computing, SOEEC
MANET’S

CONTENT
Introduction
Background
Applications, Challenges, Features and Goals
Routing Protocols
Reactive Protocols
Proactive Protocols
Hybrid Protocols

Transport Layer Issues

MANET’S

Wireless Networks
• Need: Access computing and communication
services, on the move
• Infrastructure-based Networks
– traditional cellular systems (base station infrastructure)
• Wireless LANs
– Infrared (IrDA) or radio links (Wavelan)
– very flexible within the reception area; ad-hoc networks possible
– low bandwidth compared to wired networks (1-10 Mbit/s)
• Ad hoc Networks
– useful when infrastructure not available, impractical, or expensive
– military applications, rescue, home networking
3
MANET’S

Cellular Wireless
• Single hop wireless
connectivity to the wired
world
– Space divided into cells
– A base station is responsible
to communicate with hosts in
its cell
– Mobile hosts can change cells
while communicating
– Hand-off occurs when a
mobile host starts
communicating via a new
base station
4
MANET’S

Multi-Hop Wireless
• May need to traverse multiple links to reach
destination

• Mobility causes route changes

5
MANET’S

Mobile Ad Hoc Networks (MANET)

• Host movement frequent
• Topology change frequent
B
A A
B

• No cellular infrastructure.
• Data must be routed via intermediate nodes.
6
MANET’S

Introduction
• Self-configuring network of mobile routers (and
associated hosts) connected by wireless links
• This union forms a random topology
• Routers move randomly free
• Topology changes rapidly and unpredictably

• Standalone fashion or connected to the larger Internet

• Suitable for emergency situations like natural or

human-induced disasters, military conflicts, emergency
medical situations, etc.
7
MANET’S

Hybrid Mobile Ad-hoc Network

8
MANET’S

History of MANETs
• History starts with Advanced Research Projects Agency (ARPA) in
1962
• 1969 the beginning of ARPANet which connected University of
LA, University of California at Santa Barbara, and the University of
Utah
• Earliest MANETs were called “packet radio” networks, sponsored
by DARPA (1970)
• These packet radio systems predated the Internet and were part
of motivation of the original IP suite
• Later DARPA experiments included the Survivable Radio Network
(SURAN) project (1980s)
• 1990s – the advent of inexpensive 802.11 radio cards for personal
computer
• Current MANETs are designed primary for military utility;
examples include JTRS (Joint Tactical Radio System) and NTDR
(Near-Term Digital Radio). 9
MANET’S

Why Ad Hoc Networks ?

• Setting up of fixed access points and backbone
infrastructure is not always viable
– Infrastructure may not be present in a disaster area or war
zone
– Infrastructure may not be practical for short-range radios;
Bluetooth (range ~ 10m)

• Ad hoc networks:
– Do not need backbone infrastructure support
– Are easy to deploy
– Useful when infrastructure is absent, destroyed or
impractical

10
MANET’S

Many Applications
• Personal area networking
– cell phone, laptop, ear phone, wrist watch
• Military environments
– soldiers, tanks, planes
• Civilian environments
– taxi cab network
– meeting rooms
– sports stadiums
– boats, small aircraft
• Emergency operations
– search-and-rescue
– policing and fire fighting
11
MANET’S

Challenges in Mobile Environments

• Limitations of the Wireless Network
• packet loss due to transmission errors
• variable capacity links
• frequent disconnections/partitions
• limited communication bandwidth
• Broadcast nature of the communications

• Limitations Imposed by Mobility

• dynamically changing topologies/routes
• lack of mobility awareness by system/applications

• Limitations of the Mobile Computer

• short battery lifetime
• limited capacities
12
MANET’S

FEATURES
• Autonomous terminal: A node may function as both host and a
router.
• Distributed Operations: since there is no fixed network the control
and management operations are distributed among the terminals.
• Multi-hop routing: packets should be delivered via one or more
nodes.
• Dynamic network topology: As the network change rapidly, the
mobile nodes dynamically establish routing among themselves i.e.
they form their own network
• Fluctuating link capacity: One end-to-end path can be shared by
several sessions.
• Light-weight terminal: The MANET nodes are mobile devices with
less CPU processing capability, small memory size, and low power
storage.
13
MANET’S

GOALS
• Authentication
• Confidentiality
• Integrity
• Non-repudiation
• Availability
• Detection and Isolation
• Authentication: A node must know the identity of the peer node it is
communicating with. Without authentication, an attacker could gain
sensitive information and interfere with other nodes
• Confidentiality: Ensures certain information is never disclosed to
unauthorized entities.

• Integrity: Message being transmitted is never corrupted.

14
MANET’S

Contd..

• Non-Repudiation: The sender cannot later deny

sending the information and the receiver cannot
deny the reception.

• Availability: Nodes should be available for

communication at all times. A node need continue
to provide services despite attacks.
E.g.: Key management service.

• Detection and Isolation: Require the protocol can

identify misbehaving nodes and render them unable
to interfere with routing.
15
MANET’S

Nokia Rooftop Product

16
MANET’S

Routing = Ants Searching for Food

? ? ?
?? ? ?
?? ? ?
?? ? ?
? ?
?
? ??
??
? ? ? ?
? ?
?
? ?
17
MANET’S

18
MANET’S

Traditional Routing
• A routing protocol sets up a routing table in routers

• A node makes a local choice depending on global

topology
19
MANET’S

Distance-vector & Link-state Routing

• Both assume router knows
– address of each neighbor
– cost of reaching each neighbor

• Both allow a router to determine global routing

information by talking to its neighbors
• Distance vector - router knows cost to each
destination
• Link state - router knows entire network topology
and computes shortest path
20
MANET’S

Distance Vector Routing: Example

21
MANET’S

Link State Routing: Example

22
MANET’S

Mobile IP

MH Router
S
3

Home
agent

Router Router
1 2

23
MANET’S

Mobile IP
move

Router
S MH
3

Foreign agent

Home agent

Router Router Packets are tunneled

using IP in IP
1 2

24
MANET’S

Routing Protocols for MANETs

• Two types of routing protocols:
1. Table-Driven / Proactive Routing Protocols
• Destination-Sequenced Distance-Vector Routing (DSDV)
• Cluster head Gateway Switch Routing (CGSR)
• Core Extraction Distributed Adhoc Routing(CEDAR)
• Optimized Link State Routing(OLSR)
2. Source-Initiated On-Demand / Reactive Routing Protocols
• Dynamic Source Routing (DSR)
• Location Aided Routing(LAR)
• Ad-Hoc On-Demand Distance Vector Routing (AODV)
• Power Aware Routing(PAR)
• Associativity-Based Routing (ABR)
• Signal Stability Routing (SSR)
• Temporally-Ordered Routing Algorithm (TORA)
25
MANET’S

Protocol Trade-offs
• Proactive protocols
– Always maintain routes
– Little or no delay for route determination
– Consume bandwidth to keep routes up-to-date
– Maintain routes which may never be used
– Periodically updated
• Reactive protocols
– Lower overhead since routes are determined on demand
– Significant delay in route determination
– Employ flooding (global search)
– Control traffic may be busty
– Source initiates route discovery
• Hybrid protocols
– Adaptive; Combination of proactive and reactive
– Example : ZRP (zone routing protocol)
• Which approach achieves a better trade-off depends on the traffic and
mobility patterns
26
MANET’S

Dynamic Source Routing (DSR)

• When node S wants to send a packet to node D,

but does not know a route to D, node S initiates a
route discovery

• Source node S floods Route Request (RREQ)

• Each node appends own identifier when

forwarding RREQ

27
MANET’S

Route Discovery in DSR

Y

Z
S E
F
B
C M L
J
A G
H D
K
I N

Represents a node that has received RREQ for D from S

28
MANET’S

Route Discovery in DSR

Y
Broadcast transmission

[S] Z
S E
F
B
C M L
J
A G
H D
K
I N

Represents transmission of RREQ

[X,Y] Represents list of identifiers appended to RREQ

29
MANET’S

Route Discovery in DSR

Y

Z
S [S,E]
E
F
B
C M L
J
A [S,C] G
H D
K
I N

• Node H receives packet RREQ from two neighbors:

potential for collision
30
MANET’S

Route Discovery in DSR

Y

Z
S E
F [S,E,F]
B
C M L
J
A G
H D
[S,C,G] K
I N

• Node C receives RREQ from G and H, but does not forward

it again, because node C has already forwarded RREQ once

31
MANET’S

Route Discovery in DSR

Y

Z
S E
F [S,E,F,J]
B
C M L
J
A G
H D
K
I [S,C,G,K] N

• Nodes J and K both broadcast RREQ to node D

• Since nodes J and K are hidden from each other, their
transmissions may collide
32
MANET’S

Route Discovery in DSR

Y

Z
S E
[S,E,F,J,M]
F
B
C M L
J
A G
H D
K
I N

• Node D does not forward RREQ, because node D

is the intended target of the route discovery
33
MANET’S

Route Discovery in DSR

• Destination D on receiving the first RREQ,

sends a Route Reply (RREP)

• RREP is sent on a route obtained by reversing

the route appended to received RREQ

• RREP includes the route from S to D on which

RREQ was received by node D
34
MANET’S

Route Reply in DSR

Y

Z
S RREP [S,E,F,J,D]
E
F
B
C M L
J
A G
H D
K
I N

Represents RREP control message

35
MANET’S

Data Delivery in DSR

Y

DATA [S,E,F,J,D] Z
S E
F
B
C M L
J
A G
H D
K
I N

Packet header size grows with route length

36
MANET’S

Dynamic Source Routing

• Advantages
– Routes maintained only between nodes who need to communicate
– reduces overhead of route maintenance
– Route caching can further reduce route discovery overhead
– A single route discovery may yield many routes to the destination,
due to intermediate nodes replying from local caches

• Disadvantages
– Packet header size grows with route length due to source routing
– Flood of route requests may potentially reach all nodes in the
network
– Potential collisions between route requests propagated by
neighboring nodes
• insertion of random delays before forwarding RREQ
– Increased contention if too many route replies come back due to
nodes replying using their local cache
• Route Reply Storm problem
37
MANET’S

Location-Aided Routing (LAR)

• Exploits location information to limit scope of route request
flood
– Location information may be obtained using GPS

• Expected Zone is determined as a region that is expected to

hold the current location of the destination
– Expected region determined based on potentially old location
information, and knowledge of the destination’s speed

• Route requests limited to a Request Zone that contains the

Expected Zone and location of the sender node

38
MANET’S

Request Zone
• Define a Request Zone
• LAR is same as flooding, except that only nodes in request
zone forward route request
• Smallest rectangle including S and expected zone for D
Request Zone
D

Expected Zone

x
Y
S
39
MANET’S

LAR
Request Zone Expected Zone (Xd+R, Yd+R)

DEST
R

(Xd,Yd)

SRC
(Xs,Ys)
40
MANET’S

Location Aided Routing (LAR)

• Advantages
– reduces the scope of route request flood
– reduces overhead of route discovery

• Disadvantages
– Nodes need to know their physical locations
– Does not take into account possible existence of
obstructions for radio transmissions

41
MANET’S

Ad Hoc On-Demand Distance Vector Routing

• DSR includes source routes in packet headers
• Resulting large headers can sometimes degrade performance
– particularly when data contents of a packet are small
• AODV attempts to improve on DSR by maintaining routing
tables at the nodes, so that data packets do not have to
contain routes
• AODV retains the desirable feature of DSR that routes are
maintained only between nodes which need to communicate
• Route Requests (RREQ) are forwarded in a manner similar to
DSR
• When a node re-broadcasts a Route Request, it sets up a
reverse path pointing towards the source
– AODV assumes symmetric (bi-directional) links
• When the intended destination receives a Route Request, it
replies by sending a Route Reply (RREP)
• Route Reply travels along the reverse path set-up when Route
Request is forwarded
42
MANET’S

Route Request and Route Reply

• Route Request (RREQ) includes the last known sequence
number for the destination

• An intermediate node may also send a Route Reply (RREP)

provided that it knows a more recent path than the one
previously known to sender
• Intermediate nodes that forward the RREP, also record the
next hop to destination

• A routing table entry maintaining a reverse path is purged

after a timeout interval
• A routing table entry maintaining a forward path is purged
if not used for a active_route_timeout interval
43
MANET’S

Route Requests in AODV

Y
Broadcast transmission

Z
S E
F
B
C M L
J
A G
H D
K
I N

Represents transmission of RREQ

44
MANET’S

Route Requests in AODV

Y

Z
S E
F
B
C M L
J
A G
H D
K
I N

Represents links on Reverse Path

45
MANET’S

Reverse Path Setup in AODV

Y

Z
S E
F
B
C M L
J
A G
H D
K
I N

• Node C receives RREQ from G and H, but does not forward

it again, because node C has already forwarded RREQ once

46
MANET’S

Reverse Path Setup in AODV

Y

Z
S E
F
B
C M L
J
A G
H D
K
I N

47
MANET’S

Reverse Path Setup in AODV

Y

Z
S E
F
B
C M L
J
A G
H D
K
I N

• Node D does not forward RREQ, because node D

is the intended target of the RREQ
48
MANET’S

Forward Path Setup in AODV

Y

Z
S E
F
B
C M L
J
A G
H D
K
I N

Forward links are setup when RREP travels along

the reverse path

Represents a link on the forward path

49
MANET’S

Link Failure
• A neighbor of node X is considered active for a routing table
entry if the neighbor sent a packet within
active_route_timeout interval which was forwarded using that
entry

• Neighboring nodes periodically exchange hello message

• When the next hop link in a routing table entry breaks, all
active neighbors are informed

• Link failures are propagated by means of Route Error (RERR)

messages, which also update destination sequence numbers

50
MANET’S

Route Error
• When node X is unable to forward packet P (from node S to
node D) on link (X,Y), it generates a RERR message

• Node X increments the destination sequence number for D

cached at node X

• The incremented sequence number N is included in the RERR

• When node S receives the RERR, it initiates a new route

discovery for D using destination sequence number at least as
large as N

• When node D receives the route request with destination

sequence number N, node D will set its sequence number to N,
unless it is already larger than N
51
MANET’S

AODV: Summary
• Routes need not be included in packet headers
• Nodes maintain routing tables containing entries only
for routes that are in active use
• At most one next-hop per destination maintained at
each node
– DSR may maintain several routes for a single destination

• Sequence numbers are used to avoid old/broken routes

• Sequence numbers prevent formation of routing loops
• Unused routes expire even if topology does not change
52
MANET’S

Power Aware Routing

• Many variations of using control packet flooding for route
discovery
– Assign a weight to each link: function of energy consumed when
transmitting a packet on that link, as well as the residual energy level
– Modify DSR to incorporate weights and prefer a route with the smallest
aggregate weight

53
MANET’S

Signal Stability Adaptive Routing (SSA)

Signal Stability Based Adaptive Routing (SSA)

• A node X re-broadcasts a Route Request received from Y only

if the (X,Y) link has a strong signal stability
• Signal stability is evaluated as a moving average of the signal
strength of packets received on the link in recent past

54
MANET’S

Signal Stability Routing (SSA)

55
MANET’S

Link Reversal Algorithm

A B F Links are bi-directional

But algorithm imposes

logical directions on
C E G them

Maintain a directed acyclic graph (DAG) for each

destination, with the destination being the only sink
56
This DAG is for destination node D
MANET’S

Link Reversal Algorithm

A B F

C E G

Link (G,D) broke

Any node, other than the destination, that has no outgoing links
reverses all its incoming links.
Node G has no outgoing links
57
MANET’S

Link Reversal Algorithm

A B F

C E G Represents a
link that was
reversed recently

Now nodes E and F have no outgoing links

58
MANET’S

Link Reversal Algorithm

A B F

C E G Represents a
link that was
reversed recently

Now nodes B and G have no outgoing links

59
MANET’S

Link Reversal Algorithm

A B F

C E G Represents a
link that was
reversed recently

Now nodes A and F have no outgoing links

60
MANET’S

Link Reversal Algorithm

A B F

C E G Represents a
link that was
reversed recently

Now all nodes (other than destination D) have an outgoing link

61
MANET’S

Link Reversal Algorithm

A B F

C E G

DAG has been restored with only the destination as a sink

62
MANET’S

Link Reversal Algorithm

• The previous algorithm is called a full reversal
method since when a node reverses links, it
reverses all its incoming links

• Partial reversal method : A node reverses

incoming links from only those neighbors who
have not themselves reversed links “previously”
– If all neighbors have reversed links, then the node
reverses all its incoming links
– “Previously” at node X means since the last link
reversal done by node X

63
MANET’S

Temporally-Ordered Routing Algorithm (TORA)

• Route optimality is considered of secondary importance;
longer routes may be used
• At each node, a logically separate copy of TORA is run
for each destination, that computes the height of the
node with respect to the destination
• Height captures number of hops and next hop
• Route discovery is by using query and update packets
• TORA modifies the partial link reversal method to be
able to detect partitions
• When a partition is detected, all nodes in the partition
are informed, and link reversals in that partition cease64
MANET’S

Temporally-Ordered Routing Algorithm (TORA)

• Based on a “link-reversal” algorithm
• Node broadcasts a QUERY packet which propagates to destination
or to node having a route to the destination
• Recipient of the QUERY broadcasts an UPDATE packet listing its
height with respect to the destination
• Each node that receives the UPDATE sets its height to be greater
than the height of the neighbor from which the UPDATE came →
creates a series of directed links from the QUERY originator to the
node initiating the UPDATE
• When a node discovers a route is no longer valid, it adjusts its
height so that it is a local maximum and transmits an UPDATE
• When a network partition is detected, a node generates a CLEAR
packet to reset routing state and remove invalid routes
65
MANET’S

Destination-Sequenced Distance-Vector (DSDV)

• Each node maintains a routing table which stores
– next hop, cost metric towards each destination
– a sequence number that is created by the destination itself
• Each node periodically forwards routing table to neighbors
– Each node increments and appends its sequence number
when sending its local routing table
• Each route is tagged with a sequence number; routes with
greater sequence numbers are preferred
• Each node advertises a monotonically increasing even sequence
number for itself
• When a node decides that a route is broken, it increments the
sequence number of the route and advertises it with infinite
metric
• Destination advertises new sequence number
66
MANET’S

Destination-Sequenced Distance-Vector (DSDV)

• When X receives information from Y about a route to Z
– Let destination sequence number for Z at X be S(X), S(Y) is
sent from Y X Y Z

– If S(X) > S(Y), then X ignores the routing information

received from Y
– If S(X) = S(Y), and cost of going through Y is smaller than
the route known to X, then X sets Y as the next hop to Z
– If S(X) < S(Y), then X sets Y as the next hop to Z, and S(X) is
updated to equal S(Y)
67
MANET’S

Example of DSDV

68
MANET’S

Example of DSDV

69
MANET’S

Example of DSDV

70
MANET’S

Optimized Link State Routing (OLSR)

• Nodes C and E are multipoint relays of node A

– Multipoint relays of A are its neighbors such that each two-
hop neighbor of A is a one-hop neighbor of one multipoint
relay of A
– Nodes exchange neighbor lists to know their 2-hop neighbors
and choose the multipoint relays
B F J

A E H
C K
G
D

Node that has broadcast state information from A 71

MANET’S

Optimized Link State Routing (OLSR)

• Nodes C and E forward information received from A
• Nodes E and K are multipoint relays for node H
• Node K forwards information received from H
B F J

A E H
C K
G
D

Node that has broadcast state information from A 72

MANET’S

Zone Routing Protocol (ZRP)

• ZRP combines proactive and reactive approaches
• All nodes within hop distance at most d from a node X
are said to be in the routing zone of node X
• All nodes at hop distance exactly d are said to be
peripheral nodes of node X’s routing zone
• Intra-zone routing: Proactively maintain routes to all
nodes within the source node’s own zone.
• Inter-zone routing: Use an on-demand protocol (similar
to DSR or AODV) to determine routes to outside zone.

73
MANET’S

Zone Routing Protocol (ZRP)

74
Radius of routing zone = 2
MANET’S

ZRP Example

1 Hop

2 Hops

Multi Hops
B
F

A
C

D
E
G H

75
MANET’S

Zone of Node Y

Border Node

Zone of Node Y

Bordercasting

Zone Radius =
Border Node
Node X r Hops

Node Z
Zone of Node X

Zone of Node Z
76
MANET’S

Routing Summary
• Protocols
– Typically divided into proactive, reactive and hybrid
– Plenty of routing protocols. Discussion here is far from exhaustive
• Performance Studies
– Typically studied by simulations using ns, discrete event simulator
– Nodes (10-30) remains stationary for pause time seconds (0-900s)
and then move to a random destination (1500m X300m space) at a
uniform speed (0-20m/s). CBR traffic sources (4-30 packets/sec, 64-
1024 bytes/packet)
– Attempt to estimate latency of route discovery, routing overhead …
• Actual trade-off depends a lot on traffic and mobility
patterns
– Higher traffic diversity (more source-destination pairs) increases
overhead in on-demand protocols
– Higher mobility will always increase overhead in all protocols
77
MANET’S

In Conclusion

Issues other than routing have received much less

attention

Other interesting problems:

• Applications for MANET
• Address assignment
• QoS issues
• Improving interaction between protocol layers

78