Structural functionalism, or simply functionalism, is "a framework for

Structural building theory that sees society as a complex system whose parts
work together to promote solidarity and stability".

Functionalism This approach looks at society through a macro-level orientation,

which is a broad focus on the social structures that shape society as a
whole, and believes that society has evolved like organisms. This
approach looks at both social structure and social functions.
Functionalism addresses society as a whole in terms of the function of
its constituent elements; namely norms, customs, traditions, and
institutions.
A common analogy, popularized by Herbert Spencer, presents these
parts of society as "organs" that work toward the proper functioning
of the "body" as a whole. In the most basic terms, it simply
emphasizes "the effort to impute, as rigorously as possible, to each
feature, custom, or practice, its effect on the functioning of a
supposedly stable, cohesive system". For Talcott Parsons, "structural-
functionalism" came to describe a particular stage in the
methodological development of social science, rather than a specific
school of thought.

DIANA ROSE B. LIWANAG

11-HUMSS C
Contents THEORY
1. Theory Functionalist thought, from Comte onwards, has looked particularly
2. Prominent theorists towards biology as the science providing the closest and most
compatible model for social science. Biology has been taken to
2.1. Auguste Comte provide a guide to conceptualizing the structure and the function of
2.2. Herbert Spencer social systems and to analyzing processes of evolution via
mechanisms of adaptation ... functionalism strongly emphasizes the
2.3. Talcott Parsons pre-eminence of the social world over its individual parts (i.e. its
2.4. Davis and Moore constituent actors, human subjects).

2.5. Robert Merton — Anthony Giddens, The Constitution of Society: Outline of the
Theory of Structuration.
2.6. Almond and Powell
3. Unilineal descent While one may regard functionalism as a logical extension of the
organic analogies for societies presented by political philosophers
4. Decline of functionalism such as Rousseau, sociology draws firmer attention to those
institutions unique to industrialized capitalist society (or modernity).
5. Criticisms
Functionalism also has an anthropological basis in the work of
6. Influential theorists theorists such as Marcel Mauss, Bronisław Malinowski and Radcliffe-
Brown. It is in Radcliffe-Brown's specific usage that the prefix
7. See also
'structural' emerged. Radcliffe-Brown proposed that most stateless,
8. Notes "primitive" societies, lacking strong centralized institutions, are based
on an association of corporate-descent groups. Structural
9. References
functionalism also took on Malinowski's argument that the basic
building block of society is the nuclear family, and that the clan is an
outgrowth, not vice versa.
Émile Durkheim was concerned with the question of how certain
societies maintain internal stability and survive over time. He
proposed that such societies tend to be segmented, with equivalent
parts held together by shared values, common symbols or, as his
nephew Marcel Mauss held, systems of exchanges. Durkheim used
the term mechanical solidarity to refer to these types of "social
bonds, based on common sentiments and shared moral values, that
are strong among members of pre-industrial societies". In modern, PROMINENT THEORISTS
complex societies, members perform very different tasks, resulting in
a strong interdependence. Based on the metaphor above of an Auguste Comte, the "Father of Positivism", pointed out the need to
organism in which many parts function together to sustain the whole, keep society unified as many traditions were diminishing. He was the
Durkheim argued that complex societies are held together by organic first person to coin the term sociology. Comte suggests that sociology
solidarity, i.e. "social bonds, based on specialization and is the product of a three-stage development:
interdependence, that are strong among members of industrial Theological stage: From the beginning of human history until the end
societies". of the European Middle Ages, people took a religious view that
These views were upheld by Durkheim, who, following Auguste society expressed God's will. In the theological state, the human
Comte, believed that society constitutes a separate "level" of reality, mind, seeking the essential nature of beings, the first and final causes
distinct from both biological and inorganic matter. Explanations of (the origin and purpose) of all effects—in short, absolute
social phenomena had therefore to be constructed within this level, knowledge—supposes all phenomena to be produced by the
individuals being merely transient occupants of comparatively stable immediate action of supernatural beings.
social roles. The central concern of structural functionalism is a Metaphysical stage: People began seeing society as a natural system
continuation of the Durkheimian task of explaining the apparent as opposed to the supernatural. This began with enlightenment and
stability and internal cohesion needed by societies to endure over the ideas of Hobbes, Locke, and Rousseau. Perceptions of society
time. Societies are seen as coherent, bounded and fundamentally reflected the failings of a selfish human nature rather than the
relational constructs that function like organisms, with their various perfection of God.
(or social institutions) working together in an unconscious, quasi-
automatic fashion toward achieving an overall social equilibrium. All Positive or scientific stage: Describing society through the application
social and cultural phenomena are therefore seen as functional in the of the scientific approach, which draws on the work of scientists.
sense of working together, and are effectively deemed to have "lives" Herbert Spencer
of their own. They are primarily analyzed in terms of this function.
The individual is significant not in and of himself, but rather in terms Herbert Spencer (1820–1903) was a British philosopher famous for
of his status, his position in patterns of social relations, and the applying the theory of natural selection to society. He was in many
behaviors associated with his status. Therefore, the social structure is ways the first true sociological functionalist. In fact, while Durkheim is
the network of statuses connected by associated roles. widely considered the most important functionalist among positivist
theorists, it is known that much of his analysis was culled from
It is simplistic to equate the perspective directly with political reading Spencer's work, especially his Principles of Sociology (1874–
conservatism. The tendency to emphasize "cohesive systems", 96).[citation needed] In describing society, Spencer alludes to the
however, leads functionalist theories to be contrasted with "conflict analogy of a human body. Just as the structural parts of the human
theories" which instead emphasize social problems and inequalities. body — the skeleton, muscles, and various internal organs — function
independently to help the entire organism survive, social structures polity could make or break its ability to adapt. In other words, he saw
work together to preserve society. a general trend towards the centralization of power as leading to
stagnation and ultimately, pressures to decentralize.
While reading Spencer's massive volumes can be tedious (long
passages explicating the organic analogy, with reference to cells,
simple organisms, animals, humans and society), there are some
More specifically, Spencer recognized three functional needs or
important insights that have quietly influenced many contemporary
prerequisites that produce selection pressures: they are regulatory,
theorists, including Talcott Parsons, in his early work The Structure of
operative (production) and distributive. He argued that all societies
Social Action (1937). Cultural anthropology also consistently uses
need to solve problems of control and coordination, production of
functionalism.
goods, services and ideas, and, finally, to find ways of distributing
these resources.
This evolutionary model, unlike most 19th century evolutionary
theories, is cyclical, beginning with the differentiation and increasing
Initially, in tribal societies, these three needs are inseparable, and the
complication of an organic or "super-organic" (Spencer's term for a
kinship system is the dominant structure that satisfies them. As many
social system) body, followed by a fluctuating state of equilibrium and
scholars have noted, all institutions are subsumed under kinship
disequilibrium (or a state of adjustment and adaptation), and, finally,
organization, but, with increasing population (both in terms of sheer
the stage of disintegration or dissolution. Following Thomas Malthus'
numbers and density), problems emerge with regard to feeding
population principles, Spencer concluded that society is constantly
individuals, creating new forms of organization—consider the
facing selection pressures (internal and external) that force it to adapt
emergent division of labour—coordinating and controlling various
its internal structure through differentiation.
differentiated social units, and developing systems of resource
distribution.
Every solution, however, causes a new set of selection pressures that
threaten society's viability. Spencer was not a determinist in the
The solution, as Spencer sees it, is to differentiate structures to fulfill
sense that he never said that
more specialized functions; thus a chief or "big man" emerges, soon
followed by a group of lieutenants, and later kings and
administrators. The structural parts of society (e.g. families, work)
Selection pressures will be felt in time to change them;
function interdependently to help society function. Therefore, social
They will be felt and reacted to; or structures work together to preserve society.
The solutions will always work.
In fact, he was in many ways a political sociologist, and recognized Perhaps Spencer's greatest obstacle that is being widely discussed in
that the degree of centralized and consolidated authority in a given modern sociology is the fact that much of his social philosophy is
rooted in the social and historical context of ancient Egypt. He coined Parsons determined that each individual has expectations of the
the term "survival of the fittest" in discussing the simple fact that other's action and reaction to his own behavior, and that these
small tribes or societies tend to be defeated or conquered by larger expectations would (if successful) be "derived" from the accepted
ones. Of course, many sociologists still use his ideas (knowingly or norms and values of the society they inhabit. As Parsons himself
otherwise) in their analyses, especially due to the recent re- emphasized, in a general context there would never exist any perfect
emergence of evolutionary theory. [citation needed] "fit" between behaviors and norms, so such a relation is never
complete or "perfect".

Talcott Parsons
Social norms were always problematic for Parsons, who never
Talcott Parsons began writing in the 1930s and contributed to
claimed (as has often been alleged) [citation needed] that social
sociology, political science, anthropology, and psychology. Structural
norms were generally accepted and agreed upon, should this prevent
functionalism and Parsons have received a lot of criticism. Numerous
some kind of universal law. Whether social norms were accepted or
critics have pointed out Parsons' under emphasis of political and
not was for Parsons simply a historical question.
monetary struggle, the basics of social change, and the by and large
"manipulative" conduct unregulated by qualities and standards.
Structural functionalism, and a large portion of Parsons' works,
As behaviors are repeated in more interactions, and these
appear to be insufficient in their definitions concerning the
expectations are entrenched or institutionalized, a role is created.
connections amongst institutionalized and non-institutionalized
Parsons defines a "role" as the normatively-regulated participation
conduct, and the procedures by which institutionalization happens.
"of a person in a concrete process of social interaction with specific,
[citation needed]
concrete role-partners." Although any individual, theoretically, can
fulfill any role, the individual is expected to conform to the norms
governing the nature of the role they fulfill.
Parsons was heavily influenced by Durkheim and Max Weber,
synthesizing much of their work into his action theory, which he
based on the system-theoretical concept and the methodological
Furthermore, one person can and does fulfill many different roles at
principle of voluntary action. He held that "the social system is made
the same time. In one sense, an individual can be seen to be a
up of the actions of individuals." His starting point, accordingly, is the
"composition"[15] of the roles he inhabits. Certainly, today, when
interaction between two individuals faced with a variety of choices
asked to describe themselves, most people would answer with
about how they might act, choices that are influenced and
reference to their societal roles.
constrained by a number of physical and social factors.

Parsons later developed the idea of roles into collectivities of roles

that complement each other in fulfilling functions for society.
Some roles are bound up in institutions and social structures
(economic, educational, legal and even gender-based). These are
Socialization is supported by the positive and negative sanctioning of
functional in the sense that they assist society in operating and
role behaviors that do or do not meet these expectations. A
fulfilling its functional needs so that society runs smoothly.
punishment could be informal, like a snigger or gossip, or more
formalized, through institutions such as prisons and mental homes. If
these two processes were perfect, society would become static and
Contrary to prevailing myth, Parsons never spoke about a society
unchanging, but in reality this is unlikely to occur for long.
where there was no conflict or some kind of "perfect" equilibrium.
[citation needed] A society's cultural value-system was in the typical
case never completely integrated, never static and most of the time,
Parsons recognizes this, stating that he treats "the structure of the
like in the case of the American society, in a complex state of
system as problematic and subject to change," and that his concept of
transformation relative to its historical point of departure. To reach a
the tendency towards equilibrium "does not imply the empirical
"perfect" equilibrium was not any serious theoretical question in
dominance of stability over change. "He does, however, believe that
Parsons analysis of social systems, indeed, the most dynamic societies
these changes occur in a relatively smooth way.
had generally cultural systems with important inner tensions like the
US and India. These tensions were a source of their strength
according to Parsons rather than the opposite. Parsons never thought
Individuals in interaction with changing situations adapt through a
about system-institutionalization and the level of strains (tensions,
process of "role bargaining". Once the roles are established, they
conflict) in the system as opposite forces per se. [citation needed]
create norms that guide further action and are thus institutionalized,
creating stability across social interactions. Where the adaptation
process cannot adjust, due to sharp shocks or immediate radical
The key processes for Parsons for system reproduction are
change, structural dissolution occurs and either new structures (or
socialization and social control. Socialization is important because it is
therefore a new system) are formed, or society dies. This model of
the mechanism for transferring the accepted norms and values of
social change has been described as a "moving equilibrium", and
society to the individuals within the system. Parsons never spoke
emphasizes a desire for social order.
about "perfect socialization"—in any society socialization was only
partial and "incomplete" from an integral point of view.

Davis and Moore

Parsons states that "this point [...] is independent of the sense in Kingsley Davis and Wilbert E. Moore (1945) gave an argument for
which [the] individual is concretely autonomous or creative rather social stratification based on the idea of "functional necessity" (also
than 'passive' or 'conforming', for individuality and creativity, are to a known as the Davis-Moore hypothesis). They argue that the most
considerable extent, phenomena of the institutionalization of difficult jobs in any society have the highest incomes in order to
expectations"; they are culturally constructed.
motivate individuals to fill the roles needed by the division of labour.
Thus inequality serves social stability.
Merton criticized functional unity, saying that not all parts of a
modern complex society work for the functional unity of society.
Consequently, there is a social dysfunction referred to as any social
This argument has been criticized as fallacious from a number of
pattern that may disrupt the operation of society. Some institutions
different angles: the argument is both that the individuals who are
and structures may have other functions, and some may even be
the most deserving are the highest rewarded, and that a system of
generally dysfunctional, or be functional for some while being
unequal rewards is necessary, otherwise no individuals would
dysfunctional for others. This is because not all structures are
perform as needed for the society to function. The problem is that
functional for society as a whole. Some practices are only functional
these rewards are supposed to be based upon objective merit, rather
for a dominant individual or a group. There are two types of functions
than subjective "motivations." The argument also does not clearly
that Merton discusses the "manifest functions" in that a social
establish why some positions are worth more than others, even when
pattern can trigger a recognized and intended consequence. The
they benefit more people in society, e.g., teachers compared to
manifest function of education includes preparing for a career by
athletes and movie stars. Critics have suggested that structural
getting good grades, graduation and finding good job. The second
inequality (inherited wealth, family power, etc.) is itself a cause of
type of function is "latent functions", where a social pattern results in
individual success or failure, not a consequence of it.
an unrecognized or unintended consequence. The latent functions of
education include meeting new people, extra-curricular activities,
school trips. Another type of social function is "social dysfunction"
Robert Merton
which is any undesirable consequences that disrupts the operation of
Robert K. Merton made important refinements to functionalist society.[1] The social dysfunction of education includes not getting
thought. He fundamentally agreed with Parsons' theory. However, he good grades, a job. Merton states that by recognizing and examining
acknowledged Parsons' theory problematic, believing that it was over the dysfunctional aspects of society we can explain the development
generalized. Merton tended to emphasize middle range theory rather and persistence of alternatives. Thus, as Holmwood states, "Merton
than a grand theory, meaning that he was able to deal specifically explicitly made power and conflict central issues for research within a
with some of the limitations in Parsons' theory. Merton believed that functionalist paradigm."
any social structure probably has many functions, some more obvious
than others He identified 3 main limitations: functional unity,
universal functionalism and indispensability. He also developed the Merton also noted that there may be functional alternatives to the
concept of deviance and made the distinction between manifest and institutions and structures currently fulfilling the functions of society.
latent functions. Manifest functions referred to the recognized and This means that the institutions that currently exist are not
intended consequences of any social pattern. Latent functions indispensable to society. Merton states "just as the same item may
referred to unrecognized and unintended consequences of any social have multiple functions, so may the same function be diversely
pattern. fulfilled by alternative items. This notion of functional alternatives is
important because it reduces the tendency of functionalism to imply In the 1970s, political scientists Gabriel Almond and Bingham Powell
approval of the status quo. introduced a structural-functionalist approach to comparing political
systems. They argued that, in order to understand a political system,
it is necessary to understand not only its institutions (or structures)
Merton's theory of deviance is derived from Durkheim's idea of but also their respective functions. They also insisted that these
anomie. It is central in explaining how internal changes can occur in a institutions, to be properly understood, must be placed in a
system. For Merton, anomie means a discontinuity between cultural meaningful and dynamic historical context.
goals and the accepted methods available for reaching them.

This idea stood in marked contrast to prevalent approaches in the

Merton believes that there are 5 situations facing an actor. field of comparative politics—the state-society theory and the
dependency theory. These were the descendants of David Easton's
system theory in international relations, a mechanistic view that saw
Conformity occurs when an individual has the means and desire to all political systems as essentially the same, subject to the same laws
achieve the cultural goals socialized into them. of "stimulus and response"—or inputs and outputs—while paying
little attention to unique characteristics. The structural-functional
Innovation occurs when an individual strives to attain the accepted
approach is based on the view that a political system is made up of
cultural goals but chooses to do so in novel or unaccepted method.
several key components, including interest groups, political parties
Ritualism occurs when an individual continues to do things as and branches of government.
prescribed by society but forfeits the achievement of the goals.
Retreatism is the rejection of both the means and the goals of society.
In addition to structures, Almond and Powell showed that a political
Rebellion is a combination of the rejection of societal goals and system consists of various functions, chief among them political
means and a substitution of other goals and means. socialization, recruitment and communication: socialization refers to
the way in which societies pass along their values and beliefs to
Thus it can be seen that change can occur internally in society
succeeding generations, and in political terms describe the process by
through either innovation or rebellion. It is true that society will
which a society inculcates civic virtues, or the habits of effective
attempt to control these individuals and negate the changes, but as
citizenship; recruitment denotes the process by which a political
the innovation or rebellion builds momentum, society will eventually
system generates interest, engagement and participation from
adapt or face dissolution.
citizens; and communication refers to the way that a system
promulgates its values and information.

Almond and Powell

Unilineal descent particular, the phenomenon of cognatic (or bilateral) kinship posed a
serious problem to the proposition that descent groups are the
In their attempt to explain the social stability of African "primitive" primary element behind the social structures of "primitive" societies.
stateless societies where they undertook their fieldwork, Evans-
Pritchard (1940) and Meyer Fortes (1945) argued that the Tallensi and
the Nuer were primarily organized around unilineal descent groups. Leach's (1966) critique came in the form of the classical Malinowskian
Such groups are characterized by common purposes, such as argument, pointing out that "in Evans-Pritchard's studies of the Nuer
administering property or defending against attacks; they form a and also in Fortes's studies of the Tallensi unilineal descent turns out
permanent social structure that persists well beyond the lifespan of to be largely an ideal concept to which the empirical facts are only
their members. In the case of the Tallensi and the Nuer, these adapted by means of fictions." People's self-interest, manoeuvring,
corporate groups were based on kinship which in turn fitted into the manipulation and competition had been ignored. Moreover, descent
larger structures of unilineal descent; consequently, Evans-Pritchard's theory neglected the significance of marriage and affinal ties, which
and Fortes' model is called "descent theory". Moreover, in this African were emphasized by Levi-Strauss' structural anthropology, at the
context territorial divisions were aligned with lineages; descent expense of overemphasizing the role of descent. To quote Leach:
theory therefore synthesized both blood and soil as the same. Affinal "The evident importance attached to matrilateral and affinal kinship
ties with the parent through whom descent is not reckoned, however, connections is not so much explained as explained away."
are considered to be merely complementary or secondary (Fortes
created the concept of "complementary filiation"), with the reckoning
of kinship through descent being considered the primary organizing Decline of functionalism
force of social systems. Because of its strong emphasis on unilineal
descent, this new kinship theory came to be called "descent theory". Structural functionalism reached the peak of its influence in the 1940s
and 1950s, and by the 1960s was in rapid decline. By the 1980s, its
place was taken in Europe by more conflict-oriented approaches, and
With no delay, descent theory had found its critics. Many African more recently by structuralism. While some of the critical approaches
tribal societies seemed to fit this neat model rather well, although also gained popularity in the United States, the mainstream of the
Africanists, such as Paul Richards, also argued that Fortes and Evans- discipline has instead shifted to a myriad of empirically-oriented
Pritchard had deliberately downplayed internal contradictions and middle-range theories with no overarching theoretical orientation. To
overemphasized the stability of the local lineage systems and their most sociologists, functionalism is now "as dead as a dodo".
significance for the organization of society. However, in many Asian
settings the problems were even more obvious. In Papua New
Guinea, the local patrilineal descent groups were fragmented and As the influence of functionalism in the 1960s began to wane, the
contained large amounts of non-agnates. Status distinctions did not linguistic and cultural turns led to a myriad of new movements in the
depend on descent, and genealogies were too short to account for social sciences: "According to Giddens, the orthodox consensus
social solidarity through identification with a common ancestor. In terminated in the late 1960s and 1970s as the middle ground shared
by otherwise competing perspectives gave way and was replaced by a the maintenance or quick return to social order, but this is a product
baffling variety of competing perspectives. This third generation of of the time in which Parsons was writing (post-World War II, and the
social theory includes phenomenologically inspired approaches, start of the cold war). Society was in upheaval and fear abounded. At
critical theory, ethnomethodology, symbolic interactionism, the time social order was crucial, and this is reflected in Parsons'
structuralism, post-structuralism, and theories written in the tradition tendency to promote equilibrium and social order rather than social
of hermeneutics and ordinary language philosophy." change.

While absent from empirical sociology, functionalist themes remained Furthermore, Durkheim favoured a radical form of guild socialism
detectable in sociological theory, most notably in the works of along with functionalist explanations. Also, Marxism, while
Luhmann and Giddens. There are, however, signs of an incipient acknowledging social contradictions, still uses functionalist
revival, as functionalist claims have recently been bolstered by explanations. Parsons' evolutionary theory describes the
developments in multilevel selection theory and in empirical research differentiation and reintegration systems and subsystems and thus at
on how groups solve social dilemmas. Recent developments in least temporary conflict before reintegration (ibid). "The fact that
evolutionary theory—especially by biologist David Sloan Wilson and functional analysis can be seen by some as inherently conservative
anthropologists Robert Boyd and Peter Richerson—have provided and by others as inherently radical suggests that it may be inherently
strong support for structural functionalism in the form of multilevel neither one nor the other."
selection theory. In this theory, culture and social structure are seen
as a Darwinian (biological or cultural) adaptation at the group level.
Stronger criticisms include the epistemological argument that
functionalism is tautologous, that is it attempts to account for the
Criticisms development of social institutions solely through recourse to the
effects that are attributed to them and thereby explains the two
Main articles: Conflict theory and Critical theory
circularly. However, Parsons drew directly on many of Durkheim's
In the 1960s, functionalism was criticized for being unable to account concepts in creating his theory. Certainly Durkheim was one of the
for social change, or for structural contradictions and conflict (and first theorists to explain a phenomenon with reference to the
thus was often called "consensus theory"). Also, it ignores inequalities function it served for society. He said, "the determination of function
including race, gender, class, which cause tension and conflict. The is…necessary for the complete explanation of the phenomena."
refutation of the second criticism of functionalism, that it is static and However Durkheim made a clear distinction between historical and
has no concept of change, has already been articulated above, functional analysis, saying, "When ... the explanation of a social
concluding that while Parsons' theory allows for change, it is an phenomenon is undertaken, we must seek separately the efficient
orderly process of change [Parsons, 1961:38], a moving equilibrium. cause which produces it and the function it fulfills." If Durkheim made
Therefore, referring to Parsons' theory of society as static is this distinction, then it is unlikely that Parsons did not. However
inaccurate. It is true that it does place emphasis on equilibrium and Merton does explicitly state that functional analysis does not seek to
explain why the action happened in the first instance, but why it integration and consensus, and neglecting independence and conflict.
continues or is reproduced. By this particular logic, it can be argued Lockwood, in line with conflict theory, suggested that Parsons' theory
that functionalists do not necessarily explain the original cause of a missed the concept of system contradiction. He did not account for
phenomenon with reference to its effect. Yet the logic stated in those parts of the system that might have tendencies to mal-
reverse, that social phenomena are (re)produced because they serve integration. According to Lockwood, it was these tendencies that
ends, is unoriginal to functionalist thought. Thus functionalism is come to the surface as opposition and conflict among actors.
either undefinable or it can be defined by the teleological arguments However Parsons thought that the issues of conflict and cooperation
which functionalist theorists normatively produced before Merton. were very much intertwined and sought to account for both in his
model. In this however he was limited by his analysis of an ‘ideal type'
of society which was characterized by consensus. Merton, through his
Another criticism describes the ontological argument that society critique of functional unity, introduced into functionalism an explicit
cannot have "needs" as a human being does, and even if society does analysis of tension and conflict. Yet Merton's functionalist
have needs they need not be met. Anthony Giddens argues that explanations of social phenomena continued to rest on the idea that
functionalist explanations may all be rewritten as historical accounts society is primarily co-operative rather than conflicted, which
of individual human actions and consequences (see Structuration). differentiates Merton from conflict theorists.

A further criticism directed at functionalism is that it contains no Marxism, which was revived soon after the emergence of conflict
sense of agency, that individuals are seen as puppets, acting as their theory, criticized professional sociology (functionalism and conflict
role requires. Yet Holmwood states that the most sophisticated forms theory alike) for being partisan to advanced welfare capitalism.
of functionalism are based on "a highly developed concept of action," Gouldner thought that Parsons' theory specifically was an expression
and as was explained above, Parsons took as his starting point the of the dominant interests of welfare capitalism, that it justified
individual and their actions. His theory did not however articulate institutions with reference to the function they fulfill for society. It
how these actors exercise their agency in opposition to the may be that Parsons' work implied or articulated that certain
socialization and inculcation of accepted norms. As has been shown institutions were necessary to fulfill the functional prerequisites of
above, Merton addressed this limitation through his concept of society, but whether or not this is the case, Merton explicitly states
deviance, and so it can be seen that functionalism allows for agency. that institutions are not indispensable and that there are functional
It cannot, however, explain why individuals choose to accept or reject alternatives. That he does not identify any alternatives to the current
the accepted norms, why and in what circumstances they choose to institutions does reflect a conservative bias, which as has been stated
exercise their agency, and this does remain a considerable limitation before is a product of the specific time that he was writing in.
of the theory.
Further criticisms have been levelled at functionalism by proponents
As functionalism's prominence was ending, feminism was on the rise,
of other social theories, particularly conflict theorists, Marxists,
and it attempted a radical criticism of functionalism. It believed that
feminists and postmodernists. Conflict theorists criticized
functionalism neglected the suppression of women within the family
functionalism's concept of systems as giving far too much weight to
structure. Holmwood shows, however, that Parsons did in fact Émile Durkheim
describe the situations where tensions and conflict existed or were
David Keen
about to take place, even if he did not articulate those conflicts. Some
feminists agree, suggesting that Parsons' provided accurate Niklas Luhmann
descriptions of these situations. On the other hand, Parsons
Bronisław Malinowski
recognized that he had oversimplified his functional analysis of
women in relation to work and the family, and focused on the Robert K. Merton
positive functions of the family for society and not on its dysfunctions
Wilbert E. Moore
for women. Merton, too, although addressing situations where
function and dysfunction occurred simultaneously, lacked a "feminist George Murdock
sensibility."
Talcott Parsons
Postmodernism, as a theory, is critical of claims of objectivity.
Alfred Reginald Radcliffe-Brown
Therefore, the idea of grand theory and grand narrative that can
explain society in all its forms is treated with skepticism. This critique Herbert Spencer
focuses on exposing the danger that grand theory can pose when not
Fei Xiaotong
seen as a limited perspective, as one way of understanding society.
[citation needed] See also
Jeffrey Alexander (1985) sees functionalism as a broad school rather Functional structuralism
than a specific method or system, such as Parsons, who is capable of
Neofunctionalism (sociology)
taking equilibrium (stability) as a reference-point rather than
assumption and treats structural differentiation as a major form of New institutional economics
social change. The name 'functionalism' implies a difference of
Pure sociology
method or interpretation that does not exist. This removes the
determinism criticized above. Cohen argues that rather than needs a Sociotechnical systems theory
society has dispositional facts: features of the social environment that
Systems theory
support the existence of particular social institutions but do not cause
them. Vacancy chain

Influential theorists Dennis Wrong - a critic of structural functionalism

Kingsley Davis
Michael Denton