2.
1 The Nature of the Wind
The energy available in the wind varies as the cube of the wind speed, so an understanding of the characteristics
of the wind resource is critical to all aspects of wind energy exploitation, from the identification of suitable sites
and predictions of the economic viability of wind farm projects through to the design of wind turbines
themselves, and understanding their effect on electricity distribution networks and consumers.
From the point of view of wind energy, the most striking characteristic of the wind resource is its variability.
The wind is highly variable, both geographically and temporally. Furthermore this variability persists over a
very wide range of scales, both in space and time. The importance of this is amplified by the cubic relationship
to available energy.
On a large scale, spatial variability describes the fact that there are many different climatic regions in the world,
some much windier than others. These regions are largely dictated by the latitude, which affects the amount of
insolation. Within any one climatic region, there is a great deal of variation on a smaller scale, largely dictated
by physical geography – the proportion of land and sea, the size of land masses, and the presence of mountains
or plains for example. The type of vegetation may also have a significant influence through its effects on the
absorption or reflection of solar radiation, affecting surface temperatures, and on humidity.
More locally, the topography has a major effect on the wind climate. More wind is experienced on the tops of
hills and mountains than in the lee of high ground or in sheltered valleys, for instance. More locally still, wind
velocities are significantly reduced by obstacles such as trees or buildings.
At a given location, temporal variability on a large scale means that the amount of wind may vary from one year
to the next, with even larger scale variations over periods of decades or more. These long-term variations are
not well understood, and may make it difficult to make accurate predictions of the economic viability of
particular wind-farm projects, for instance.
On time-scales shorter than a year, seasonal variations are much more predictable, although there are large
variations on shorter time-scales still, which although reasonably well understood, are often not very
predictable more than a few days ahead. These ‘synoptic’ variations are associated with the passage of weather
systems. Depending on location, there may also be considerable variations with the time of day (diurnal
variations) which again are usually fairly predictable. On these time-scales, the predictability of the wind is
important for integrating large amounts of wind power into the electricity network, to allow the other
generating plant supplying the network to be organized appropriately.
On still shorter time-scales of minutes down to seconds or less, wind-speed variations known as turbulence
can have a very significant effect on the design and performance of the individual wind turbines, as well as on
the quality of power delivered to the network and its effect on consumers.
Van der Hoven (1957) constructed a wind-speed spectrum from long- and shortterm records at Brookhaven,
New York, showing clear peaks corresponding to the synoptic, diurnal and turbulent effects referred to above
(Figure 2.1). Of particular interest is the so-called ‘spectral gap’ occurring between the diurnal and turbulent
peaks, showing that the synoptic and diurnal variations can be treated as quite distinct from the higher-
frequency fluctuations of turbulence. There is very little energy in the spectrum in the region between 2 h and
10 min.
7.1 Blades
7.1.1 Introduction
A successful blade design must satisfy a wide range of objectives, some of which are in conflict. These objectives
can be summarized as follows:
(1) maximize annual energy yield for the specified wind speed distribution;
(2) limit maximum power output (in the case of stall regulated machines);
(3) resist extreme and fatigue loads;
(4) restrict tip deflections to avoid blade/tower collisions (in the case of upwind machines);
(5) avoid resonances;
(6) minimize weight and cost.
The design process can be divided into two stages: the aerodynamic design, in which objectives (1) and (2) are
satisfied, and the structural design. The aerodynamic design addresses the selection of the optimum geometry
of the blade external surface – normally simply referred to as the blade geometry – which is defined by the
aerofoil family and the chord, twist and thickness distributions. The structural design consists of blade material
selection and the determination of a structural cross section or spar within the external envelope that meets
objectives (4) to (6). Inevitably there is interaction between the two stages, as the blade thickness needs to be
large enough to accommodate a spar which is structurally efficient.
The focus of Section 7.1 is on blade structural design. After a brief consideration of the aerodynamic design in
Section 7.1.2, practical constraints on the optimum design are noted in Section 7.1.3 and forms of blade
structure surveyed in Section 7.1.4. An overview of the properties of some potential blade materials is given in
Section 7.1.5 and the properties of glass-fibre reinforced plastic (GFRP) and laminated wood are considered in
more detail in Sections 7.1.6 and 7.1.7. Governing load cases are considered in Sections 7.1.8 with reference to
both stall- and pitch regulated machines. Subsequent sections touch upon blade resonance, panel buckling
design and blade root fixings.
7.2 Pitch Bearings
On pitch-regulated machines a bearing similar to a crane slewing ring is interposed between each blade and
the hub to allow the blade to be rotated or ‘pitched’ about its axis. A typical arrangement is as shown in Figure
7.20, in which the inner and outer rings of the bearing are bolted to the blade and hub respectively. The different
types of bearings available can be classified according to the rolling elements used and their arrangement, in
order of increasing moment capacity:
(a) single-row roller bearings, with alternate rollers inclined at +45 and -45 to the plane of the bearing;
(b) single-row ball bearings,
(c) double-row ball bearings;
(d) three-row roller bearings.
These are shown in cross section in Figure 7.21. The single-row ball bearing slewing rings are normally
designed to transmit axial loads in both directions and are therefore known as four point contact bearings. Low
contact stresses are achieved by making the radii on each side of the grooves only slightly larger than that of
the balls.
At low wind speeds, the cyclic in-plane bending moment at the blade root due to gravity is of similar magnitude
to the out-of-plane moment due to blade thrust, so bearing loads will alternate in direction over portions of the
bearing circumference. Accordingly it is desirable to avoid the risk of play by preloading the bearing. This can
be achieved relatively easily on bearings in which one of the rings is split on a plane normal to the axis, such as
types (c) and (d), but is more difficult when both rings are solid. In this case it is necessary to force the rolling
elements into the races one by one during manufacture.
The bearing selected for a particular application needs to have sufficient moment capacity to both resist the
extreme blade root bending moments and provide adequate fatigue life. Manufacturers’ catalogues typically
specify both the extreme moment capacity and the steady moment loading that will give a life of, say, 30 000
bearing revolutions, so the wind turbine designer’s chief task is to convert the anticipated pitch bearing duty
into the equivalent constant loading at the appropriate number of revolutions.
7.3 Rotor Hub
The relatively complex three-dimensional geometry of rotor hubs favours the use of casting in their
manufacture, with spheroidal graphite iron being the material generally chosen.
Two distinct shapes of hub for three-bladed machines can be identified: tricylindrical or spherical. The former
consists of three cylindrical shells concentric with the blade axes, which flare into each other where they meet,
while the latter consists simply of a spherical shell with cut-outs at the three-blade mounting positions.
Diagrams of both types are shown in Figure 7.22, while an actual
spherical hub is illustrated in Figure 7.23. The structural action of the hub in resisting three loadings is
discussed in the following paragraphs.
(1) Symmetric rotor thrust loading. The blade root bending moments due to symmetric rotor thrust loading put
the front of the hub in bi-axial tension near the rotor axis and the rear in bi-axial compression, while the thrust
itself generates out-of-plane bending stresses in the hub shell adjacent to the low speed shaft flange connection.
The load paths are easy to visualize in this case.
(2) Thrust loading on a single blade. This generates out-of-plane bending stresses in the hub shell at the rear, and
in-plane tensile stresses around a curved load path between the upwind side of the blade bearing and the
portion of the low-speed shaft flange connection remote from the blade (see dashed line in Figure 7.22(b). The
resultant lateral loads will result in out-of-plane bending.
(3) Blade gravity moments. On the tri-cylindrical hub, equal and opposite blade gravity moments are
communicated via the cylindrical shells to areas near the rotor axis at front and rear where they cancel each
other out. It is less straightforward to visualize the corresponding load paths on the spherical hub, as out-of-
plane bending is likely to be mobilized.
7.4 Gearbox
7.4.1 Introduction
The function of the gearbox is to step up the speed of rotor rotation to a value suitable for standard induction
generators, which, in the case of fixed-speed machines or two-speed machines operating at the higher speed,
is usually 1500 r.p.m. plus the requisite slip. For machines rated between 300 kW and 2000 kW, with upper
rotational speeds between 48 and 17 r.p.m., overall gear ratios of between about 1:31 and 1:88 are therefore
required. Normally these large stepups are achieved by three separate stages with ratios of between 1:3 and
1:5 each.
The design of industrial fixed ratio gearboxes is a large subject in itself and well beyond the scope of the present
work. However, it is important to recognize that the use of such gearboxes in wind turbines is a special
application, because of the unusual environment and load characteristics, and the sections which follow focus
on these aspects. Sections 7.4.2 to 7.4.6 consider variable loading, including drive train dynamics and the
impact of emergency braking loads, and examine how gear fatigue design is adapted to take account of it. The
relative benefits of parallel and epicyclic shaft arrangements are discussed in Section 7.4.7, while subsequent
sections deal with noise reduction measures, and lubrication and cooling. A useful reference is the American
Gear Manufacturers Association Information Sheet (1996) which covers the special requirements of wind
turbine gearboxes in some detail.
7.5 Generator
7.5.1 Induction generators
The induction generators commonly used on fixed-speed wind turbines are very similar to conventional
industrial induction motors. In principle the only differences between an induction machine operating as a
generator and as a motor are the direction of power flow in the connecting wires, whether torque is applied to
or taken from the shaft and if the rotor speed is slightly above or below synchronous. The size of the market
for induction motors is very large and so, in many cases, an induction generator design will be based on the
same stator and rotor laminations as a range of induction motors in order to take advantage of high
manufacturing volumes. Some detailed design modifications, e.g., changes in rotor bar material, may be made
by the machine manufacturers to reflect the different operating regime of wind turbine generator, particularly
the need for high efficiency at part load, but the principles of operation are those of conventional induction
motors.
The synchronous speed, which is determined by the number of magnetic poles will be in the range of 1500
r.p.m. (4 pole), 1000 r.p.m. (6 pole) or 750 r.p.m. (8 pole) for connection to a 50 Hz network. For commercial
reasons it is common to use a voltage of only 690 V even for large generators and in some very large wind
turbines the resulting high currents have led to the decision to locate the turbine transformer in the nacelle.
The physical protection of the generator is arranged to avoid the ingress of moisture, i.e. a totally enclosed
design, and in some wind turbines liquid cooling is used to reduce air-borne noise. A high slip at rated power
output is often requested by the wind turbine designer as this increases the damping in the wind turbine drive
train but at the expense of losses in the rotor.
7.6 Mechanical Brake
7.6.1 Brake duty
As indicated in Section 6.8.3, a mechanical brake can be called on to fulfil a variety of roles, according to the
braking philosophy adopted for the machine in question. The minimum requirement is for the mechanical
brake to act as a parking brake, so that the machine can be stopped for maintenance purposes. The brake will
also be used to bring the rotor to a standstill during high wind shut-downs for the majority of machine designs,
and during low-speed shut-downs as well in some cases. Aerodynamic braking is used to decelerate the rotor
initially, so the mechanical brake torque can be quite low. However, IEC 61400-1 requires that the mechanical
brake be capable of bringing the rotor to a complete stop from a hazardous idling state in any wind speed less
than the 1 year return period 3 s gust (see Table 5.1).
If the mechanical brake is required to arrest the rotor in the event of a complete failure of the aerodynamic
braking system, then there are two deployment options to consider. Either the mechanical brake can be
actuated when an overspeed resulting from the failure of the aerodynamic system is detected, or actuated
simultaneously with the aerodynamic brake as part of the standard emergency shut-down procedure. The
advantage of the former strategy is that the mechanical brake will rarely, if ever, have to be deployed in this
way, so that some pad or even disc damage can be tolerated when deployment actually occurs. In addition,
fatigue loading of the gearbox will be reduced if the brake is mounted on the high-speed shaft. On the other
hand, if the mechanical brake is actuated before significant overspeed has developed, then the aerodynamic
torque to be overcome by the mechanical brake in the event of aerodynamic braking failure will be less.
The most severe emergency braking case will arise following a grid loss during generation in winds above rated.
In the case of pitch-regulated machines, the maximum overspeed will occur after grid loss at rated wind speed
because the rate of change of aerodynamic torque with rotational speed decreases and soon becomes negative
at higher wind speeds. Conversely, if the pitch mechanism should jam, the braking duty becomes more severe
at wind speeds at or above cut-out, because much higher aerodynamic torques are developed as the rotor slows
down and the angle of attack increases. For stall-regulated machines the critical wind speed is generally at an
intermediate value between rated and cut-out.
7.7 Nacelle Bedplate
The functions of the nacelle bedplate are to transfer the rotor loadings to the yaw bearing and to provide
mountings for the gearbox and generator. Normally it is a separate entity, although in machines with an
integrated gearbox, the gearbox casing and the nacelle bedplate could, in principle, be a single unit. The
bedplate can either be a welded fabrication consisting of longitudinal and transverse beam members or a
casting sculpted to fit the desired load paths more precisely. One fairly common arrangement is a casting in the
form of an inverted frustum which supports the low-speed shaft main bearing at the front and the port and
starboard gearbox supports towards the rear, with the generator mounted on a fabricated platform projecting
to the rear and attached to the main casting by bolts.
Although conventional methods of analysis can be used to design the bedplate for extreme loads, the
complicated shape renders a finite-element analysis essential for calculating the stress concentration effects
needed for fatigue design. Fatigue analysis is complicated by the need to take into account up to six rotor load
components. However, given stress distributions for each load component obtained by separate FE analyses,
the stress-time history at any point can be obtained by combining appropriately scaled load component time
histories previously obtained from a load case simulation.
7.8 Yaw Drive
The yaw drive is the name given to the mechanism used to rotate the nacelle with respect to the tower on its
slewing bearing, in order to keep the turbine facing into the wind and to unwind the power and other cables
when they become excessively twisted. It usually consists of an electric or hydraulic motor mounted on the
nacelle, which drives a pinion mounted on a vertical shaft via a reducing gearbox. The pinion engages with gear
teeth on the fixed slewing ring bolted to the tower, as shown in Figure 7.37. These gear teeth can either be on
the inside or the outside of the tower, depending on the bearing arrangement, but they are generally located
on the outside on smaller machines so that the gear does not present a safety hazard in the restricted space
available for personnel access.
7.9 Tower
7.9.1 Introduction
The vast majority of wind turbine towers are constructed from steel. Concrete towers are a perfectly
practicable alternative but, except at the smaller sizes, they require the transfer of a substantial element of
work from the factory to the turbine site, which has not normally proved economic. Accordingly, this section
concentrates on the two types of steel towers – tubular and lattice. The restrictions on firstmode natural
frequency are considered first.
