So and Such

We use so and such to make a statement stronger. Compare these sentences:

I’m tired.
I’m so tired!

Look at this table to find out how so and such are used.

so such

Before an adjective or Before an adjective + singular countable noun

adverb ( without a noun)
e.g. The General Hospital is
e.g. The General Hospital is such a clean place.
so clean.

Before much, many, few and Before a noun (without an adjective)

little
e.g. Nikki is such a baby!
e.g. There were so many
accidents

yesterday.

Before comparatives: so + Before a / an

much/little
e.g. Last year she had such a terrible flu.
e.g. I’m glad my mother is
feeling
so much better now.

So and such can be used with “that”, but “that” is often omitted in speech or
informal writing .

e.g. The coffee was so hot ( that ) I could not drink it before going out .
Harry Potter is such an interesting book (that) I cannot put it down.
‘So’ and ‘Because’

When and how do we use 'because'?

1. We use 'because' to express a reason for doing something. It can come in the
middle or at the beginning of a sentence, e.g.

 I went to Sharm El-Sheikh last winter because I wanted to go scuba

diving.
 Because I wanted to go scuba diving, I went to Sharm El-Sheikh last
winter.

2. We can use 'not' or 'but' before a 'because-clause', e.g.

 He was shouting, not because he was angry, but because she can't hear
very well.

3. After a 'because-clause' we must use a subject and verb, but after 'because of' we
just use a noun, e.g.

 He took a taxi because it was raining.

 He took a taxi because of the rain.

When and how do we use 'so'?

1. We use 'so' to express the result of an action or event. It can only come in the
middle of a sentence, not at the beginning, e.g.

 He failed the exam so now he has to repeat the course.

 He felt sick so he didn't want anything to eat.
Still, Already, Yet

Still

Randa is still asleep.

 Describes an action or state which started in the past and is still

happening or true in the present moment.
 Used to emphasise that the action is continuing.
 Used in present and past simple tenses.

Already

I’ve already seen the film.

 Describes an action or state in the past with an effect in the present.

 Used to emphasise that something has happened before now.
 Often used with the present perfect tense.

Yet

The postman hasn’t come yet.

 Describes an action or state in the past which hasn’t happened, but is

expected to happen in the future.
 Used to emphasise that something expected has not happened, therefore
used in questions and negatives.
 Often used with the present perfect tense.

Position of still, yet, already

These words are adverbs. Adverbs can go in lots of positions, but these rules are
generally true.

 verb “to be” + still/already (e.g. I am still here)

  already/still + other verbs (e.g. I still live here)

 yet always comes at the end of the sentence

Tell and say

Tell and say have the same meaning, but they are used differently:

tell say

a lie your name

the truth sorry
the time a prayer
a joke/story something
the difference between two things thank you/hello/goodbye
someone what to do yes /no

Tell always needs a personal object in a sentence:

He told me a lie.
I told him to stop shouting
Say doesn’t need a personal object, but “to + personal object” can be added at the end of
necessary:

He said sorry (to me).

Compare these two sentences (which both mean the same):

He told me something.
He said something (to me).

We use say in direct speech:

He said, “Hello.”

The Verb ‘Need’

‘Need’ can be used as an ordinary verb (like sleep, work, live) or as a modal verb (like
can, must, will)
‘Need’ as an ordinary verb
When we use ‘need’ as an ordinary verb its meaning is ‘I don’t have something … I want
it’ , e.g.

 Do we need anything from the shops?

 I’m tired. I need a rest.

 You don’t need a visa to go to France if you’re from England.

When we use ‘need’ as an ordinary verb we add ‘s’ to the third person singular in the
simple present, e.g.

 He needs some help with his homework

And we use the auxiliary verb ‘do’ to form questions and negatives in the present simple,
e.g.

 Do they need a lift to the station?

 No, they don’t. They’re taking a taxi.
As an ordinary verb, ‘need’ is regular so in the past simple it takes –ed, e.g.

 I really needed to speak to you yesterday but you weren’t in.

‘Need’ as a modal verb

In British English, ‘need’ can also be used as a modal verb.
When we use ‘need’ as a modal verb, its meaning is the same as ‘have to’, e.g.

 I need to go to the dentist soon. This means I have to go to the dentist soon.
 You needn’t tell Jane. She already knows. This means you don’t have to tell Jane.

You can say ‘needn’t’ or ‘don’t need to’. There is no difference in meaning in the
present tense.
But in the past there is a slight difference in meaning between ‘needn’t have’ and
‘didn’t need to’, e.g.

 He needn't have gone to work today. The office was closed. This means it was not
necessary for him to go, but he did anyway.
 He didn’t need to go to work today. The office was closed. This means it was not
necessary for him to go, but it’s not certain if he actually went or not

Prepositions of time and saying dates

Prepositions can be a confusing and frustrating part of language learning. Individual

prepositions may have more uses than in a learner’s first language, they may also be used
in different ways. As a result of this, it can be helpful to break up the study of
prepositions into manageable areas of focus, such as those connected with time.

Prepositions of time

‘at’, ‘in’ and ‘on’ are all common prepositions for talking about time.

 at comes before…

…a time e.g. The bus leaves at 4.15. / I often get up at half-past seven.

(Note: This use of at includes meal times e.g. I saw him at lunchtime.)

…’the weekend’ e.g. They play football together at the weekend. / Did you do
anything nice at the weekend?

…a public holiday e.g. I see my family at New Year. / What are you doing at Eid?
  in comes before…

… a part of a day e.g. The library closes in the evening. He usually walks his dog in
the morning.

(Note: This doesn’t include ‘night’. With night use ‘at’ e.g. There are lots of events
you can go to at night.)

…a ‘long’ period of time ( - weeks, months, seasons, years, decades, centuries). e.g.
They moved here in December. / He was very popular in the 1990s.

 on comes before…

…a specific day or date e.g. I’ll give you a ring on Monday. / He was born on 4 July
1970.

…part of a specific day e.g. I’ll see you on Wednesday afternoon. / They’re going out
together on Saturday night.

Common time expressions with ‘every’, ‘last’, ‘next’ and ‘this’ do not need a
preposition.

e.g. I go swimming every Sunday. (NOT I go swimming on every Sunday.)

They started the business last April. (NOT They started the business in last April.)
I’ll see you again next Tuesday. (NOT I’ll see you again on next Tuesday.)

Saying dates

Learners can have difficulty with dates as there is a big difference between their
written and spoken forms.

Written form Spoken form

1997 nineteen ninety-seven

2000 two thousand

2004 two thousand and four

18.4.07 or 18/04/07 or the eighteenth of April, two thousand and
18(th) April (20)07 or seven
April 18(th) (20)07
or

April the eighteenth, two thousand and

seven

To , with and on

When you learn English, it’s important to learn words that go together. For example, we normally
say
‘listen to' someone or something. Today we will look at ’to', 'with' and 'on'

Sometimes there are no words

We say ‘meet someone’, not ‘meet with someone’ (‘Meet with’ is used to talk about having
problems)
 Sometimes there are many possibilities

‘talk to somebody’: One person is talking, the other is listening

‘talk with somebody’: Two people (or more) are talking AND listening

Sometimes there is only one possibility

‘fall in love’ is always followed by 'with'. We can not fall in love ‘to’ someone

That is because in English we believe that falling in love in something that you can’t do alone.
There must be somebody else, even if they don’t love you.

We do other things 'with' people:

'to go out with' someone 'to have a relationship with' someone

'to agree or disagree with' someone ‘to be angry with’ someone (not 'to')
'to break up with' someone (to stop loving) 'to be honest or dishonest' with someone

But we use 'to' with some verbs:

'get engaged to' someone (not 'with') 'be faithful or unfaithful to' someone
'get married to' someone (not 'with') 'be fair or unfair to' someone

And we use 'on' with other verbs:

'to agree or disagree on' something 'to pick on' someone (to be a bully)
'to cheat on' someone (to have an affair) 'to walk out on' someone (to leave a
marriage)

We hope this helps. Remember, when you learn new words, look for other words that can go with
them!

Too, Enough, Very

What does it mean? Where does it go? What other words can
you use with it?
too We use this word to say Before adjectives and Too much + uncountable
that there is a surplus of adverbs. noun.
something, i.e. more than
we want. He speaks too quickly. There is too much
pollution in Cairo.
The shirt is too small for Before nouns (with much
me. It doesn’t fit. or many). Too many + countable
plural noun.
There are too many cars
In Cairo. There are too many people
In Cairo.

After adjectives and

adverbs we can use a to +
infinitive.

It’s too hot to go out today.

enough We use this word to say After adjectives and After adjectives and
that there is the right adverbs. adverbs we can use a to +
amount of something, not infinitive.
less or more than we want.
She’s old enough to get married.
She’s old enough to get married.
There is enough time.
I don’t need any more. Before nouns. We can use enough by
itself at the end of a phrase.
I’ve got enough money.
Are you warm enough?
very We use this word to make Before adjectives and We use very in a fixed
the meaning of another word adverbs. expression.
stronger.
He speaks very quickly. Thank you very much.
The film was very good. (But I can understand him –
It was great. this is not a problem because We can use very + much or
we don’t use “too”) many before a noun, usually in
the negative.

I don’t have very much time.

Used to

Form Meaning

Used To A regular action or a state that happened or

was true in the past but not the present.
In affirmative sentences:
I used to smoke.
subject pronoun + used to + infinitive
This sentence means that I regularly smoked in
In negatives and questions: the past, but I don’t smoke now.

subject pronoun + didn’t + use to + I used to be a student.

infinitive
did + subject pronoun + use to + This sentence means that I was a student in the
infinitive past, but I am no longer a student now.

Note that the pronunciation of “used

to” and “use to” is the same: /juːstə/

Be Used To Describes a state (not an action – use the verb

“be”).
In affirmative sentences:
I am used to the traffic in Cairo.
Subject pronoun + am/is/are + used to I am used to driving in Cairo.
+ noun
This sentence means that in the past I had lots
+ v-ing of problems dealing with this difficult
situation, but that now it isn’t a problem (I still
don’t like it, but I can deal with it).

Get Used To An action or state which describes a change.

In affirmative sentences: I’m getting used to single life.

I’m getting used to living alone.
Subject pronoun + get + used to +
noun / v-ing This sentence means that my attitude to living
alone is changing; it was very negative but it is
Get used to is usually used in the now becoming more positive.
continuous because it refers to a
process However, I can’t yet say I am used to living
 alone. I still have some problems with it.

Zero in English

Zero is not the only way that we can say ‘nothing’ when we are talking about
numbers in English.

Here are some of the ways we say zero and when we say them:

How we say it When we say it Example

zero temperatures -50 C - 5 degrees below zero

US telephone number 623 0340 – six two three zero three four zero

nil Sports (except tennis) Liverpool won 2 – 0 (two –nil)

nought / naught Before decimal points 0.34 – nought point three four

‘oh’ After decimal points 2.034 – two point oh three four

Bus or room numbers You’re in Room 302

Years 1906 – nineteen oh six

In phone numbers 623 0340 - six two three oh three four oh

Bank account numbers 4012045 – four oh one two oh four five

love Tennis scores 40 – 0 – forty love

Zilch Informal / slang I was paid zip / zilch for all the extra work I did.
zip

Here is the meaning of the other words :

A dozen – this means 12

A grand - this means 1000

A ton – this means 100

A monkey – this means 500 pounds

An egg – we don’t use this word for a number in English

While or Whereas

 Generally, use 'while' to introduce a time clause when talking about things that
happen simultaneously. In this sense, it is similar to 'as' and 'when'. All of these
conjunctions can serve to introduce a longer background situation which started
before the shorter action, e.g.:

I completed the crossword as I was talking on the phone.

I remembered that I had a letter to post when I was walking past the post box.
While I was reading the newspaper, my wife was ironing my shirts.

 'While' is particularly useful if we are discussing long actions and wish to draw
attention to the duration of the activities, e.g.:

I'll prepare breakfast while you're having a shower.

While I was recovering in hospital, my friend was enjoying a holiday in Cyprus.

 Note that if the subject is the same in both clauses, a participial construction may
be used, particularly in written English, e.g.:

She completed her first novel while working for the local newspaper.

 Use either 'while' or 'whereas' to link two ideas that contrast with - but do not
contradict each other, e.g.:

I prefer fish, while my friend always chooses meat dishes when we go out to eat.
Some married couples argue all the time, whereas others never do.

 Note that whilst we would use 'while' or 'whereas' within sentences to contrast
two ideas, across sentences we would need to use 'however' or 'on the other hand'.
Compare the following:
In the UK the hottest month of the year is usually July, whereas in southern Europe the
hottest period is usually in August.
In the UK the hottest month of the year is usually July. On the other hand, in southern
Europe the hottest period is usually in August.

Glossary:
simultaneously (adv.)‫فى نفس الوقت‬

draw attention (exp.)‫يجذب النتباه‬

duration (n.)‫المدة الزمنية التى يستغرقها حدث‬

contrast (v.)‫يغاير‬

contradict (v.)‫يناقض‬

Will and Going to

Structure Meaning Example

Will + infinitive Facts Next year I’ll be 35 years old.

(negative won’t) Prediction based on opinion I think he’ll win.

Conditionals If it rains tomorrow, I’ll stay in.

‘Be’ + going to + Plans * I’m going to study law at university.

infinitive
Prediction based on present You’re driving really badly. You’re
evidence going to have an accident.

* The present continuous is also used for plans, but usually plans in the short term that
includes a time expression.

I’m playing tennis on Saturday at 3pm.

Wish

Wish + infinitive

 We can use wish to mean want. Wish is very formal if used this way.

I wish to see the manager, please.

 We can also use wish with an object + infinitive:

Do you wish to have your meal outside, madam?

Wish + that

 Wish can be used here to mean regret. In informal language we can omit the
‘that’:

I wish that things were like before.

I wish things were like before.

Wish … would

 This is a very commonly used form. Would is used as a soft meaning of ‘will’.

I really wish you would go home. (Why won’t you go home)

I wish you would stop smoking. (Why won’t you stop smoking?)

 Using wish + past simple gives the same meaning as wish … would:

I really wish you went home. (Why won’t you go home?)

I wish you stopped smoking. (Why won’t you stop smoking?)

Wish or Hope

Wish:
We use wish when we express the hope that someone will be happy, lucky, successful,
etc. in the future,

 We wish you a Merry Christmas and a Happy New Year.

 Remember it's Sarah's birthday tomorrow. Don't forget to wish her a happy
birthday.

 They wished me all the best in my new job.

 I wish you good health and happiness.

2. We also use wish to express regret about or criticism of a situation, e.g.

 I wish you were here. (I miss you because you're not here = regret)
 He wished he hadn't said that. (He knows it was wrong to say that = regret)

 I wish you'd be quiet for two minutes! (I'm tired of your noise = criticism)

 I wish my teachers hadn't been so strict. (I didn't like their attitude = criticism)

Notice that if you wish something about the present time, the second verb is in the
Simple Past tense, but if you wish something about the past, the second verb is often
in the Past Perfect (had + past participle).

3. Generally, wish (to) is a more formal way of saying want (to), e.g.

 They were very much in love and wished to get married as soon as possible.
 ‘I don't wish to see him ever again,' she wrote.

 He could do most of his work from home, if he wished.

Wish is followed by the preposition to when we use it in a relative clause with who, e.g.
  People who wish (or People wishing) to attend the end of year party should buy
tickets in advance.

Hope:
Generally, hope means you want something to be true and you believe that is possible.

1. We often use hope with the second verb in the present tense to talk about the future,
e.g.

 I hope they get here on time.

 I hope she has a good birthday party tomorrow.

To make a negative sentence, we don't change hope but we make the second verb
negative, e.g.

 I hope she doesn't fail the test.

 I hope they're not late.

2. We can use hope in short answers without another verb, by adding so or not, e.g.

 "Do you think he knows?" "I hope not."

 "Will you get the job?" "I hope so."

3. We can also use hope with the second verb in the infinitive, e.g. to spend, to have.
This way, you believe quite strongly that something will happen in the future, e.g.

 We hope to sign the contract next week.

 He hopes to travel after finishing university.