INTEGRATION

Integration is essentially reverse of differentiation. It is the process of find a primitive

We use integration to find the area and volume under a curve.

New notation

𝑑 2
𝑖𝑓, (𝑥 ) = 2𝑥
𝑑
𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛, ∫ 2𝑥 = 𝑥 2 + 𝑐

METHOD

To integrate a standard term, we add one to the power and divide by the new power. This is
the reverse of differentiation.

𝑥 𝑛+1
∫ 𝑥 𝑛 𝑑𝑥 = +𝑐
𝑛+1

The ‘c’ accounts for any constants that could have been differentiated to zero, such as:

𝑑 2
(𝑥 ) = 2𝑥
𝑑𝑥
𝑑 2
(𝑥 + 5) = 2𝑥
𝑑𝑥

Example

Integrate 4𝑥 3
4𝑥 4
∫ 4𝑥 3 𝑑𝑥 = +𝑐
4
= 𝑥4 + 𝑐

When integrating with respect to x, this is an operation involving x only, thus any constant
terms that do not involve x can be removed.

∫ 𝑎 × 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = 𝑎 ∫ 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥

Therefore the previous question can also be done as:

∫ 4𝑥 3 𝑑𝑥 = 4 ∫ 𝑥 3 𝑑𝑥
𝑥4
= 4( + 𝑐)
4
= 𝑥4 + 𝑐
When integrating a sum or difference, integrate them term by term. That is,

∫ 𝑓(𝑥) ± 𝑔(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 ± ∫ 𝑔(𝑥)𝑑𝑥

Example

Find

a. ∫(3𝑥 2 + 𝑥) 𝑑𝑥

∫(3𝑥 2 + 𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 = ∫(3𝑥 2 ) 𝑑𝑥 + ∫(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥

b. ∫(4𝑥 5 − 6) 𝑑𝑥
∫(4𝑥 5 − 6) 𝑑𝑥 = ∫(4𝑥 5 ) 𝑑𝑥 − ∫(6) 𝑑𝑥
4𝑥 6
= + 6𝑥 + 𝑐
6
2𝑥 6
= + 6𝑥 + 𝑐
3

CHAIN RULE FOR INTEGRATION

The chain rule of integration only works when the expression inside the brackets is linear.

(𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏)𝑛
∫(𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏)𝑛 = +𝑐
𝑎(𝑛 + 1)

Example

Using chain rule for integration, find:

a) ∫(𝑥 + 2)4 𝑑𝑥

(𝑥 + 2)5
∫(𝑥 + 2)4 𝑑𝑥 = +𝑐
5×1
(𝑥 + 2)5
= +𝑐
5

b) ∫(3𝑥 − 8)10 𝑑𝑥
(3𝑥 − 8)11
∫(3𝑥 − 8)10 𝑑𝑥 = +𝑐
3 × 11
(3𝑥 − 8) 10
= +𝑐
33
TRIGONOMETRIC INTEGRATION

When integrating trigonometric functions, remember:

sin(𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏)
∫ cos(𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏) 𝑑𝑥 = +𝑐
𝑎

−cos(𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏)
∫ sin(𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏) 𝑑𝑥 = +𝑐
𝑎

tan(𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏)
∫ sec 2 (𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏) 𝑑𝑥 = +𝑐
𝑎

Example

Find:

a) ∫ sin(2𝑥 + 1) 𝑑𝑥

−cos(2𝑥 + 1)
∫ sin(2𝑥 + 1) 𝑑𝑥 = +𝑐
2

b) ∫ sec 2 (3 − 4𝑥) 𝑑𝑥

−tan(3 − 4𝑥)
∫ sec 2 (3 − 4𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 = +𝑐
4
DEFINITE INTEGRALS

Fundamental Theorem of Calculus

Given that 𝐹 ′ (𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑥):

Proof

a) Let 𝐹(𝑥) be any primitive of 𝑓(𝑥) and note that 𝐹(𝑥) and 𝐴(𝑥) (the specific primitive) must
differ by a constant (proven below). Write 𝐹(𝑥) in terms of 𝐴(𝑥) and 𝐶 .

𝐴(𝑥) = 𝐹(𝑥) + 𝐶

b) By letting 𝑥 = 𝑎 , find the value of 𝐶 .

Since 𝐴(𝑎) = 0 (the area from 𝑎 to 𝑎 is 0), we have:

𝐴(𝑎) = 𝐹(𝑎) + 𝐶
0 = 𝐹(𝑎) + 𝐶
𝐶 = −𝐹(𝑎)

c) Hence, find the area from 𝑎 to 𝑏 (that is, find 𝐴(𝑏)) in terms of 𝐹 .

𝐴(𝑏) = 𝐹(𝑏) + 𝐶
= 𝐹(𝑏) − 𝐹(𝑎)

Example

3
Evaluate ∫1 (𝑥 + 2) 𝑑𝑥

3
𝑥2 3
∫ (𝑥 + 2) 𝑑𝑥 = [ + 2𝑥]
1 2
1
9 1
= ( + 6) − ( + 2)
2 2
21 5
= −
2 2
16
= =8
2

NOTE: we can swap the limits of integrating by negating an integral, i.e.

𝑎 𝑏
∫ 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 = − ∫ 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥
𝑏 𝑎

THE AREA BENEATH A CURVE

𝑏
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 = ∫ 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥
𝑎
𝑏
= ∫ 𝑦 𝑑𝑥
𝑎

NOTE: Integrals give the ‘signed’ area. That is, areas above the axes are counted as positive
whilst areas underneath the axes are counted as negative.

Take the absolute value of all areas underneath the curve, since areas are positive. Add the
areas of the region to find the total area.

STEPS TO FOLLOW TO FIND AREA

STEP 1: Sketch the curve in question and identify the area to be found.

STEP 2: Split the area up into regions which lie above the 𝑥 axis and regions which lie below
the 𝑥 axis.

STEP 3: Find the area of each region by taking the absolute value of definite integral in that
region.

STEP 4: Add up each of the areas found.

Example 1

Find the area enclosed by the curve 𝑦 = 2𝑥(𝑥 + 1)(𝑥 − 3) and the 𝑥 axis

STEP 1: Sketch the curve, noting in particular its roots, and identify the area to be found.

Note that the curve has roots at 𝑥 = −1, 0, 3 and since it is a cubic, the graph is sketched

below:
STEP 2: Split the area up into regions which lie above the 𝑥 axis and regions which lie below

the 𝑥 axis.

The area to be found is the area of 𝐴 plus the area of 𝐵 since these are the only regions

enclosed by the curve and the 𝑥 axis.

STEP 3: Find the area of each region by taking the absolute value of definite integral in that

region.

The definite integral for the area of 𝐴 is:

0 0
𝐴: ∫ 2𝑥(𝑥 + 1)(𝑥 − 3)𝑑𝑥 = ∫ (2𝑥 3 − 4𝑥 2 − 6𝑥)𝑑𝑥
−1 −1
0
2𝑥 4 4𝑥 3
=[ − − 3𝑥 2 ]
4 3 −1
 1 4
= [0] − [ + − 3]
2 3
7
=
6

7
|𝐴| =
6

And for 𝐵, the definite integral required is:

3 3
𝐵: ∫ 2𝑥(𝑥 + 1)(𝑥 − 3)𝑑𝑥 = ∫ (2𝑥 3 − 4𝑥 2 − 6𝑥)𝑑𝑥
0 0
3
2𝑥 4 4𝑥 3
=[ − − 3𝑥 2 ]
4 3 0

81
= [ − 36 − 27] − [0]
2
45
=−
2

45
|𝐵| =
2

STEP 4: Add up each of the areas found.

7 45
𝐴+𝐵 = +
6 2
142
=
6
71
=
3
2
= 23
3

Example 2

Find the area bounded by the 𝑥 axis, the curve 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 and the line 𝑦 = −𝑥 + 6
The area is made up of two separate areas: One under the graph of 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 from 𝑥 = 0 to 𝑥 =

2, and the other under the graph of 𝑦 = −𝑥 + 6 from 𝑥 = 2 to 𝑥 = 6

2 6
Total Area = ∫0 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 + ∫2 −𝑥 + 6 𝑑𝑥

2 6
𝑥3 𝑥2
= [ ] + [− + 6𝑥]
3 0 2 2

8 36 4
= − 0 + (− + 36) − (− + 12)
3 2 2

8
= + 18 − 10
3

32
=
3