Embodied energy
Embodied energy
Embodied energy is the energy consumed by all of the processes associated with
the production of a building, from the mining and processing of natural resources to
manufacturing, transport and product delivery. Embodied energy does not include
the operation and disposal of the building material, which would be considered in a
life cycle approach. Embodied energy is the ‘upstream’ or ‘front-end’ component of
the life cycle impact of a home.
A complex combination of many processed materials determines a building’s total
embodied energy.
The single most important factor in reducing the impact of embodied energy is to
design long life, durable and adaptable buildings.
Every building is a complex combination of many processed materials, each of which
contributes to the building’s total embodied energy. Renovation and maintenance
also add to the embodied energy over a building’s life.
Choices of materials and construction methods can significantly change the amount
of energy embodied in the structure of a building, as embodied energy content varies
enormously between products and materials. Assessing the embodied energy of a
material, component or whole building is often a complex task.
Embodied energy and operational energy
It was thought until recently that the embodied energy content of a building was
small compared to the energy used in operating the building over its life. Therefore,
most effort was put into reducing operating energy by improving the energy
efficiency of the building envelope. Research has shown that this is not always the
case.
Embodied energy can be the equivalent of many years of operational energy.
Operational energy consumption depends on the occupants. Embodied energy is not
occupant dependent — the energy is built into the materials. Embodied energy
content is incurred once (apart from maintenance and renovation) whereas
operational energy accumulates over time and can be influenced throughout the life
of the building.
Research by CSIRO has found that the average house contains about 1,000GJ of
energy embodied in the materials used in its construction. This is equivalent to about
15 years of normal operational energy use. For a house that lasts 100 years this is
over 10% of the energy used in its life.
Cumulative comparison of operating energy and embodied energy.
Embodied energy content varies greatly with different construction types. In many
cases a higher embodied energy level can be justified if it contributes to lower
operating energy. For example, large amounts of thermal mass, high in embodied
energy, can significantly reduce heating and cooling needs in well designed and
insulated passive solar houses (see Passive solar heating; Passive cooling;
Insulation; Thermal mass).
As the energy efficiency of houses and appliances increases, embodied energy will
become increasingly important.
The embodied energy levels in materials will be reduced as the energy efficiency of
the industries producing them is improved. However, a demonstrated demand for
materials low in embodied energy is also needed.
Assessing embodied energy
Whereas the energy used in operating a building can be readily measured, the
embodied energy contained in the structure is difficult to assess. This energy use is
often hidden.
It also depends on where boundaries are drawn in the assessment process. For
example, whether to include:
• the energy used to transport the materials and workers to the building site
• just the materials for the construction of the building shell or all materials used
to complete the building such as bathroom and kitchen fittings, driveways and
outdoor paving
• the upstream energy input in making the materials (such as factory/office
lighting, the energy used in making and maintaining the machines that make
the materials)
• the embodied energy of urban infrastructure (roads, drains, water and energy
supply).
Gross energy requirement (GER) is a measure of the true embodied energy of a
material, which would ideally include all of the above and more. In practice this is
usually impractical to measure.
Process energy requirement (PER) is a measure of the energy directly related to the
manufacture of the material. This is simpler to quantify. Consequently, most figures
quoted for embodied energy are based on the PER. This would include the energy
used in transporting the raw materials to the factory but not energy used to transport
the final product to the building site.
In general, PER accounts for 50–80% of GER. Even within this narrower definition,
arriving at a single figure for a material is impractical as it depends on:
• efficiency of the individual manufacturing process
• the fuels used in the manufacture of the materials
• the distances materials are transported
• the amount of recycled product used.
Each of these factors varies according to product, process, manufacturer and
application. They also vary depending on how the embodied energy has been
assessed.
Estimates of embodied energy can vary by a factor of up to ten. As a result, figures
quoted for embodied energy are broad guidelines only and should not be taken as
correct. Consider the relative relationships and try to use materials that have the
lower embodied energy.
Try to use materials that have lower embodied energy.
Precautions when comparing embodied energy analysis
results
The same caution about variability in the figures applies to assemblies as much as to
individual materials. For example, it may be possible to construct a concrete slab
with lower embodied energy than a timber floor if best practice is followed.
Where figures from a specific manufacturer are available, compare them with care to
figures produced by other manufacturers or in the tables below.
Different calculation methods produce vastly different results (by a factor of up to
ten). For best results, compare figures produced by a single source using consistent
methodology and base data.
Given this variability it is important not to focus too much on the ‘right’ numbers but
to follow general guidelines. Precise figures are not essential to decide which
building materials to use to lower the embodied energy in a structure.
Embodied energy of common materials
Typical figures for some Australian materials are given in the tables that follow.
Generally, the more highly processed a material is the higher its embodied energy.
Embodied energy for common building materials
Material PER embodied energy MJ/kg
* Fibre cement figure updated from earlier version and endorsed by Dr Lawson.
Source: Lawson 1996
Kiln dried sawn softwood 3.4
Kiln dried sawn hardwood 2.0
Air dried sawn hardwood 0.5
Hardboard 24.2
Particleboard 8.0
MDF (medium density fibreboard) 11.3
Plywood 10.4
Glue-laminated timber 11.0
Laminated veneer lumber 11.0
Plastics — general 90.0
Embodied energy for common building materials
Material PER embodied energy MJ/kg
PVC (polyvinyl chloride) 80.0
Synthetic rubber 110.0
Acrylic paint 61.5
Stabilised earth 0.7
Imported dimensioned granite 13.9
Local dimensioned granite 5.9
Gypsum plaster 2.9
Plasterboard 4.4
Fibre cement 4.8*
Cement 5.6
In situ concrete 1.9
Precast steam-cured concrete 2.0
Precast tilt-up concrete 1.9
Clay bricks 2.5
Concrete blocks 1.5
Autoclaved aerated concrete (AAC) 3.6
Glass 12.7
Aluminium 170.0
Copper 100.0
Galvanised steel 38.0
These figures should be used with caution because:
• the actual embodied energy of a material manufactured and used in one
location, e.g. Melbourne, is very different from the same material transported
by road to Darwin
• aluminium from a recycled source contains less than 10% of the embodied
energy of aluminium manufactured from raw materials
• materials of high monetary and high embodied energy value, such as
stainless steel, are almost certain to have been recycled many times,
reducing their life cycle impact.
The graph below, based on CSIRO research, shows levels of embodied energy for
materials used in the average Australian house.
Source: CSIRO
Levels of embodied energy for materials used in the average Australian house.
Materials with the lowest embodied energy, such as concrete, bricks and timber, are
usually consumed in large quantities. Materials with high energy content such as
stainless steel are often used in much smaller amounts. As a result, the greatest
amount of embodied energy in a building can be from either low embodied energy
materials such as concrete or high embodied energy materials such as steel.
Embodied energy for assembled floors
Assembly PER embodied energy MJ/m2
Source: Lawson 1996
Elevated timber floor 293
110mm concrete slab-on-ground 645
200mm precast concrete, T beam/infill 644
Embodied energy for assembled roofs
Assembly PER embodied energy MJ/m2
Source: Lawson 1996
Embodied energy for assembled roofs
Assembly PER embodied energy MJ/m2
Timber frame, concrete tile, plasterboard ceiling 251
Timber frame, terracotta tile, plasterboard ceiling 271
Timber frame, steel sheet, plasterboard ceiling 330
For most people it is more useful to think in terms of building components and
assemblies rather than individual materials. For example, a brick veneer wall
contains bricks, mortar, ties, timber, plasterboard and insulation.
Comparing the energy content per square metre of construction is easier for
designers than looking at the energy content of all the individual materials used. The
table below shows some typical figures derived for a range of construction systems.
Embodied energy for assembled walls
Assembly PER embodied energy M
Source: Lawson 1996
Single skin AAC block wall 440
Single skin AAC block wall gyprock lining 448
Single skin stabilised (rammed) earth wall (5% cement) 405
Steel frame, compressed fibre cement clad wall 385
Timber frame, reconstituted timber weatherboard wall 377
Timber frame, fibre cement weatherboard wall 169
Cavity clay brick wall 860
Cavity clay brick wall with plasterboard internal lining and acrylic paint finish 906
Cavity concrete block wall 465
Guidelines for reducing embodied energy
Lightweight building construction such as timber frame is usually lower in embodied
energy than heavyweight construction. This is not necessarily the case if large
amounts of light but high energy materials such as steel or aluminium are used.
There are many situations where a lightweight building is the most appropriate and
may result in the lowest life cycle energy use (e.g. hot, humid climates; sloping or
shaded sites; sensitive landscapes).
In climates with greater heating and cooling requirements and significant day–night
temperature variations, embodied energy in a high level of well-insulated thermal
mass can significantly offset the energy used for heating and cooling.
There is little benefit in building a house with high embodied energy in the thermal
mass or other elements of the envelope in areas where heating and cooling
requirements are minimal or where other passive design principles are not applied.
Each design should select the best combination for its application based on climate,
transport distances, availability of materials and budget, balanced against known
embodied energy content.
The guidelines
• Design for long life and adaptability, using durable low maintenance materials.
• Ensure materials can be easily separated.
• Avoid building a bigger house than you need — and save materials.
• Modify or refurbish instead of demolishing or adding.
• Ensure construction wastes and materials from demolition of existing
buildings are reused or recycled.
• Use locally sourced materials (including materials salvaged on site) to reduce
transport.
• Select low embodied energy materials (which may include materials with a
high recycled content), preferably based on supplier-specific data.
• Avoid wasteful material use. For example, specify standard sizes wherever
possible (windows, door, panels) to avoid using additional materials as fillers.
Some energy intensive finishes, such as paints, often have high wastage
levels so try to buy only as much as you need.
• Ensure offcuts are recycled and use only sufficient structural materials to
ensure stability and meet construction standards.
• Select materials that can be reused or recycled easily at the end of their lives
using existing recycling systems.
• Give preference to materials that have been manufactured using renewable
energy sources.
• Use efficient building envelope design and fittings to minimise materials (e.g.
an energy efficient building envelope can downsize or eliminate the need for
heaters and coolers, water-efficient taps can allow downsizing of water pipes).
• Ask suppliers for information on their products and share this information.
Reuse and recycling
Reuse of building materials commonly saves about 95% of embodied energy that
would otherwise be wasted. However, some materials such as bricks and roof tiles
may be damaged when reused.
Savings from recycling of materials for reprocessing varies considerably, with
savings up to 95% for aluminium but only 20% for glass. Also, some reprocessing
may use more energy, particularly if long transport distances are involved (see
Waste minimisation).
Source: CSIRO
Comparative savings associated with recycling and reprocessing.
Life cycle assessment
Life cycle assessment (LCA) examines the total environmental impact of a material
or product through every step of its life — from obtaining raw materials (e.g. through
mining or logging) all the way through manufacture, transport to a store, and using it
in the home, to disposal or recycling.
LCA can consider a range of environmental impacts such as resource depletion,
energy and water use, greenhouse emissions, waste generation and so on.
LCA can be applied to a whole product (a house or unit) or to an individual element
or process included in that product. It is necessarily complex and the details are
beyond the scope of this article. An internationally agreed standard (ISO
14040:2006, Environmental management — life cycle assessment — principles and
framework) defines standard LCA methodologies and protocols.
