Automobile Engineering (17ME655)

MODULE - 4
SUPERCHARGERS, TURBOCHARGERS & FUEL SYSTEM

Superchargers
Supercharger is an air compressor that increases the pressure or density of air supplied to an internal
combustion engine. This gives each intake cycle of the engine more oxygen, letting it burn more fuel and do
more work, thus increasing power.
Power for the supercharger can be provided mechanically by means of a belt, gear, shaft, or chain
connected to the engine's crankshaft.
Common usage restricts the term supercharger to mechanically driven units; when power is instead provided
by a turbine powered by exhaust gas, a supercharger is known as a turbocharger or just a turbo - or in the past
a turbo supercharger
When power is provided by a turbine powered by exhaust gas, a supercharger is known as a turbo
supercharger– typically referred to simply as a turbocharger or just turbo. Common usage restricts the term
supercharger to mechanically driven units.
The points to be noted during super charging are
1) It increases power output of the engine
2) Super charging results in higher forces. The engine should be designed to with stand these higher forces.
3) The power required for air compression has to be taken from engine itself. But net power output will be
more than power output without super charging for the same capacity.
4) The higher pressure and temperature may lead to detonation. Therefore fuel with better antiknock
characteristics is required.
Objectives Of Super Charging
Mainly super charging is done to induct more amount of air into cylinder per unit time and hence to burn
more amount of fuel to increase power output. Following are the objectives of supercharging
1) For a given weight and bulk of the engine, super-charging increases power output. This is important in air
craft, marine and automotive engines where weight and space are considered
2) To obtain better performance from the existing engine.
3) To compensate for loss of power due to high altitudes for air craft [Link] of Superchargers:

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Working:
Superchargers are basically compressors/blowers which takes air at normal ambient pressure & compresses
it and forcefully pushes it into engine ! Power to the compressor/blower is transmitted from engine via the
belt drive.
The addition of extra amount of air-fuel mixture into the cylinder increases the mean effective pressure of
the engine. An increment in MEP makes the engine produce more power. In this way, adding a compressor
to the engine makes it more efficient.
Why do we need super chargers ?
Let’s keep this simple by not diving into those big lengthy formulas, alright.
The power generated by engine is a function of the mean effective pressure aka. average pressure in the
cylinder. Power is directly proportional to the average pressure.
Power ∝ Mean effective pressure (MEP)

Pressure goes on increasing during compression stroke & goes on decreasing during exhaust stroke. So
average pressure is calculated with the help of these data.
More the MEP, more the efficiency of engine !
So if more air is forced & compressed into the cylinder, there will be an increase in the mean pressure &
hence will produce more power ! This is why we need them – to force the air into engine

ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF SUPER CHARGING

Advantages
1. Power output of the engine can be increased
2. More quantity of charge can be inducted in to engine cylinder
3. Better atomization of fuel is possible
4. Better mixing of air and fuel can be obtained
5. Better scavenging of exhaust gases is possible
6. Torque is improved for whole speed range and better torque at low speeds
7. Faster acceleration of the engine is possible
8. The specific fuel consumption is lowered slightly
9. A better mechanical efficiency and efficient combustion
is possible 10 In CI engines, exhaust smoke is reduced
Disadvantages
1. Detonation tendency increases in SI engines
2. Heat losses due to turbulence and thermal stresses are more
3. The valve overlap period increases up to 60° of crank angle
4. Better lubrication is required
5. Better cooling of piston and valves is required
6. It increases cost of the engine

METHODS OF SUPER CHARGING

As discussed earlier, super charger is a pressure boosting device which supplies air (in case of diesel
engine) or air-fuel mixture (in case of SI engine) to the engine cylinder at higher pressure. Different methods
are used to run a super charger. The following figures show some of the arrangements used to run super
charger. In the first arrangement, the engine drives a compressor which is coupled to it by using step up

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gearing. A part of the power developed by the engine is used to run compressor and compressor super
charges the engine.

Fig. Supercharging of engine by compressor

In another method, a turbine coupled to the compressor is driven by engine exhaust. The turbine used in this
arrangement is free from engine except that of the exhaust pipe and air inlet pipe. The power output of the
engine is not used to run compressor. This is called Turbo charging

Fig. Super charging with turbine driven by engine exhaust

In the third method, all the components i.e., engine, turbine and compressor are coupled together with
gearing. At part load, turbine develops less power which is insufficient to run the compressor. In this case,
engine supplies additional power to compensate this less power of the turbine. If turbine is developing more
power to run compressor, it can be supplied to engine.

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Fig. Super charging arrangement in which engine, turbine and compressor are coupled

In the fourth arrangement, the total power of the engine is used to run compressor and exhaust gases from
engine drives a turbine to give power output. Such arrangement is also called "free piston engine".
Sometimes, an electric motor drives compressor independently.

[Link] charging method in which engine runs compressor and turbine develops power

TYPES OF SUPER CHARGERS

Usually reciprocating compressors, displacement type rotary blowers, centrifugal compressors are used to
supercharge engine for various applications. If engine crank shaft drives super charger, then it is called
mechanical super charger. If the super charger is driven by a gas turbine which runs on exhaust gases from
the engine, then it is called Turbo-charger.
The main types of super charger are
1) Centrifugal type
2) Roots blower and
3) Vane blower.

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Centrifugal type super charger

Fig. Centifugal type Supercharger

These are commonly used in the vehicles & are powered by the engine via a belt-pulley system. The air-fuel
mixture enters the impeller at the centre. The air is then passed through diffuser, which increases the pressure.
Finally the air makes it way through the volute casing to the engine.

Advantages And Disadvantages Of Centrifugal Super Charger

1. Low initial cost, less power requirement and high conversion efficiency

2. It requires less maintenance and handles any quantity of air

3. It requires more space due to larger impeller

Roots Supercharger

Fig. Root Supercharger

Root’s type contain two rotors of epicycloid shape. The rotors are of equal size inter-meshed & are
mounted and keyed on 2 different shafts. Any one shaft is powered by the engine via a V-belt or gear
train(depending on the distance). Each rotor can have 2 or more than 2 lobes depending upon the requirement.
The air enters through the inlet & gets trapped on its way to outlet. As a result, pressure at outlet would be
greater than the inlet.

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ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF ROOT'S BLOWER SUPER

CHARGERS
1. Simple design, low capital and maintenance cost
2. The volumetric efficiency is high and better balancing is possible at high speeds.
3. Chances of leakage are more, air supply is not regular due to pulsed delivery
4. As pressure increases, volumetric efficiency of the super charger decreases.
Vane Blowers
It is a positive displacement rotary type super charger. This consists of a cylindrical casing, a rotor with
four slots, remain in contact with casing at least at one point all the time. The rotor is eccentrically mounted
and vanes slides in and out of the rotor slots in radial direction. The air is induced in the space between the
blades due to outward movement of vanes, which increases the space between the blades. When the space
reduces near the outlet of super charger, it discharges air. The space between inner surface of body and drum
decreases from inlet to outer side. The air which enters at inlet, decreases in volume and hence pressure
increases as air reaches outlet. The movement of vanes causes flow pulsating and noisy.

Fig. Vane supercharger

ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF VANE BLOWERS

1. Suitable for high capacity engines

2. High pressure ratio is possible and delivers large quantity of air
[Link] cost and power requirement is high
4. The vanes rubs against cylinders and wears out rapidly

SUPER CHARGING LIMITS

The parameters such as engine knock, thermal and mechanical loads limit the power output of the engine.
Usually in SI engines, knock limit are reached first, where as in diesel engines thermal and mechanical loads
limits are reached first. If supercharging is to be done in an existing engine, it is necessary to analyze the
factors that limit the extent of super charging. This in turn depends up on engine's ability to with stand gas
loading, thermal stresses, durability, reliability, fuel economy etc.
In SI engines, the extent of super charging is mainly limited by kriock. The super charging reduces
ignition delay and this result in engine knock at these high pressures.
Therefore increase in super charging pressure increases the tendency to detonate. Generally for SI
engines, super charging is employed only for air craft and racing car engines. The super charger pressure is
in the range of 1.3 to-T.S bar, corresponds to 30 to 50% super charging.

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In CI engines, super charging limits are not due to combustion. The engine runs better, smoother and
quieter due to decrease in ignition delay at high super charging pressure and temperature. But the degree of
super charging is limited by thermal and mechanical load on the engine and mainly depends on the type of
super charger used and engine design. Also the engine reliability decreases at maximum cylinder pressure,
this increases heat release rate and hence thermal load on the engine. For intake pressures less than 1.5 atm,
the cost of super charging is not justified.
TURBOCHARGERS
A Turbocharger is a device that is used to increase the power of the engine or one can say efficiency of
engine by increasing the amount of air entering into the combustion chamber. More air into the combustion
chamber means more amount of fuel will be admitted into the cylinder and as a result one will get more
power from the same engine if the turbo charger is installed in it.
A turbocharger, colloquially known as a turbo, is a turbine-driven, forced induction device that increases
an internal combustion engine's efficiency and power output by forcing extra compressed air into the
combustion chamber.
This improvement over a naturally aspirated engine's power output is due to the fact that the compressor
can force more air—and proportionately more fuel—into the combustion chamber than atmospheric pressure
(and for that matter, ram air intakes) alone.

Turbocharger & Its Working:

Many people confuses between the TURBOCHARGER and SUPERCHARGER. The function of the
supercharger is same as that of turbocharger but the supercharger is driven mechanically by the engine,often
with the help of belt connected to the crankshaft, whereas turbocharger is powered by a turbine driven by
the engine’s exhaust gases. Turbocharger is considered more efficient than the superchargers as they are
using the wasted energy of exhaust gases for its power source.

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Operating Principle of Turbocharger

The amount of engine that actually goes into the engine’s cylinder ,compared with the theoretical amount if
the engine could maintain the atmospheric pressure ,is called volumetric efficiency and the aim
of turbocharger is to improve an engine’s volumetric efficiency by increasing density of the intake gas.

The turbocharger’s draws the air from atmosphere and compresses it with the help of centrifugal compressor
before it enters into the intake manifold at increased pressure. This results in more amount of air entering into
the cylinders on each intake stroke. The centrifugal compressor gets power from the kinetic energy of
engine’s exhaust gases.

The turbocharger has three main components

1. The turbine, which is almost a radial inflow turbine.

2. The compressor which is almost a centrifugal compressor.
3. The centre hub rotating assembly.

Working of The Turbocharger:

A turbocharger is made up of two main sections: the turbine and the compressor. The turbine consists of
the turbine wheel (1) and the turbine housing (2). It is the job of the turbine housing to guide the exhaust
gas (3) into the turbine wheel. The energy from the exhaust gas turns the turbine wheel, and the gas then exits
the turbine housing through an exhaust outlet area (4).
The compressor also consists of two parts: the compressor wheel (5) and the compressor housing (6). The
compressor’s mode of action is opposite that of the turbine. The compressor wheel is attached to the turbine
by a forged steel shaft (7), and as the turbine turns the compressor wheel, the high-velocity spinning draws
in air and compresses it. The compressor housing then converts the high-velocity, low-pressure air stream
into a high-pressure, low-velocity air stream through a process called diffusion. The compressed air (8) is
pushed into the engine, allowing the engine to burn more fuel to produce more power.

1. The turbine wheel

2. The turbine housing
3. Exhaust gas
4. Exhaust outlet area
5. The compressor wheel
6. The compressor housing
7. Forged steel shaft
8. Compressed air

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Fig. Exhaust turbo charging of a single cylinder engine

Advantages of turbo charger are

• Significant increase in horsepower.

• Power vs size: allows for smaller engine displacements to produce much more power relative to their
size.
• Better fuel economy: smaller engines use less fuel to idle, and have less rotational and reciprocating
mass, which improves fuel economy.
• Higher efficiency: turbochargers run off energy that is typically lost in naturally-aspirated and
supercharged engines (exhaust gases), thus the recovery of this energy improves the overall efficiency
of the engine

Disadvantages of turbocharger are

• Turbo lag: turbochargers, especially large turbochargers, take time to spool up and provide useful boost.
• Boost threshold: for traditional turbochargers, they are often sized for a certain RPM range where the
exhaust gas flow is adequate to provide additional boost for the engine. They typically do not operate
across as wide an RPM range as superchargers.
• Power surge: in some turbocharger applications, especially with larger turbos, reaching the boost
threshold can provide an almost instantaneous surge in power, which could compromise tyre traction or
cause some instability of the car.
• Oil requirement: turbochargers get very hot and often tap into the engine’s oil supply. This calls for
additional plumbing, and is more demanding on the engine oil. Superchargers typically do not
require engine oil lubrication.

1. The turbo charging needs special exhaust manifolds

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2. Larger pumping elements or nozzles are required to inject more fuel per unit time. This over loads cams
and other components.
3. The turbine blade efficiency is very sensitive to gas velocity

COMPARISON BETWEEN TURBOCHARGING AND MECHANICAL

SUPERCHARGING
Turbo Charging
1. The energy of exhaust gases is used to run super charger
2. It needs a waste gate control
3. It requires special exhaust manifolds
4. In CI engine it reduces smoke
5. Blade erosion takes place due to entry of dust particles
6. Larger pumping elements or nozzles are needed. This over loads cams
7. Pressure ratio is high
8. It is bulky and heavy
9. Easy scavenging
10. Poor response to load change

Super Charging
1. The mechanical energy of prime mover is used to run super charger
2. It does not require a waste gate control .It does not require special exhaust manifolds
4. In CI engines it reduces knocking tendency
5. No blade erosion problem
6. Fuel injection modification is not required and no cam over loading
7. Comparatively pressure ratio is low
8. It is light and compact
9. Scavenging is difficult
10. Better response to load change

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Intercooler:

An intercooler is an intake air cooling device used commonly on turbocharged and supercharged engines.
What does it do? Intercooler cools the air compressed by the turbo/supercharger reducing the temperature
andf increasing the density of the air supplied to the engine.
An intercooler is an intake air cooling device used commonly on turbocharged and supercharged engines.
An intercooler is a mechanical device used to cool a gas after compression. Compressing a gas increases its
internal energy which in turn raises its temperature and reduces its density. An intercooler typically takes the
form of a heat exchanger that removes waste heat in a gas compressor.
Intercoolers have a variety of applications, and can be found in air compressors, air
conditioners, refrigeration, and gas turbines, and automotive engines, for example. They are widely known as
an air-to-air or air-to-liquid cooler for forced induction (turbocharged or supercharged) internal combustion
engines, used to improve volumetric efficiency. This is accomplished by increasing intake air density through
nearly constant pressure cooling

Whatdoesitdo?
Intercooler cools the air compressed by the turbo/supercharger reducing the temperature andf increasing
the density of the air supplied to the engine.

Howdoesitwork?
As the air is compressed by a turbo/supercharger it gets very hot, very quicky. As its temperature climbs its
oxygen content (density) drops, so by cooling the air, an intercooler provides a denser, more oxygen rich air
to the engine thus improving the combustion by allowing more fuel to be burned. It also increases reliability
as it provides a more consistent temperature of intake air to the engine which allows the air fuel ratio of the
engine to remain at a safe level.

There are two types of intercoolers;

1) Air-to-Air and
2) Air-to-Water.
1)An Air-to-Air intercooler extracts heat from the compressed air by passing it through its network of
tubes with cooling fins. As the compressed air is pushed through the intercooler it transfers the heat to the
tubes and, in turn to the cooling fins. The cool air from outside, traveling at speed, absorbs the heat from the
cooling fins reducing the temperature of the compressed air.
These systems advantages are simplicity, lower cost and less [Link] also makes it by far the most
common form of intercooling. The down sides can be a longer intake length due to having to get the
intercooler to the front of the car and also more variation in temperature than an air to water.

2)An Air-to-Water intercooler uses water as a heat transfer agent. In this setup cool water is pumped through
the air/water intercooler, extracting heat from the compressed air as it passes through. The heated water is
then pumped through another cooling circuit (usually a dedicated radiator) while the cooled compressed air is
pushed into the engine.

These intercoolers (also known as heat exchangers) tend to be smaller than their Air-to-Air counterparts
making them well suited to difficult installations where space, airflow and intake length are an issue. Water is
more efficient at heat transfer than air and has more stability so it can handle a wider range of temps, but this
system requires the added complexity, weight and cost of a radiator, a pump, water and transfer lines.

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Common applications for these are industrial machinery, marine and custom installs that don’t allow the easy
fitment of a air to air, such as a rear engine vehicle.

Turbocharger lag

Turbo lag is the time it takes for a turbocharger to “light up” or produce positive manifold pressure
drastically changing the power output of a motor. ... It takes time for these turbine and compressor wheels to
build up the speed required to push positive pressure air into the motor.

Turbo lag is the time between mashing the throttle and feeling the rush of torque from a turbocharged engine.
The opposite is also true—a turbocharger that makes the most peak power will make virtually no boost until
well into the engine's power band
Turbo lag is a unique phenomenon encountered in turbocharged internal combustion engines, whereby
an operator experiences a short delay in full engine response after pressing the accelerator pedal. This occurs
because a turbocharger relies on pressure from exhaust gasses, and needs a short amount of time to generate
the pressure needed — known as spooling up. Turbo lag is considered a negative characteristic in
automobiles, and one that engineers strive to mitigate in a number of different ways.
The most common way engineers get around turbo lag is simply to use the lightest components possible,
as less inertia means less lag. A more complex way is to pair a large turbo with a smaller one, or with a
supercharger. The instant or near-instant spooling of these secondary units helps compensate for the lag,
while the larger one builds pressure, minimizing or eliminating it completely.

Forced induction: is the process of delivering compressed air to the intake of an internal combustion engine.
A forced induction engine uses a gas compressor to increase the pressure, temperature and density of the air.
An engine without forced induction is considered a naturally aspirated engine.

How Forced Induction Works?

Air, fuel, Spark. Take one away from your car and you’re going nowhere fast. Increase one, air for
example, and things get interesting. More air equals more power — the very principle behind forced
induction. By compressing intake air prior to feeding it into the combustion chamber, forced induction
squeezes more air in, along with a correspondingly greater amount of fuel. This results in bigger booms.
Bigger booms equal faster, more powerful rotations at the crankshaft. In terms of horsepower and torque this
is a good thing: forced induction engines will always up the ante over their naturally aspirated equivalents.

Two systems, supercharging and turbocharging, make this all happen. They differ chiefly in how they
generate boost: where a turbocharger is spun by exhaust gases, a supercharger is powered by a pulley via the
crankshaft. But before we examine their differences, discuss why they aren’t used everywhere and try to
figure out if one is better than the other, let’s take a look at some boosting basics that apply to both systems.

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A naturally aspirated engine: sometimes known as a normally aspirated engine, is an internal

combustion engine in which oxygen intake depends solely on atmospheric pressure and does not rely
on forced induction through a turbocharger or a supercharger.

Many sports cars specifically use naturally aspirated engines to avoid turbo lag.

Are naturally aspirated engines better?

The benefit of a naturally aspirated engine is that they are in general more reliable than forced
induction engines, or engines that rely on a turbo or supercharger. The big drawback is that to have a high-
output naturally aspirated car usually means having a large, heavy and petrol guzzling engine.
A naturally aspirated engine is an internal combustion engine in which air intake depends solely
on atmospheric pressure and which does not rely on air forced through a turbocharger or a supercharger.
Many sports cars use naturally aspirated engines due to their lack of a turbo lag. The main advantage of a
naturally aspirated engine is they are usually more reliable than turbocharged or supercharged engines.
Most automobile gasoline engines, as well as many small engines used for non-automotive purposes, are
naturally aspirated. Most modern diesel engines powering highway vehicles are turbocharged to produce a
better power-to-weight ratio. They also have better fuel efficiency and lower exhaust emissions.

What do naturally aspirated engines mean?

A naturally aspirated engine is an internal combustion engine in which air intake depends solely on
atmospheric pressure and which does not rely air forced through a turbocharger or a supercharger. Many
sports cars use naturally aspirated engines due to their lack of a turbo lag.

Advantages

• Easier to maintain and repair

• Lower development and production costs
• Increased reliability, partly due to fewer separate parts

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• More direct throttle response (due to the lack of turbo lag)

• Less potential for overheating

Disadvantages

• Decreased efficiency
• Decreased power-to-weight ratio
• Decreased potential for tuning
• Increased power loss at higher elevation (due to lower air pressure) compared to forced induction engines

Applications

Most automobile petrol engines, as well as many small engines used for non-automotive purposes, are
naturally aspirated.[3] Most modern diesel engines powering highway vehicles are turbocharged to produce a
more favourable power-to-weight ratio, a higher torque curve, as well as better fuel efficiency and
lower exhaust emissions. Turbocharging is nearly universal on diesel engines that are used in railroad, marine
engines, and commercial stationary applications (electrical power generation, for example). Forced induction
is also used with reciprocating aircraft engines to negate some of the power loss that occurs as
the aircraft climbs to higher altitudes.

Conventional Fuels/ Fossil fuel:

Today, most of the world’s energy still comes from conventional sources, such as coal, gas and
hydroelectricity.
Fossil fuel, any of a class of hydrocarbon-containing materials of biological origin occurring within Earth’s
crust that can be used as a source of energy.

Clean coal technologies imply much greater processing to reduce final [Link] resources deplete
with use, so the prices will increase when demand chases supply.
Fossil fuels include coal, petroleum, natural gas, oil shales, bitumens, tar sands, and heavy oils. All
contain carbon and were formed as a result of geologic processes acting on the remains of organic matter
produced by photosynthesis, a process that began in the Archean Eon (4.0 billion to 2.5 billion years ago).
Most carbonaceous material occurring before the Devonian Period (419.2 million to 358.9 million years
ago) was derived from algae and bacteria, whereas most carbonaceous material occurring during and after
that interval was derived from plants.

Hydropower: or hydroelectricity refers to the conversion of energy from flowing water into electricity. It
is considered a renewable energy source because the water cycle is constantly renewed by the sun.
Historically, one of the first uses of hydro power was for mechanical milling, such as grinding grains.
The larger hydropower dams are in place. Some want them removed, claiming that the electricity can be
offset by improved efficiency and conservation. Smaller dams are being removed, yet they may be installed
in other locations.
Nuclear power: is the use of nuclear reactions that release nuclear energy to generate heat, which most
frequently is then used in steam turbines to produce electricity in a nuclear power plant. Nuclear power can be
obtained from nuclear fission, nuclear decay and nuclear fusion reactions.
Nuclear energy has a social problem, and only now are new plants being considered. Without reprocessing
"spent fuel", the time to peak ore extraction is about 80 years.

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Geothermal energy: is heat derived within the sub-surface of the earth. Water and/or steam carry
the geothermal energy to the Earth's surface. Depending on its characteristics, geothermal energy can be used
for heating and cooling purposes or be harnessed to generate clean electricity.
Geothermal energy is possible in non geyser areas where air conditioning and heating can make use of the
ground heat flux.

Alternative fuels: known as non-conventional and advanced fuels, are any materials or substances that can
be used as fuels, other than conventional fuels like; fossil fuels (petroleum (oil), coal, and natural gas), as well
as nuclear materials such as uranium and thorium, as well as artificial radioisotope fuels that are made
in nuclear reactors.
Some well-known alternative fuels include bio-diesel, bio-alcohol (methanol, ethanol, butane), refuse-
derived fuel, chemically stored electricity (batteries and fuel cells), hydrogen, non-fossil methane, non-
fossil natural gas, vegetable oil, propane and other biomass sources.

A biofuel: is a fuel that is produced through contemporary processes from biomass, rather than
a fuel produced by the very slow geological processes involved in the formation of fossil fuels, such as oil.
Biomass is fuel that is developed from organic materials, a renewable and sustainable source of energy used
to create electricity or other forms of power

Algae fuel: algal biofuel, or algal oil is an alternative to liquid fossil fuels that uses algae as its source of
energy-rich oils. Also, algae fuels are an alternative to commonly known biofuel sources, such as corn and
sugarcane. When made from seaweed (macroalgae) it can be known as seaweed fuel or seaweed oil

Biodiesel: refers to a vegetable oil- or animal fat-based diesel fuel consisting of long-
chain alkyl (methyl, ethyl, or propyl) esters. Biodiesel is typically made by chemically reacting lipids (e.g.,
vegetable oil, soybean oil,[1] animal fat (tallow[2][3])) with an alcohol producing fatty acid esters.
Biodiesel is a drop-in biofuel and thus meant to be used in standard diesel engines and is thus distinct from
the vegetable and waste oils used to fuel converted diesel engines. Biodiesel can be used alone, or blended
with petrodiesel in any proportions.[1] Biodiesel blends can also be used as heating oil.

Various alcohols: are used as fuel for internal combustion engines. The first four
aliphatic alcohols (methanol, ethanol, propanol, and butanol) are of interest as fuels because they can be
synthesized chemically or biologically, and they have characteristics which allow them to be used in internal
combustion engines

Ammonia: is a compound of nitrogen and hydrogen with the formula NH3. A stable binary hydride, and
the simplest pnictogen hydride, ammonia is a colourless gas with a characteristic pungent smell.

Hydrogen: is the chemical element with the symbol H and atomic number 1. With a standard atomic
weight of 1.008, hydrogen is the lightest element in the periodic table. Hydrogen is the most abundant
chemical substance in the Universe, constituting roughly 75% of all baryonic mass

Compressed air: is air kept under a pressure that is greater than atmospheric pressure. Compressed air is
an important medium for transfer of energy in industrial processes, and is used for power tools such as air
hammers, drills, wrenches and others, as well as to atomize paint, to operate air cylinders for automation, and
can also be used to propel vehicles. Brakes applied by compressed air made large railway trains safer and
more efficient to operate. Compressed air brakes are also found on large highway vehicles.

CNG fuel: CNG vehicles can use both renewable CNG and non-renewable CNG. Conventional CNG is

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produced from the many underground natural gas reserves are in widespread production worldwide today.
New technologies such as horizontal drilling and hydraulic fracturing to economically access unconventional
gas resources, appear to have increased the supply of natural gas in a fundamental way.

HCNG
HCNG (or H2CNG) is a mixture of compressed natural gas and 4-9 percent hydrogen by energy.

Normal Combustion
Normal combustion occurs when the fuel/air mixture ignites in the cylinder and burns progressively with
a normal pressure increase, producing maximum pressure immediately after the piston passes top dead center
of the compression stroke

Normal combustion occurs when the fuel/air mixture ignites in the cylinder and burns progressively with a
normal pressure increase, producing maximum pressure immediately after the piston passes top dead center
of the compression stroke (Fig. 2-14).

A flame front starts at the spark plugs and travels across the combustion chamber at a speed of approximately
70 to 100 feet per second. The velocity of the flame front is influenced by the type of fuel, the ratio of fuel to
air mixture, the pressure on the fuel/air mixture, and the temperature of the fuel/air mixture.

The pilot has control of these items by ensuring that

(1) The airplane has been serviced with the recommended grade of fuel.

(2) The pressure of the fuel/air mixture is properly regulated by propeller and throttle controls.

(3) the engine temperature is adequately regulated by use of the cowl flaps and by the engine speed when an
internal supercharger is used; and

(4) The fuel/air ratio is accurately adjusted by the mixture control. When any of these factors is not properly
controlled, abnormal combustion will result.

When the fuel/air mixture is ignited by means other than the normal spark ignition, the result is abnormal
combustion. This abnormal combustion is divided into two distinct types - detonation and preignition.

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[Link] combustion

What is abnormal combustion?

Abnormal Combustion is the condition inside combustion chamber, when the flame is initiated by hot surface
inside the chamber either prior or after the spark formation.. This is caused by the hot surface present in the
cylinder or the auto-ignition of the end gas prior to the flame front.

[Link] with Detonation

Detonation can be prevented by any or all of the following techniques:

1) The use of a fuel with high octane rating, which increases the combustion temperature of the
fuel and reduces the proclivity to detonate

2) Enriching the air–fuel ratio which alters the chemical reactions during combustion reduces the combustion
temperature and increases the margin above detonation;
3)Reducing peak cylinder pressure;
4) Decreasing the manifold pressure by reducing the throttle opening, boost pressure or reducing the
load on the engine.

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Definition of cetane number: a measure of the ignition value of a diesel fuel that represents the percentage
by volume of cetane in a mixture of liquid methylnaphthalene that gives the same ignition lag as the oil being
tested— called also cetane rating

Cetane number (cetane rating): is an indicator of the combustion speed of diesel fuel and compression
needed for ignition. It plays a similar role for diesel as octane rating does for gasoline. The CN is an
important factor in determining the quality of diesel fuel, but not the only one; other measurements of diesel
fuel's quality include (but are not limited to) energy content, density, lubricity, cold-flow properties and
sulphur content

Definition. Cetane number: (or CN) is an inverse function of a fuel's ignition delay, the time period between
the start of ignition and the first identifiable pressure increase during combustion of the fuel. ... Cetane
numbers are only used for the relatively light distillate diesel oils.

Generally, diesel engines operate well with a CN from 48 to 50. Fuels with lower cetane number have longer
ignition delays, requiring more time for the fuel combustion process to be completed. Hence, higher speed
diesel engines operate more effectively with higher cetane number fuels.

Measuring cetane number

Accurate measurements of the cetane number are rather difficult, as it requires burning the fuel in a rare
diesel engine called a Cooperative Fuel Research (CFR) engine, under standard test conditions. The operator
of the CFR engine uses a hand-wheel to increase the compression ratio (and therefore the peak pressure
within the cylinder) of the engine until the time between fuel injection and ignition is 2.407ms. The resulting
cetane number is then calculated by determining which mixture of cetane (hexadecane)
and isocetane (2,2,4,4,6,8,8-heptamethylnonane) will result in the same ignition delay.

Industry standards:
The industry standards for measuring cetane number are ASTM D613 (ISO 5165) for the CFR engine, D6890
for the IQT, and D7170 for the FIT.
An octane rating, or octane number: is a standard measure of the performance of an engine or aviation
fuel. The higher the octane number, the more compression the fuel can withstand before detonating (igniting).

In broad terms, fuels with a higher octane rating are used in high-performance gasoline engines that require
higher compression ratios. In contrast, fuels with lower octane numbers (but higher cetane numbers) are ideal
for diesel engines, because diesel engines (also referred to as compression-ignition engines) do not compress
the fuel, but rather compress only air and then inject fuel into the air which was heated by compression.
Gasoline engines rely on ignition of air and fuel compressed together as a mixture, which is ignited at the end
of the compression stroke using spark plugs. Therefore, high compressibility of the fuel matters mainly for
gasoline engines. Use of gasoline with lower octane numbers may lead to the problem of engine knocking.

What is the octane number of fuel?

Octane rating is the measure of a fuel's ability to resist "knocking" or "pinging" during combustion,
caused by the air/fuel mixture detonating prematurely in the engine. In the U.S., unleaded gasoline typically
has octane ratings of 87 (regular), 88–90 (midgrade), and 91–94 (premium).
Cetane numbers: In diesel engines cetane number is a measure of ignition lag. Cetane is straight chain
paraffin assigned with a rating of 100 cetane numbers (CN) and it has good ignition quality. It is mixed with
al ha-methylnaphthalene a hydrocarbon with poor ignition quality i.e., with zero cetane number. A CFR
engine running under prescribed conditions test the fuel with this mixture. Thus the cetane number of the
fuel is defined as the percent by volume of cetane in a mixture of cetane a I ha-methyl that produces same
ignition lag as the fuel being tested, in the same engine and under the same operating conditions.

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MIXTURE REQUIREMENTS FOR SI ENGINE

In stationary engines the desired air fuel ratio means that gives the maximum economy. Actual air fuel
mixture requirements in an operating engine vary under variable speed and load conditions. The A/F ratios
must change based on maximum over is required. Also required A/F ratio must be provided for transient
conditions like, starting a warm-u and acceleration. In all these conditions, exhaust emission should be
minimum.

In steady state operation (It means continuous operation at a given speed and over out with normal
engine temperature) of automotive engines, there are three main areas which require' different air-fuel ratios.
In each of these, the engine requirements differ. As a result the carburetor has to modify A/F. rati9 to satisfy
these demands. These ranges are

1. Idling (mixture must be enriched)

2. Cruising (mixture must be leaned)
3. High Power (mixture must be enriched)

Air-fuel Requirement in SI Engines:

The spark-ignition automobile engines run on a mixture of gasoline and air. The amount of mixture the
engine can take in depends upon following major factors:
(i) Engine displacement.
(ii) Maximum revolution per minute (rpm) of engine. (Hi) Carburettor air flow capacity.
(iu) Volumetric efficiency of engine.
There is a direct relationship between an engine’s air flow and it’s fuel requirement. This relationship is
called the air-fuel ratio. 9.10.1.

A carburetor (American English) or carburettor (British English) is a device that mixes air and fuel
for internal combustion engines in the proper air–fuel ratio for combustion. It is sometimes colloquially
shortened to carb in the UK and North America or carby in Australia.
[1] To carburate or carburet (and thus carburation or carburetion, respectively) means to mix the air and fuel
or to equip (an engine) with a carburetor for that purpose.

What are the functions of carburettor?

The carburetor has several functions:
1) it combines gasoline and air creating a highly combustible mixture,
2) it regulates the ratio of air and fuel, and
3) it controls the engine's speed.

A carburetor is a device that blends air and fuel for an internal combustion engine. The carburetor works
on Bernoulli's principle: the faster air moves, the lower its static pressure, and the higher its dynamic
pressure. The throttle (accelerator) linkage does not directly control the flow of liquid fuel. Instead, it
actuates carburetor mechanisms which meter the flow of air being pulled into the engine. The speed of this
flow, and therefore its pressure, determines the amount of fuel drawn into the airstream.

When carburetors are used in aircraft with piston engines, special designs and features are needed to

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prevent fuel starvation during inverted flight. Later engines used an early form of fuel injection known as a
pressure carburetor

Fig. Simple Carburetor

A carburetor basically consists of an open pipe through which the air passes into the inlet manifold of the
engine. The pipe is in the form of a Venturi it narrows in section and then widens again, causing the airflow
to increase in speed in the narrowest part. Below the Venturi is a butterfly valve called the throttle valve a
rotating disc that can be turned end-on to the airflow, so as to hardly restrict the flow at all, or can be
rotated so that it (almost) completely blocks the flow of air. This valve controls the flow of air through the
carburetor throat and thus the quantity of air/fuel mixture the system will deliver, thereby regulating engine
power and speed. The throttle is connected, usually through a cable or a mechanical linkage of rods and
joints or rarely by pneumatic link, to the accelerator pedal on a car or the equivalent control on other
vehicles or equipment.

Fuel is introduced into the air stream through small holes at the narrowest part of the Venturi and at other
places where pressure will be lowered when not running on full throttle. Fuel flow is adjusted by means of
precisely calibrated orifices, referred to as jets, in the fuel path.

Carburettor: How it works?

The Carburettor is nothing but a ’metal tubed structure’ known as ‘barrel’ or 'venturi' that is narrower at
the center. Thru’ this tube, the air passes to the engine cylinders. When the air enters the carburetor, its
velocity/speed is constant. However when the air reaches the narrower end, its velocity starts to increase. This
narrow end of the tube acts as a speed-booster for the incoming air. The speed of the air reaches the
maximum level at the narrowest point of the barrel. This is due to the narrowing space thru’ which it must
pass further. Once, the air passes the narrowest point, its velocity drops suddenly due to the immediate wider
opening of the barrel.

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This results in rapid drop in the pressure. Thus, it creates negative pressure. So, it allows the fuel pipe to lift
the fuel from the carburettor's float chamber and spray it into the incoming air. Here, the fuel mixes with the
air proportionately. Then, the mixture passes on to the engine cylinders thru’ its intake manifold. Thus, the
carburettor atomizes and vaporizes the fuel and mixes it with air according to engine's changing operating
conditions.

Carburettor: Design and Working Principle?

In addition, a butterfly valve (throttle) is used to adjust the negative pressure. This enables mixing of fuel
with air in varying proportions to suit engine’s operating conditions. The butterfly valve is attached to and
controlled by the accelerator/throttle. It is further controlled by the driver of the vehicle or rider of the
motorcycle as the case may be.

There are many more sub-systems which a carburettor uses to vary the air-fuel ratio. There are five main
systems in the basic design which include – a Choke system, an Idling/Low-speed system, an Accelerating
Pump system, a High Speed system and a Power system etc.

Advantages of a Carburettor:

1. Simple design
2. Economical to manufacture
3. Easy to service
4. Spares are affordable
5. A local mechanic can fix it's problems.

Disadvantages of Carburettor:

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1. Cannot provide a perfect air-fuel ratio consistently.

2. Cannot control the wastage of fuel effectively.
3. More number of parts in some complex designs which makes diagnosis difficult.
4. Some designs develop the problem of vapour lock resulting in engine stalling.
5. Delivers lower mileage & power as compared to fuel-injected systems.

Constant-depression Carburettor:
This type of carburettor is also known as constant vacuum, variable choke and variable venturi
carburettor. They have a variable choke area, which alters to keep the choke air speed constant. Also
depression over the jet overcomes the need for a compensating system required to prevent mixture
enrichment with increase in engine speed as in case of constant-choke carburettor.

The constant vacuum, variable-choke carburettor (Fig. 9.72) provides a variable quantity of metered and
atomised mixture to the cylinders under all running conditions. The constant-pressure carburettor uses a
variable-choke piston type air valve fitted at the entrance to the mixing chamber. A tapered needle is attached
to the base of the air valve and is submerged in a petrol jet orifice immediately beneath it. The air valve has a
central stem, which guides its vertical movement. The upper portion of the valve forms a piston, which seals
off a vacuum or suction chamber. The lower annular portion of the piston is subjected to atmospheric
pressure. The top side of the piston is exposed to a similar pressure, existing in a mixing chamber, by means
of a small transfer hole formed in the air valve

Fig. 9.72. Constant-vacuum variable-choke carburettor.

When engine is started, air flows through the air valve static position opening, which increases with engine
speed and produces a pressure drop over the petrol-jet orifice. This drop in pressure is transmitted to the
upper side of the piston through the transfer hole, due to which the pressure in the vacuum chamber becomes
almost same as the jet. The higher atmospheric pressure on the other side of the piston creates a pressure
difference across the two sides, causing a upward resultant thrust so that the piston moves up to a equilibrium
position where up thrust equals to the downward mass and spring force acting on the piston. Hence piston
ensures a constant pressure over the jet irrespective of the engine speed and load conditions.

With a constant size jet and with constant depression at the jet, only a fixed quantity of fuel is always drawn
into the air stream and hence no mixture strength correction can take place when air flow increases. To take
care of this situation, the effective annular petrol-jet formed between the jet and the tapered needle expands in
proportion to the outward movement of the tapered needle as it rises with the air-valve piston. Proper
selection of needle profile can provide best mixture ratio over the entire range of speed and load. The mixture

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strength can also be varied by changing the area of the jet orifice around the needle by an adjustment, which
moves the jet nearer or further from the needle; however any alteration influences the discharge throughout
the speed range. Figure 9.72 shows such a device in the form of a bi-metal strip lever and a spring loaded L-
shaped lever.

The volume of mixture entering the engine during idling is controlled by an idle-adjustment-stop screw,
which limits the closing of throttle valve. For cold starting, a hand-controlled cable is pulled to actuate a
linkage, which either lowers the petrol jet so that the effective jet orifice is increased or opens a separate cold-
start metering valve.

Carter Carburetor: Construction and Working Principle:

Carter Carburetor is an automobile Carburetor used mostly in jeeps. In the previous article, we have discussed
the other type of automobile Carburetor called Solex Carburetor. In this article, we are going to discuss the
Carter Carburetor construction and the working principle.

Carter Carburetor:

It was first founded by William Carter for the jeeps run by four-cylinder [Link] Carburetor is a
downdraught type Carburetor. It is having multiple jets, a plain tube with only one adjustment for the idling
or low speed running of the engine.

Carter Carburetor Construction:

A float with a tapered valve at the top face of the float is arranged in the float chamber to take care of the fuel
level in it.

Carter Carburetor:
The air enters at the top of the tube operated by the choke valve. During normal operation, the choke valve
will be fully opened. This Carburetor is comprised of 3 venturi tubes. Among these, the smallest one is

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maintained a little bit above to the level of fuel in the float chamber. The other two will be below the level of
the fuel in the float chamber.

The fuel nozzle injects the fuel at the primary venturi and throws the fuel against the air flow coming from
the top. The air and the fuel mixed at the primary venturi and flow thru the secondary venturi and exposed to
some more air steam and further flow thru the third venturi as well. After this, the fuel mixture enters into the
engine during the suction stroke.

There is a metering rod provided at the float chamber, which controls the quantity of fuel supply to the
engine.

Engine starting circuit?

During the engine starting a richer mixture need to be provided. The suction created by the piston during the
engine starting is exerted on to the nozzle to provide the correct quantity of the fuel. The choke valve also
provides less air. So that correct quantity of the richer mixture is prepared and inducted into the engine
cylinder to start the engine smoothly.
After the engine starts, the spring controlled choke valve is open to allow the correct quantity of the air during
the period of warm up.

Idle and Low-speed(Cruising) circuit:

For the idle speed, the richer mixture is required in small quantity. In this operating condition, the throttle
valve is slightly open. So that the suction created by the piston downward movement is exerted on to the ideal
port. This is how the rich mixture is provided by the idle/slow speed jet. The air-fuel ratio can be controlled
by the idle adjustment screw.
For the low-speed operation, the throttle can be further open to run the engine smoothly above the idle speed
operation.

Acceleration of Engine:
There is an acceleration pump arrangement as shown in the above diagram. This will helps to accelerate
the engine by supplying the additional amount of fuel with the help of jet at the direct throat.

This acceleration pump consists of non-return inlet check valve and the outlet check valve, plunger and a
spring operated accelerator pedal. When we push the accelerator pedal, this will push a small amount of
petrol to the throat by means of non-return inlet check valve to the outlet check valve and to the jet as shown
in the above diagram. Now when you release the pedal, it will suck some amount of fuel from the float
chamber.

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Zenith Carburetor:
Zenith Carburetor is a British carburetor which is used by many popular companies. It is produced by
Zenith Carburetor Company and was founde in 1910.
In this carburetor there is no starting problem and also this carburetor provides rich mixture during high
speed.

Following are the list of components in a Zenith Carburetor :-

1) Float Chamber
2) Main Line
3) Main Jet
4) Compensating Jet or Auxiliary Jet
5) Starting Jet
6) Reservoir or Auxiliary Chamber
7) Choke
8) Throttle Valve

Construction:-

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In this carburettor, Float Chamber is connected to the Venturi via a Main Line. Main function of fuel chamber
is to take fuel from the fuel tank. This fuel chamber has two balls, two floats and a spindle. There is choke
which when closed restricts the air flow to the carburetor. A throttle Valve is a valve between the carburetor
and the engine which opens when fuel is needed by the engine . Fuel from main line enters to form air fuel
mixture through Main Jet. Apart from main jet, there is a compensating jet also which compensate when more
fuel is needed by engine at high [Link] compensating jet gets fuel from reservoir or auxiliary valve .
Apart from compensating jet, it also has starting jet which aids engine at time of starting. It also gets fuel
from reservoir or auxiliary valve.

Working:-
At first fuel from fuel tank enters into Float Chamber through a passage which is blocked by a spindle present
in the float chamber when fuel is not needed. This spindle moves up and down to block and unblock the fuel
supply to fuel chamber.

When the fuel supply to fuel chamber decreases the two floats come down and the two balls also come down
with them. As the balls and the spindle are connected like a Seesaw, so when the balls come down the spindle
comes up and fuel passage to fuel chamber is unblocked.

On other hand, when the fuel supply increases in the fuel chamber the two floats come up and the balls also
come up. As the balls come up , the spindle comes down due to Seesaw connection between the balls and the
spindle. When spindle comes down the passage is blocked and the fuel supply to fuel chamber stops.

Solex Carburetor:
solex carburetor is one of the modern carburetors and it is known for good performance, starting, and
reliability. Solex carburetor is used by many top European automobile manufacturers like Mercedes, Porsche,
and Rolls-Royce. It is also used by the Indian automobile manufacturer. Today we are going to see the
working of Solex carburetor.
working of Solex carburettor:
[Link] Running Circuit
2. Cold Starting and Warming
3. Idling and Slow Speed Operation
4. During Acceleration
1. Normal Running Circuit:
During the normal running of a carburetor, fuel is provided by the main jet tube and the air is provided by the
choke or venturi tube. Main jet fuel enters into the air bleed emulsion tube present in the carburetor. There is
an air correction jet which is used for the correct balance of air and fuel. An orifice is drilled in the horizontal
position in the vertical pipe in the middle of the venturi tube present in the carburetor.

2. Cold Starting and Warming:

the presence of in-line progressive starter is the main and unique feature of Solex carburetor. The starter valve
which is in the form of a flat disc plate has holes with different sizes. These holes in the flat disc connect the
starter petrol jet and starter air jet which opens below the throttle valve. The position of the starter level
decides when either small or large holes of the flat disc come opposite side of the passage.
For starting, a rich mixture of air-fuel is required. So in the start position of the engine, bigger holes on the
flat disc are connecting holes. After the engine has started, the starter lever comes to the middle position and
now small holes on the flat disc are the connecting holes. Due to these small holes, the amount of petrol
required reduces.

3. Idling and Slow Speed Operation:

In idling and slow speed operation, the pilot jet is taken from the main jet. When the engine is at the idle
position, the throttle is closed completely and therefore suction applied to the pilot jet. Idling screw is used
for variation in the delivery of the petrol through jets. It allows the mixture to become rich.
[Link]:

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The diaphragm pump system is provided in the Solex carburetor which is used to provide an extra quantity of
fuel during acceleration. When you press the accelerator lever for more acceleration, the pump lever which is
connected to the accelerator lever also got pressed. Due to this fuel is compressed and it allows to flow
through the pump jet and acceleration pump injector to the air-fuel mixing chamber.

advantages of Solex Carburetor:

1. The main advantage of the Solex carburetor is easy starting.
2. It is reliable and gives high performance.
3. All circuits above-mentioned circuits work separately.
4. It reduces waste and carbon formation.
5. Throttle response is very high as compared to other carburetors.

Fuel injection
Fuel injection is a system for admitting fuel into an internal combustion engine. It has become the
primary fuel delivery system used in automotive engines, having replaced carburetors during the 1980s and
1990s. A variety of injection systems have existed since the earliest usage of the internal combustion
[Link] primary difference between carburetors and fuel injection is that fuel injection atomizes the fuel
by forcibly pumping it through a small nozzle under high pressure, while a carburetor relies on suction
created by intake air accelerated through a Venturi-tube to draw the fuel into the airstream.

Modern fuel injection systems are designed specifically for the type of fuel being used. Some systems are
designed for multiple grades of fuel (using sensors to adapt the tuning for the fuel currently used). Most fuel
injection systems are for gasoline or diesel applications.

Different methods of fuel injection in a 4 stroke and 2 stroke engine are as shown in fig. 2.5 (a), (b) & (c).
In the manifold injection and port injection arrangements, the injector is moved farther from the combustion
chamber. This provides a longer period for mixing and warming the charge.

Fig. (a) Direct injection system Fig (b) Port injection system

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Fig. (c) Throttle body injection

The manifold injection system may be of two types. Single point and multipoint injection. In the first type
one or two injectors are mounted inside the throttle body assembly. Fuel is sprayed at one point or location
at the center inlet of the engine intake manifold. Hence this method is also called throttle body injection. The
later type has one injector for each engine cylinder and fuel is sprayed in more than one location. Port
injection employs individual injectors delivering locally to each port.

In SI engine continuous injection, or timed injection system is used. The later type consists of a fuel
supply pump to supply fuel at low pressure (2 bar). A fuel metering or injection pump and nozzle are
present. The nozzle injects the fuel in the manifold or cylinder head port. In some design, the fuel is injected
directly into the combustion chamber.

Timed fuel injection system injects fuel usually during the first half of the suction stroke. Injection
begins after closure of the exhaust valve. This eliminates fuel loss during scavenging. Injection ends
usually not later than 1200 after TDC, for maximum power output.

Advantages:
1. Improves fuel distribution in multi cylinder engine.
2. Increases volumetric efficiency.
3. Reduces loss of fuel during scavenging.
4. Eliminates detonation.

Single-point or throttle body injection (TBI)

The earliest and simplest type of fuel injection, single-point simply replaces the carburetor with one or
two fuel-injector nozzles in the throttle body, which is the throat of the engine’s air intake manifold. For
some automakers, single-point injection was a stepping stone to the more complex multi-point system.
Though not as precise as the systems that have followed, TBI meters fuel better than a carburetor and is less
expensive and easier to service.

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Fig. Single point injection

Port or multi-point fuel injection (MPFI)

Multi-point fuel injection devotes a separate injector nozzle to each cylinder, right outside its intake port,
which is why the system is sometimes called port injection. Shooting the fuel vapor this close to the intake
port almost ensures that it will be drawn completely into the cylinder. The main advantage is that MPFI
meters fuel more precisely than do TBI designs, better achieving the desired air/fuel ratio and improving all
related aspects. Also, it virtually eliminates the possibility that fuel will condense or collect in the intake
manifold. With TBI and carburetors, the intake manifold must be designed to conduct the engine’s heat, a
measure to vaporize liquid fuel. This is unnecessary on engines equipped with MPFI, so the intake manifold
can be formed from lighter-weight material, even plastic. Incremental fuel economy improvements result.
Also, where conventional metal intake manifolds must be located atop the engine to conduct heat, those used
in MPFI can be placed more creatively, granting engineers design flexibility.

Fig . Multipoint injection

Types of Fuel Injection Systems:

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Throttle body injectors or Single Point Injectors (TBI)

Single-point injection was a first step before the more complex multi-point systems came about. Not as
precise as the systems that have evolved, TBI metered fuel better than a carburetor and was less expensive
and easier to service.

Port or multi-point fuel injection (MPFI)

Multi-point fuel injection has a separate injector nozzle for each cylinder, just outside its intake port, which
is why the system is sometimes called port injection. Delivering the fuel vapor this close to the intake port
ensures that it will be drawn completely into the cylinder.
The primary advantage is that MPFI meters fuel more precisely than TBI, achieving the desired air/fuel
ratio. MPFI lessens the possibility that fuel will condense in the intake manifold.

Sequential fuel injection (SFI)

Sometimes called sequential port fuel injection (SPFI) or timed injection, SFI is a type of multi-port
injection. Though basic MPFI uses multiple injectors that spray their fuel at the same time or in groups.
Sequential fuel injection triggers each injector nozzle independently and is timed like spark plugs. SFI
sprays the fuel immediately before or as the intake valve opens.

Fuel injection pumps:

An Injection Pump is the device that pumps fuel into the cylinders of a diesel engine. Traditionally, the
injection pump is driven indirectly from the crankshaft by gears, chains or a toothed belt (often the timing
belt) that also drives the camshaft. It rotates at half crankshaft speed in a conventional four-stroke engine. Its
timing is such that the fuel is injected only very slightly before top dead centre of that cylinder's compression
stroke. It is also common for the pump belt on gasoline engines to be driven directly from the camshaft. In
some systems injection pressures can be as high as 200 MPa (30,000 PSI).

Types of Fuel Injectors:

Top-Feed – Fuel enters from the in the top and exits the bottom.
Side-Feed – Fuel enters on the side on the injector fitting inside the fuel rail.
Throttle Body Injectors – (TBI) Located directly in the throttle body.

Fuel Pumps
Many types of fuel pumps are used in the modern car fuel feed systems, all of which operate on the same
principle. A fuel pump transfers petrol from the tank to carburetor [fuel injection system] through a fine grain
filter. It must deliver petrol in sufficient volume at desired pressure to keep the carburetor (float chamber) full
of petrol, irrespective of engine speed.

There are two types of pumps which are most commonly used
a) Mechanical type fuel transfer pump [A.C. Mechanical pump].
b) Electrical fuel pump [So U. Electrical pump]

(a) Mechanical Fuel Pump: A mechanically operated diaphragm type fuel pump is shown in figure. It

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is mounted on the engine and is operated by an eccentric mounted on the cam shaft of the engine. The
pump consists of a spring loaded flexible diaphragm actuated by a rocker arm which in turn operated by an
eccentric. Inlet and outlet (spring loaded) valves are provided to ensure fuel flow in the proper direction.
As rocker arm is moved by the eccentric, the diaphragm is pulled down, causes a partial vacuum in the
chamber. This causes the inlet valve to open and admits fuel into the pump chamber through strainer.
Further rotation of the eccentric will release the rocker arm and diaphragm moves upward, causes inlet
valve to close while the outlet valve opens and hence the pump delivers fuel to the carburetor (float
chamber).
When the float chamber is full of petrol, pumping of more fuel is not needed till some of it is consumed. If
the engine runs continuously at light loads, the earn shaft will be running all the time and there is excessive
pressure in the pump. This may damage the pump itself. To avoid this the rocker arm and pull rod
connection is made flexible and when the float chamber is full, the diaphragm is not operated though the
cam shaft is running.

Fig. Mechanical Fuel pump

Electrical Fuel Pump:

This pump contains a flexible diaphragm which is operated by electrical means [Electro magnet]. The
middle of the diaphragm is fixed to an armature. A rod extends from middle of diaphragm and passes
through a center hole in the electro magnet (solenoid). The other end of the rod carries electrical contact
points. Return springs are used to keep the diaphragm in position. Closing the ignition switch, energies the
electromagnetic winding. Thus magnetic flux is generated which pulls the armature compressing the return
spring and there by moves the diaphragm up. This causes suction in the pump chamber and fuel is drawn
into the chamber through inlet valve. But as the armature moves, the rod disconnects the breaker points and
thus interrupts the electric supply. The electro magnet is de-energized and the armature falls back due to
spring action. This causes the diaphragm to move down creating pressure in the chamber to open outlet
valve. Thus fuel is delivered to the float chamber. The cycle repeats and fuel continues to be pumped.

These pumps need not be located close to the engine. These electrical pumps are located near the fuel
tank and are not subjected to engine heat. These pumps starts operating immediately as the ignition is
switched on.

Prepared by: Prof: Raahil Azhar Ali, Asst Professor, HKBKCE

 Automobile Engineering (17ME655)

Fig. Electrical pump IS.U. type]

Fuel Injectors
Depending on the method of fuel control the injectors are classified into (I) Mechanical and (2) Electronic
type. Mechanical method is obsolete now. A governor was used to control fuel supply and a fuel distributor
was used to send the fuel to correct injector.

Mechanical Fuel injection:

In this system an electrically driven fuel pump delivers the fuel at a specified pressure (700 kpa) into
a metering distributor. The relief valve returns excess fuel to the tank and thus maintains the metering
distributor at constant pressure. The metering distributor supplies fuel to each injector in turn. The
quantity of fuel delivered is also controlled in the distributor by engine manifold pressure. The injector
is held closed until the fuel pressure opens it to deliver atomized spray of fuel.

Electronic Fuel Injection :

An electric fuel pump draws the fuel from the tank through a filter and supplies the same to the injectors
at a pressure which is held constant by means of a fuel pressure regulator which returns excess fuel to the
tank. This prevents vapour lock in the fuel lines. The injectors are held closed by spring and are opened by
solenoids energized by ECU (electronic control unit). The strength of the ECU control signal, which
determines the open time of the injector to control the amount of fuel injected depends upon the engine
requirements which are determined by the ECU from the sensor signals from critical locations.

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 Automobile Engineering (17ME655)

The common sensors used are

I. Manifold absolute pressure (MAP) sensor.
2. Barometric pressure (BARO) sensor.
3. Throttle position sensor (TPS)
4. Coolant temperature sensor (CTS).
5. Vehicle speed sensor (VSS) etc.

Fig. Electronic Fuel Injection System

Fuel gauges
All automotives are equipped with an electrically operated fuel gauge for indicating level of fuel in the
tank. Two types of fuel gauges are used on automobile bodies. They are - Thermostatic type and
Electromagnetic type. Both incorporate sending unit and a receiving unit.
Sending Unit: It consists of a float controlled rheostat or variable resistor. The unit is mounted on the fuel
tank with float and float arm extending into the tank. The float always follows the level of the fuel in the
tank. The float position determines the amount of electrical resistance within the variable resistor which
controls the amount of electricity sent to the receiving unit on the instrument panel.
Receiving Unit: It is mounted on the instrument panel and by the amount of electricity received from the

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 Automobile Engineering (17ME655)

sending unit indicates, on a calibrated gauge the amount of fuel in the tank.

Thermostatic Fuel Gauge

Here the receiving unit contains a heating coil. When the fuel tank is low at grounded sliding contact in
the sending unit controlled by the float is near the end of variable resistance wire and sends only a small
amount of current to the heating coil in the receiving unit. The heating coil activates a bimetallic arm which
moves the gauge pointer to the 'E' (empty) position. When the tank is filled, the float rises with the fuel level
and moves the grounded sliding contact toward the beginning of the resistance wire. Thus electrical
resistance decreases and current flowing to the receiving unit increases. The heating coil in the receiving unit
generates more heat and moves the pointer to the' F' (full) position.

Fig. Fuel guage

FUEL FILTERS
A fine mesh gauge is used as a filter to clean the petrol. It is more suitable where petrol contains very
large dust particles, but not so effective in preventing the fine particles and the water from going inside the
cylinder. An ordinary chamois leather which is first moistened with petrol can be used as an effective device
which allow only petrol to pass through it and water will be intercepted. Fine grit, of course cannot pass
through it.

FUEL INJECTION PUMP

The fuel injection pump delivers accurately, metered quantity of fuel under high pressure, at the correct
instant and in the correct sequence, to the injector fitted on each engine cylinder. In most of the engines the
injection pressure ranges from 7 to 30 MPa and in some cases it may be as high as 200 MPa. The timing
gears drives the injection pumps and its output is controlled by drives through accelerator pedal. The
injection system has to deliver very small volume of fuel, hence the volume of fuel to be metered is very
small for each injection. The frequency of injection is quite high. For example, in a 4 stroke, 4 cylinder
diesel engine, at maximum speed of6000 rpm, about 150 rnm of fuel is to be metered and injected 20 times
in a second. In a two stroke engine the number of injections per second are twice this valve. Generally the

Prepared by: Prof: Raahil Azhar Ali, Asst Professor, HKBKCE

 Automobile Engineering (17ME655)

fuel injection pumps are classified in to jerk pump type and distributor type;
(a) Jerk Pump type fuel injection pump:

A single cylinder jerk pump type fuel injection pump is as shown in figure. It consists of a spring loaded
delivery valve, plunger, control sleeve and control rack. The fuel quality to be injected is controlled by the
plunger which contains a helix at its top end. The plunger in turn is operated by using a cam and tappet.

Fig. Single cylinder jerk type fuel injection pump

In this pump, the plunger stroke remains constant, but the effective stroke is reduced by changing the
position of helix on the plunger with respect to fuel inlet port. The cam produces forward or delivery stroke
and the action of spring returns the plunger. As the plunger performs down ward stroke, it uncovers the inlet
port present in the barrel at atmospheric pressure and fills the space above the plunger and also vertical
groove and space below the helix. When the plunger raises up, it covers the ports and compresses the fuel.
The compressed fuel lifts the delivery valve and it is supplied to the injector through the delivery valve. As
the plunger moves up wards, the spill port will be uncovered by the plunger helix and the helical groove on
the plunger connects the space above the plunger with the suction line.
The oil at high pressure in the space above the plunger is by passed back in to the pump and there by
decreases pressure near the delivery valve. This closes the delivery valve due to action of spring. The fuel
quantity delivered through the delivery valve depends upon the opening position of the spill port with
respect to helical groove. Depending on the load on the engine, the position of helical groove with respect to
spill port can be changed by rotating plunger with control rack. The quantity of fuel can be varied from zero
to that required at full load by changing the positions of the rack.

Prepared by: Prof: Raahil Azhar Ali, Asst Professor, HKBKCE

 Automobile Engineering (17ME655)

Fig. Arrangement showing the control of fuel delivery

FUEL INJECTOR
The fuel injector is used
i) To atomize the fuel to the required degree of fineness.
ii) To distribute the fuel for proper mixing of fuel and air.
iii) To prevent fuel injection on cylinder walls and top of the piston.
iv) The fuel injection must start stop instantaneously.

A spring loaded fuel injector is as shown in figure. The fuel pump supplies fuel to the injector and high
pressure fuel lifts the spring loaded valve. The fuel is then injected into the combustion chamber of the
engine cylinder. As the pressure decreases, the valve is automatically closed by the spring force. The
duration of open period of the valve controls the amount of fuel injected in to the combustion chamber.

Prepared by: Prof: Raahil Azhar Ali, Asst Professor, HKBKCE

 Automobile Engineering (17ME655)

Electronic Fuel Injection (EFI) System:

Electronic fuel injection (EFI) system use engine sensors, a computer and solenoid operated fuel injector
to meter and inject right amount of fuel into the cylinders.
An electronic control unit receives information in the form of electric signals from the sensors.
These sensors are mounted at different parts of the engine.
On the basis of requirements of the engine, electronic fuel injection system injects right amount of fuel into
the engine.
It results into the less un-burnt fuel in the emission.

Typical sensors used in the electronic fuel injection (EFI) system

1. Exhaust gas or oxygen sensor
2. Engine temperature sensor.
3. Air flow sensor
4. Air inlet temperature sensor
5. Throttle position sensor
6. Manifold pressure sensor
7. Camshaft position sensor
8. Knock sensor

Merits of electronic fuel injection (EFI) system:

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 Automobile Engineering (17ME655)

1) Improvement of volumetric efficiency of the engine

2) Manifold wetting is eliminated due to direct fuel injection into the cylinder
3) Atomization of fuel is independent of cranking speed, hence good atomization even at low speed.
4) Better atomization and vaporization results in less knocking.
5) Formation of ice at throttle plate is eliminated.
6) Distribution of fuel is independent of vaporization hence low volatile fuels can also be used.
7) Variation of air fuel ratio is almost negligible, which results in good

Demerits of electronic fuel injection (EFI) system:

-High maintenance cost.
-Difficulty in servicing.
-Possibility of malfunction of some sensors.

Diesel fuel injection:

The fuel injection system in petrolengined cars is always indirect, petrol being injected into the
inlet manifold or inlet port rather than directly into the combustion chambers . This ensures that the fuel is
well mixed with the air before it enters the chamber.
Many diesel engines , however, use direct injection in which the diesel is injected directly into the cylinder
filled with compressed air. Others use indirect injection in which the diesel fuel is injected into the specially
shaped pre-combustion chamber which has a narrow passage connecting it to the cylinder head .
Only air is drawn into the cylinder. It is heated so much by compression that atomized fuel injected at the end
of the compression stroke self-ignites.

What is common rail direct injection system?

Common-rail direct fuel injection is a direct fuel injection system for diesel engines. On diesel engines, it
features a high-pressure (over 100 bar or 10 MPa or 1,500 psi) fuel rail feeding solenoid valves, as opposed to
a low-pressure fuel pump feeding unit injectors (or pump nozzles).

What is the difference between common rail and direct injection?

A common rail is one of the most important components in a diesel and gasoline direct injection system. The
main difference between a direct and a standard injection is the delivery of fuel and the way how this one
mixes with incoming air. ... The common rail is a long metal cylinder.

Diesel common rail direct injection (CRDI) and its benefits:

Common rail is a fuel injection system found in modern diesel engines. Common rail systems provide a level
of flexibility which can be exploited for class leading emission control, power and fuel consumption. This
enables Original Equipment Manufacturers (OEMs) to design for optimum performance and exceptional end-
user value across a range of machines and applications.

An increasing number of modern diesel engines employ common rail direct injection (CRDi) fuel systems for
the flexibility they provide while meeting the most stringent emission control standards.

In common rail systems, the fuel is supplied to the engine under pressure with electronically controlled
precision. This provides a level of flexibility which can be exploited for class leading levels of emission
control, power and fuel consumption.

How does CRDi work?

The fuel in an electronically controlled engine is stored at variable pressure in a cylinder or ‘rail’ connected to
the engine’s fuel injectors via individual pipes, making it a ‘common rail’ to all the injectors. The pressure is
controlled by a fuel pump but it is the fuel injectors, working in parallel with the fuel pump, that control the
timing of the fuel injection and the amount of fuel injected. In contrast earlier mechanical systems rely on the
fuel pump for pressure, timing and quantity.

Prepared by: Prof: Raahil Azhar Ali, Asst Professor, HKBKCE

 Automobile Engineering (17ME655)

A further advantage of the CRDi system is that it injects the fuel directly into the combustion chamber. The
indirect injection (IDI) system in older engines injected fuel into a pre-combustion chamber which then fed
the main combustion chamber.

What is the advantage of CRDi?

CRDi ensures the fuel injection timing, quantity of fuel and atomisation or fuel spray are controlled
electronically using a programmable control module. This allows multiple injections at any pressure at any
time (within pre-defined limits), providing a level of flexibility which can be exploited for better power, fuel
consumption and emission control.

Perkins has a great deal of experience with applying CRDi to its electronically controlled engines. The
experience gained over the past 10 years ensures we deliver a competent and capable product at the forefront
of prime mover solutions.

How will you notice the benefits of common rail?

Noise, vibration and harshness (NVH) are improved with CRDi as a result of the timing flexibility. Your
engine sounds quieter and has a better quality of sound. It also runs smoother. You will see fuel consumption
benefits as well because greater injection pressure produces a finer spray of fuel (atomisation) that burns
more efficiently.

Better combustion efficiency is a key part of meeting emission standards. Less fuel is wasted as soot or
particulates in the exhaust and deposits in the engine. A cleaner running engine is good for the environment –
and for the cost of ownership. Cleaner running improves the long-term durability and reliability of your
engine.

We have designed our engines to deal with more stringent operating requirements. For example, improved
fuel filtration ensures a higher level of purity in the fuel injected from the common rail. Clean servicing
procedures are necessary to keep your engine running efficiently and within the limits of the applicable
emission standards.

Common Rail Direct Injection (CRDi):

Most modern engine's fuel systems use an advanced technology known as CRDi or Common Rail Direct
Injection. Both petrol end diesel engines use a common 'fuel-rail' which supplies the fuel to injectors.
However, in diesel engines, manufacturers refer to this technology as CRDi whereas Petrol engines term it
as Gasoline Direct Injection (GDI) or Fuel Stratified Injection (FSI). Both these technologies have a
similarity in design since they consist of “fuel-rail” which supplies fuel to injectors. However, they
considerably differ from each other on parameters such as pressure & type of fuel used.

In Common Rail Direct Injection, the combustion takes place directly into the main combustion chamber
located in a cavity above the piston crown. Today, manufacturers use CRDi technology to overcome some of
the deficiencies of conventional diesel engines which were sluggish, noisy and poor in performance when
implemented, especially in passenger vehicles.

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 Automobile Engineering (17ME655)

The CRDi technology works in tandem with the engine ECU which gets inputs from various sensors. It then
calculates the precise quantity of fuel and timing of injection. The fuel system features components which are
more intelligent in nature and controls them electrically / electronically. Additionally, the
conventional injectors are replaced with more advanced, electrically operated, solenoid injectors. They are
opened by an ECU signal, depending upon the variables such as engine speed, load, engine temperature etc.

A Common Rail system uses a ‘common-for-all-cylinders’ fuel-rail or in simple words a 'fuel distribution
pipe'. It maintains optimum residual fuel pressure and also acts as a shared fuel reservoir for all the injectors.
In the CRDi system, the fuel-rail constantly stores and supplies the fuel to the solenoid valve injectors at the
required pressure. This is quite opposite to the fuel injection pump supplying diesel thru’ independent fuel
lines to injectors in case of earlier generation (DI) design

Prepared by: Prof: Raahil Azhar Ali, Asst Professor, HKBKCE