Chapter: 3

Review of Literature
 REVIEW OF LITERATURE

Loneliness can be defined as solitary, without company, looking

sympathetic or friendly companionship or relationships. Loneliness is a

serious problem to the society where individual suffers from different

types of mental tension. The survey of the psychological literature on

loneliness (Peplau, Russell and Heim, 1970) documents the growth of

psychological work on loneliness. Work on loneliness grew rapidly in

1970. Mostly the investigators made effort to highlight some important

aspects of loneliness viz. personal characteristics- age, sex, education,

personality, anxiety, depression, self-disclosure; social characteristics-

social behaiour, social contact, activities, satisfaction, economic status,

marital status, culture, family structure; and some other such as- movie

going, T. V. watching, drug addiction etc. The studies done in the context

of loneliness on various factors are given follows.

Age in main characteristic in all respect. There is a general

conclusion, drawn by various researchers that loneliness in more

widespread in the younger age groups (Blau, 1973; Dyer, 1974; Ostrov

and offer, 1978; Goswic and Jones, 1982; Rubenstein and Shaver, 1980;

Russel and his colleagues, 1980).

Silerman & kennedy (1985), Schmidt and Kurdek (1985), Natale

(1986), Marcoen, Goossens & Caes (1987) and Christians (1989) also

28
reported loneliness in more prevlent among younger age group Duggna

and Brennan (1994) studied the problem that why some people desire

relationship but are unable to establish them. Traced the problem to

Bartholomew’s (1990) attachment patterns, noting that both dismissing

and tearful adult are hesitant to become involved in relationship.

It is striking that loneliness in more experiencing phenomenon in

college student than others, because is has been found that with increasing

age, there in also a steady decrease in the amount of time spent with

parents.

Russell and his collegeues (1980) have concluded by a survey

result that the general trend for loneliness in to derease over the span,

with the oldest respondents having the lowest loneliness scores.

Rubenstein and shaver (1980) also postulate that young respondents

are the most lonely and the older are the least. In other words, it is more

common in adolescence than later in life.

Natale (1986) puts forword that there are biological correlates of

aging and situational factors that contribute to loneliness. Developmentally,

aging brings a person to turn inword and examine life. This can be beneficial

if the element of withdraul is perceived as positive. Ageism in American

society in a contributing factor in the loneliness of the elderly. He further

29
 Ammaniti, Ercolani, & Tambelli (1989) found that loneliness

increases with age and is more evidentin small town as opposed to medium

sized or longer metropol itan areas.

Braza etal. (1993) seposted that others propose that loneliness

begins in childhood, if a .child fails to develop appropriate social skills for

whatever reasons, he or she simply does not know how to interact

successfully with other children. For axample, a child who is either

withdrawn or aggressive is very likely to be rejected as a playmate

(Johnson, Poteat, & Iron smith, 1991). Unless something is done to ehange

the inappropriate behaviour, interpersonal difficulties typically continue

through childhood and into adolescence and adulthood they do not just

go away (Ascendorpt, 1992).

Russell, Pepleu, & Cutrona (1980) reported other the use of UCLA

Loneliness scale, that the test respondent indicated how frequently (“never”

to ‘often’) they feel or do varions things for example, ‘I feel left out’ or

“I Lave a lot in common with the people around me”. The lonely individual

is likely to feel beft out and not to have [Link] in common with others.

There is a general tendency for people to believe that others share their

attitndes and beliefs, but the false cansensus effect is not characteristic

among those who are lonely (Bell, 1993). Berides feeling that others are

relatively dissimilar, the greater one’s loneliness, the less one trust other

people (Roten berg, 1994). The interpersonal behavionr of people scoring

30
high in loneliness is consistant with their test responses.

Bell (1991); Berg& Me Quinn (1989); Williams and Solano (1983)

reported that a person who feel lonely lends to spend his or her leisure

time in solitary activity to have very few dates, and to gave only casual

friends or acquaintances rather tham a close friend.

Peer relationships become crucial in the adolescent age, when young

people begin to distance themselves from parent and family, this is the

time when social phobia is most likely to develop (Herbert, 1995). This is

a debilitating anxiety in which social situations becomes sufficientty

frightening that a person totally avoids them as a way to protect his self

or him self from embarrassment and humiliation. An extremely lonely

and fearfut teenager may decide that life is hoplless.

Relation betveen loneliness and gender is quite unclear. A number

of studies have found a greater proportion of women than of men repoting

loneliness (Ostron and Offer, 1978; Rubin and Hill, 1981; Schumakav et

al. 1985, Schultz and Moore, 1980; Stokes and Levin, 1986; West, Kellner

and Moore, 1986; Ryan and Petterson, 1987). The differences in these

studies are not large but they appear consirtent over various demographic

groupings. Baun & Steven (1982); Ryan & Petterson (1987) indicated

that females complain of more loneliness. Osthrov & Offer (1978) tested

over 500 yonths between the ages of 12 and 18, including males and

females, normal, disturbed and delinquent, and various ethnic groups.

31
Their findings indicated that 22% of boys and 20% of girls aged between

12 to 16, as well as 14% of boys and 12.3% of gerls aged 16 to 20,

agreed with the reported loneliness. .

Boiys, perlman, & Goldenberg, (1985); Maroi (1985); Hanid (1989)

reported that a higher percentage of males than females are found suffering

from loneliness. Rather women are more apt to acknowledge their

loneliness than men, becouse the nagative consequences of admitting

loneliness are less for women.

Wood & Hannell, (1977); Russell et al. (1978); Booth (1985);

Kalliopuska & laitinen (1987), failed to find any sex difference at all. The

differences among findings may be done to differences in populations

studied or in method of study.

Wood (1978) and Brennen & Austlander (1979) reported that

loneliness in related to lo educational aspirations. It is not get clear that

the different education level how much affects the loneliness. In a study

wood (1978) has found that inverse relationship exiets between education

and loneliness. They argued that education provides cohorts of classmates,

and indirectly social skills. Russell and his colleagees (1980) were having

the similar views.

A variety of personality characteristics increase an individuals

vulnerability to loneliness. Such factors may increase the likelihood that a

person will become lonely, and also make it more difficult for the lonely

32
person to restablish satisfying social relations. Lonely people are apt to

be shy. introverted, and less willing to take social rises. It is found that

shy persons have difficulty in refolating the personal (self) boundry which

contribute to their loneliness, shy person may be denied intimacy due to

their lack of social skills (Pilkonis & Zimbardo, 1979; Pilkonis, Heape &

klein, 1980). Zimbardo, (1978) and Russell (1980) found the extremely

high positive correlation in loneliness and shyness, and introversion

personality. The loneliness and adjustment capability are also negatively

correlated. Goswic & Jones (1981) investigated that maladjusted people

becomes lonely than normal. They found less adjustment in loneliness

condition.

Bradbum, (1969); Perlman et al., (1978) reported that lonely people

report being less happy, less satisfied, more pessimistic and more

depressed. Loucks, (1974) reported that the lonely people often feel

anxious and describe themselves as tense, restless and bored. Moore

and Sermat (1974), and Loucks (1974) acknowledged that there are some

evidences that lonely people may feel hostile loward others.

In a study Russell et al. (1978) have found that lonely college student

are to feel angry, self enclosed, empty, and awkward. Maroldo (1981)

analysed correlation between shyness and [Link] found the

correlations of .52 for males and .56 for females. Jha (1988) has concluded

that loneliness and dependence proneness are uncorretated.

33 ■
 Kochenderfer & Ladd (1996) reported that several factors contribute

to feelings of loneliness in young children. Some that occur outside of

the school setting are conflict within the home; moving to a new school

or neighborhood, losing a friend; losing on object, possession, or pet;

experiencing the divorce of parents; or experiencing the death of a pet or

significant person. Equally are the factors that occur within the childs

school setting, such as being rejected by peers, lacking social skills and

knowledge of howto make friends, or possessing personal characteristics

(e.g. shyness, anxiety, and low self-estem) that contribute to difficulties

in making friends.

Loneliness has consistently been linked to anxiety level and

depression. Achta & Karha (1986) concluded that panic anxiety is an

important factor leading to loneliness. Here, a general conchsion drawn

by researchers that anxiety is a basic component triggering offloneliness.

Spielberger, Gorsuch, & Lushene (1970) reported that anxiety is probably

more basic and is frequently one of the component of the more complese

feeling of loneliness. Mijuskovic (1986), Bradley (1969), loucks (1974)

have found that lonely people often feel anxious and tense.

We know loneliness is an unpleasant experience. Fromm-Reichman

(1959) deseribed it as painful and frightening. Weiss (1973) characterized

it as a “gowning distress without redeeming feactures”. Empirical research

adds detail to this depietion. Bragg (1979); Russell et at. (1980); Weeks,

34
Michela, Peplau, & Bragg (1980) have found that loneliness has consistently

been linked to depression also. Lonely people report being less happy,

less satisfied and more depressed. Despite the frequent co-occurance of

loneliness and depression, it appears useful to distinguish between the

two coneepts. Depression is much broader phenomenon than loneliness;

people can be depressed for a variety of reasons; hence depress people

are not invariably lonely. People who are both lonely and depressed tend

to be dissatisfied with both social and non-social aspeets of their lives,

whereas lonely (Bragg, 1979).

A study by Tunstall (1967) made amony the old men and women

found that 19% of those with severe physical incapacity said that they

were “often lonely”. Perlman et at. (1978) conchuded that old people

who rated their health as poor, reported greater loneliness. A hishly positive

carrelation exist between poor health and loneliness (Nishikawa, 1983).

Self-disclosure is the process throngh which one person lets himself

or herself be known by another. Derlega and Margulis (1982) acknowledge

that privacy and self-disclosure as an important way for understanding

loneliness, self-diselosure is an interpersonal boundary process by which

a person or group regutates interaction with others. Self-disclosure can

be clarified as talking about feelings and thoughts to increase understanding

and reduce uncertainity. In a study done by Wortman & Dunkel-Schetter

(1979) on cancer patients, they found that inability to talk about illness

35
(blocked from having intimacy or lack of self-disclosure) patients feel

more loneliness. Jones (1981) also indicated that the self-disclosure style

ofthe lonely person impairs the normal development of social relationships.

The social behaviour of lonely and non-lonely people differs in

various ways. It is found that lonely people tend to behave in less

responsive, less intimate; and more self-focussed manner in interactions

with others. Solano & Batten (1979) reported two much difference in

social behaviour of lonely and non-lonely people. The studies of weis,

(1973); Anderson & Jennings (1980); Kudoh andNishikawa (1983); Vitkus

& Horowitz (1987); Pers & Rubin (1990); revealed the nature of social

behaviour related to lonely and non-lonely people. Social behaviour of

lonely individuals involves the frequency with which people engage, in

social activities and their perceived satisfaction with available relationships.

There are two general hypotheses. First, one might expeet lonely people

to have less social contact, either becouse of the effects of uncontrolled

circumstances or becouse of the interference of negtive emotions and

attitudes. Atematively, lonely people may have as much contact and hence

social opportunities as do non lonely people, but may be less satisfied

with available relationships. There are some indications that lonely college

students have less social contact than do non-lonely college student

(Russell et at. 1980; Jones et at. 1980) and elderly lonely people report

less contact with friends (Perlman et at. 1978).

36
 Several studies have failed to findout relationship between loneliness

and social contact or activities. Other studies have indicated that

satisfaction with contact is more important than the actual frequency. In

other words, not being satisfied with one’s friendships, dating partners,

and family are better predietors of loneliness than such variables as

frequency of contact with friends, number of friends, dating frequency,

distance from fome, or frequency of contact with family.

A high correlation between self-esteem and loneliness has been

observed, low self-esteem is often a part of a package of beliefs and

behaviours that interfere with initiating or maintaining satisfying social

relationships. Indeed, the link between severe loneliness and low self­

esteem is one of the most consistent findings of loneliness studies (Wood,

1978; Paloutzian&Ellison, 1979; Murphy, 1986,87). Louck (1980) found

that loneliness is significantly correlated with self-crificiSm and low self­

esteem. There are some studies in which loneliness is attributed as a

cause of low self-esteem. Mohammed Reza (1983) reported that loneliness,

especially when it is severe and prolonged, lowers a person’s self-esteem,

chronic lonely people scored significant lower on self-esteem, levin &

Stokes (1986) and Dela Cruz (1986) reported that loneliness and low

self-esteem are intimately and reciprocally interrelated.

In the context of socio-economic status, a perplexing finding is a

correlation between loneliness and income level. The poor seen somewhat

37
more lonely. Perhaps this is due to with a restricted life of low income

persons, or limited energy levels and social interpsise make both for

lowered income and inadequate social life. Russel and his colleagues

(1980) indicated that there is a relationship between loneliness and socio­

economic status; respondents who report having lorger incomes and

greater education are less lonely.

Social-economic factors have substantial impact on social isolation.

Perlman et at. (1978) have put across that loneliness in higher among old

people with lower incomes. William (1983) concluded that the people

belonging to middle income group are found more lonely than those from

the upper and lower income groups. Polansky (1985) found that very low

income subjects are lonelier than those are more fortunate.

Mary Elizabeth Hughes et al. (2004) in a study revealed that most

studies of social relationships in later life focus on the amount of social

contact, not on individuals perceptions of social isolation. However,

loneliness is likely to be an important aspect of aging. A major eimiting

factor in studyin loneliness has been the lack of a measure suitable for

large-scale social surveys. Authors article describes a short loneliness

scale developed specifically for use on a telephone survey. The scale has

three items and a simplified set of response categories but appears to

measure overall loneliness quite well. They also documented the relationship

between lonliness and several commonly used measures of objective social

38
isolation. They found that objective and subjective isolation are related.

However, the relationship is relatively modest, indicating that the qualitative

and quantitative aspects of social relationship are distinct.

Brennan & Auslander (1979) compared loneliness among black,

Mexican-Ameriean and youths, and among various social classes. Across

the variom measures of loneliness, no significant differences linked to

social class or ethnicity were found. Only in the case of self-reported

loneliness was there a suggestion that loneliness was more widespread

among adolescents of the lowest social classes.

In a study Wilson et at. (1989) found that loneliness among black

subject are significantly related to Extroversion and conformity seale,

whereas loneliness among white subjects are related to the Extraversion

and Neuroticism scale.

Marital status also plays a very important role in triggering off

loneliness, it is found that the older divorced and the widowed individuals

are less likely to report themselves as lonely then the younger divorced

and the widoved individuals. Lynch (1977) reviewed and found that married

individuals enyoy greatar health and longivity than do the single, divorced

or widowed. Lynch (2005) in his look “The language of the Heart” has

extended his views of beneficial interactions of health to inchude contacts

with companion animals. Companion animals can help protect the

loneliness and cardiovasular system.

39
 The loss of ones beloved persons and loneliness seem to correlate

strongly. Townsend (1957) and tunstall (1967) indicated that the elders

who have experienced the loss of one or more children or who are

separated from them, feel more loneliness. Lynch (1977); Rayburn (1986)

& Crecy, Berg & Roosevelt (1985) indicated that those who live alone

are more likely to suffer than those who live together.

Studies that make it evident that the unmarried are more likely to

display loneliness than the married and among the unmarried, those who

are previously married are the most likely to experience loneliness (Weiss,

1973; Saduva and matejeic, 1987).

Many variables related to family or family structure such as family

size, parental disinterest, household crowding, child rearing condition,

rejected or neglected family etc. are linked more or less to loneliness.

Lonely youths generally report a complese pattern of negative, non-

supportive relationships with their parents (Brennan and Auslander, 1979;

Rubenstein et al.; 1979). Lonely youths, report parental disinterest, lionited

nuturance, parental violence and rejection, low levels of enco uragement

for successs and negative labelling. Gos-wick & Jones (1982) and Asher

and Wheeler (1985) found that parental disinterest is negatively related to

loneliness. Asher and Wheeler (1985) have concluded that rejected

children are more at risk of the loneliness in higher socio-economic status

than other status groups.

40
 Shaver and Rubenstein (1980) reported that the people who have

their parents, who are warm, helpful and supportive are less lonely, as

adults. Paloutzian and Ellison (1979) have expressed that quality of child-

parent relationship, the quality ofremembered childhood peer relationships,

and the degree of remembered family togetherness all are inversly related

to loneliness. Greater intimacy during childhood is associated with less

loneliness during adulthood. Ellison (1978) conchuded that the high

correlation between loneliness and respondents family background and

love experienced with parents.

Flanders (1980) Austin (1985) and Rubin et al.; (1985) expressed

theirview that todey televiewing effectively turn people away from each

other. They have found that lonely people use T.V. more to fill their idle

time. Flanders (1980) indicated that televiewing and loneliness both are

highly positive correlated. Perse and Rubin (1990) support that the lonely

people use more T.V.

Loneliness in also discussed as a source of differential vulnerability

to alcohol problems among relatively heavy drinkers one to lack of social

supports and different perceptions of social pressures. Pepleu (1955)

reported that loneliness lead some individuals to use alcohol or drug.

Kudon and Nishikawa (1983) reported that chronic alcoholies have the

highert seores related to loneliness. Sadava and Thompson (1986) were

also of the same openion. Wenz (1984) expressed that loneliness in

41
significantly associated with suicide ideation.

The correlation between loneliness and academic performance was

also found. In a study Porjetti and Cate (1981) found that loneliness and

academic performance both are negatively related in males while it is not

significant in females. Kudoh & Nishikawa (1983) investigated that

loneliness show highly negative correlation between acatdemic performance

and loneliness. Thus, it can be said that individuals suffering from

loneliness, depression, anxiety, displeasand state and emptiness do not

show good acedemic achievement.

Some researchers made their effort to investigate the relationship

between loneliness and religiosity. They found that loneliness and

religiousness ar highly related (Ainlay & Smith, 1984; Dufton & Perlman,

1986;PalautzianandJanigian, 1986).Poloutzian and Janigian (1986) found

that loneliness and religiousness both are intensity personal areas of human

experience. They further explained that loneliness is a discripancy between

what one wants and what one gets in social relations or emotional intimacy

and can be felt as social or emotioal loneliness. Social loneliness and

religiousness are continued in the relationship between a person and a

charch. Emotional loneliness for a religious person, may exist in relation

to goal.

Studies related causal attributions for loneliness have reveived more

attention by the many investigators such as Wortman & Dintzner (1978);

42
Bragg (1974); Anderson (1980); Michela, Peplau and Weeks (1981).

Several studies conducted at UCLA have demonstrated the applicability

of Weiner’s model to loneliness. Michela et at (1981) concluded that

dimensions of intemality and stability are salient in law conceptions ofthe

caused of loneliness. For instance, lack of effort was seen as an internal,

unstable cause of loneliness, being physically unattractive as an internal

stable cause, and lack of opportunities as an external unstable cause.

Anderson (1980) and Anderson, Horowitz & French (1983) have

shown that attributional style is associated with less effective behaviour

in an interpersonal persuation task. Students who made ability or trait

attributions show lower success expectancies, lower motivation, and are

actually less successful at the task than are students who made effort or

strategy attributions. Other causal links are also possible. Individuals who

attribute their loneliness to lack of interpersonal skill may actually be inept,

their poor social skills may cause both their attribution and their lack of

success in social settings.

43