Aquacultural Engineering 40 (2009) 1–10

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Aquacultural Engineering
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Evaluation of geotextile filtration applying coagulant and flocculant

amendments for aquaculture biosolids dewatering and phosphorus removal
Mark J. Sharrer, Kata Rishel, Steven Summerfelt *
The Conservation Fund Freshwater Institute, 1098 Turner Road, Shepherdstown, WV 25443, United States

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Article history: Wastes contained in the microscreen backwash discharged from intensive recirculating aquaculture
Received 20 May 2008 systems were removed and dewatered in simple geotextile bag filters. Three chemical coagulation aids
Accepted 3 October 2008 (aluminum sulfate (alum), ferric chloride, and calcium hydroxide (hydrated lime)), were tested in
combination with a long-chain polymer flocculation aid (HyChem CE 1950 at 25 mg/L) to determine the
Keywords: most cost effective and efficient treatment combination. Three different coagulants were tested to
Aquaculture effluent treatment determine if coagulant choice impacts nutrient and carbonaceous biochemical oxygen demand (cBOD5)
Geotextile bag filter
leaching into the filtrate and the final composition of the bag-captured biosolids at the end of each period.
Biosolids thickening
If nutrient leaching into the bag filtrate could be minimized through coagulant selection, then geotextile
Dewatering
Nutrient removal bags could provide a convenient and effective method to dewater waste biosolids and provide them in a
Chemical coagulation form that fish farmers could readily transport, store, or send for disposal.
Lime Results from replicate geotextile bag filter tests indicate that when alum, ferric chloride, and hydrated
Alum lime (plus a polymer) were amended to a backwash flow, both suspended solids capture and solids
Ferric chloride thickening were improved; i.e., total suspended solids removal rates of 95.8, 95.1, and 96.0%, respectively,
were achieved along with final dewatered filter cake percent solids concentrations of 22.1, 19.3, and
20.9%, respectively. Alum, ferric chloride, and hydrated lime (plus a polymer) amended geotextile bags
were not as effective in chemical oxygen demand (COD) and cBOD5 removal, resulting in removal rates of
69.6, 67.2, and 35.3%, respectively, and 56.6, 9.3, and 47.4%, respectively. Further, the use of lime as a
coagulant resulted in filtrate COD and cBOD5 concentrations that exceeded inlet concentrations. Total
nitrogen removal applying alum, ferric chloride, and lime were also less than effective, resulting in
removal rates of 39.1, 46.7, and 8.9%, respectively. Filtrate total nitrogen concentrations were primarily
in the inorganic form (total ammonia nitrogen) suggesting mineralization of ammonia as solids were
stored within geotextile bags under anaerobic conditions. Alum, ferric chloride, and lime amended bags
were moderately efficient at total phosphorus removal, resulting in removal rates of 67.6, 47.0, and 77.3%,
respectively. Alum was identified as the most cost effective chemical for coagulation, but hydrated lime
was the most effective at dissolved phosphorus precipitation and removal.
ß 2008 Elsevier B.V. Open access under CC BY-NC-ND license.

1. Introduction Brinker, 2003). Backwash and underflow produced by each of these

methods result in a waste stream that is much more concentrated
1.1. Background in particulate matter than the fish culture water. However, this
backwash is still on the order of 99.5–99.95% water, i.e., 500–
Biosolids generated in fish production systems result from 5000 mg/L total suspended solids. Thus, the biosolids in the
uneaten feed, fish feces, and biological floc sloughed from culture backwash flow require nearly a 20–200-fold concentration during
system surfaces and vessels (IDEQ, 1998; Cripps and Bergheim, an additional dewatering step to reduce hauling costs and allow
2000). Mechanisms such as settling basins, rotating microscreen practical hauling for land application or other off-site disposal
drum filters, and granular media filters are often used to separate option (Ewart et al., 1995; Summerfelt and Vinci, 2008).
biosolids from process water (Summerfelt, 1999; Bergheim and Off-line settling basins operated as gravity thickening tanks are
the most frequently used technology to dewater and store
biosolids found in fish farm backwash flows, probably because
* Corresponding author. of their simplicity (Mudrak, 1981; Westers, 1991; Bergheim et al.,
E-mail address: [Link]@[Link] (S. Summerfelt). 1993, 1998; Cripps and Kelly, 1996; Chen et al., 1997, 2002; IDEQ,

0144-8609 ß 2008 Elsevier B.V. Open access under CC BY-NC-ND license.

doi:10.1016/[Link].2008.10.001
2 M.J. Sharrer et al. / Aquacultural Engineering 40 (2009) 1–10

1998; Adler and Sikora, 2005; Brazil and Summerfelt, 2006; biosolids over a 1-month period with an alum and polymer
Summerfelt and Penne, 2007). Other biosolids thickening methods amendment resulted in an average TSS removal efficiency of 86%
include sand beds (Palacios and Timmons, 2001), created wetland (Ebeling and Rishel, 2006).
drying beds (Summerfelt et al., 1999), wedgewire sieves, inclined
belt filters (Ebeling et al., 2006), bag filters (Ebeling and Rishel, 1.3. Chemical amendments
2006), membrane biological filters (Sharrer et al., 2007), filter
presses, centrifuges, and vacuum filters. Each dewatering technol- Coagulants and flocculants are widely used in the wastewater
ogy has its own specific advantages and disadvantages. For treatment industry to enhance removal of solids, 5-day carbonac-
example, dewatering in gravity thickening tanks is an uncompli- eous biological oxygen demand (cBOD5), and phosphorus (Metcalf
cated method to reduce the volume of biosolids before their final et al., 1991). Coagulants act by reducing surface charges on the
disposal. However, storing the captured biosolids in the gravity particulate constituents and result in the formation of complex
thickening tank for even a few hours, let alone days or months, will hydrous oxides (Qasim, 1999). Rapidly mixed coagulants (alumi-
allow leaching of soluble organic matter, nutrients, and fine num sulfate, ferric chloride, ferrous sulfate, ferric sulfate) are then
particulate matter as the biosolids rapidly mineralize. Thus, stirred to enhance floc formation and promote subsequent settling
supernatant exiting gravity thickening tanks will have degraded (Qasim, 1999). Dissolved phosphorus removal is achieved through
water quality that will likely require further treatment before formation of particulate phosphorus compounds that can then be
discharge (Ebeling et al., 2003; Brazil and Summerfelt, 2006). settled under those enhanced floc formation conditions. Stoichio-
Development of practical biosolids thickening, stabilization, metric relationships describing phosphorus precipitation with
and dewatering techniques for fish culture waste is essential to aluminum sulfate (alum), ferric chloride, and hydrated lime
meet stringent effluent guidelines and for proper overall fish (calcium hydroxide) are (Metcalf et al., 1991):
culture system management (Lekang et al., 2000; Cripps and
Bergheim, 2000; IDEQ, 1998; EPA, 2004). Further, the capacity to Alþ3 þ H2 PO4  $ AlPO4 þ 2Hþ (1)
reduce sludge quantity can mitigate handling costs associated with
storage, transportation, labor, and disposal fees by minimizing Feþ3 þ H2 PO4  $ FePO4 þ 2Hþ (2)
volume (Metcalf et al., 1991). Geotextile filter bags are a relatively
new technology that can be readily scaled-up and could provide a 10Caþ2 þ 6PO4 3 þ 2OH $ Ca10 ðPO4 Þ6 ðOHÞ2 (3)
convenient and effective method to dewater waste biosolids and
provide them in a form that fish farmers could readily transport, Although effects of alkalinity, pH, and competing reactions are a
store, or send for disposal. factor, generally 1 mol alum or ferric chloride will precipitate
1 mol of dissolved phosphorus (Metcalf et al., 1991). Simulta-
1.2. Geotextile material neously, the free acid (H+ in Eqs. (1) and (2)) released will consume
approximately 0.45 and 0.55 mg/L of alkalinity (as CaCO3) for every
Geotextile fabric is a woven, porous polyethylene material used 1 mg/L of alum and ferric chloride, respectively (Ebeling et al.,
for construction site erosion control (Rickson, 2006), improving 2003). The precipitation reaction of phosphorus with calcium is
drainage and enhancing reinforcement of marginally stable slopes more complex. When hydrated lime is added to water, calcium
(Vishnudas et al., 2006), and as anaerobic lagoon odor control carbonate will precipitate as the lime react with inherent alkalinity
covers (Miner et al., 2003). Double layers of geotextile cloth (Metcalf et al., 1991). At a pH value >10, hydroxylapatite
fabricated into a bag design and filled with various materials have (Ca10(PO4)6(OH)2) will precipitate as excess calcium ions reacts
been used to reduce bridge abutment scouring (Korkut et al., 2007) with phosphate ions (Metcalf et al., 1991).
and for beach erosion mitigation (Elko and Mann, 2007; Oh and Subsequent flocculation of coagulated waste can be accom-
Shin, 2006; Allan and Komar, 2004). Further, hydraulically loaded plished through use of long-chained organic molecules (polymers).
geotextile bags are used to dewater dredge slurry (Shin et al., These high molecular weight polyelectrolytes attach to adsorption
2002), dairy and swine lagoon waste (Worley et al., 2008; Baker sites on the surface of waste particulates and result in bridging and
et al., 2002), and sewage sludge in decentralized sites (Wett et al., intertwining between particles along the polymer chain (Metcalf
2005). et al., 1991). Resulting floc can be more rapidly settled or more
Solids dewatering through hydraulically loaded geotextile bags readily filtered from wastewater flow.
typically operate by internal bag pressurization with an inlet slurry The effectiveness of commercial coagulation-flocculation poly-
mixture that is no greater than the depth of slurry within the bag. mers and/or alum or ferric chloride for removing both suspended
Filtrate ‘‘seeps’’ through the openings of the geotextile fabric and solids and phosphorus from aquaculture wastewater flows has
solids are retained within the bag. Agricultural waste management been reported. Replicated jar test studies have determined:
applications have indicated that geotextile bags loaded with fresh
dairy and fresh swine manure without coagulant or polymer  the optimum alum and ferric chloride dosages (when used
amendment resulted in final percent solids concentrations of 18.6 separately) and flocculation conditions (e.g., mixing speed and
and 3.4%, respectively (Baker et al., 2002). Similarly, Worley et al. time) required to reduce suspended solids and total phosphorus
(2008) found that dewatered dairy lagoon sludge without chemical concentrations in the supernatant overflow from gravity
amendment and with alum/polymer amendment resulted in final thickening tanks (Ebeling et al., 2003);
percent solids concentrations of 19 and 16%, respectively. Ebeling  the most advantageous alum or ferric chloride concentrations
and Rishel (2006), assessing fish culture biosolids dewatering and conditions for coagulation, flocculation, and settling of
capacity during a hanging geotextile bag polymer screening, suspended solids and phosphorus found in the backwash flow
determined that TSS and reactive phosphorus removal efficiencies discharged from a microscreen drum filter (Ebeling et al., 2004);
were 85.3 and 29.3% without polymer and 99.1 and 61.5% with a  the most suitable polymer type and the appropriate polymer
high molecular weight polymer. The research indicated low filtrate dose, mixing speed and time, and flocculation conditions
flux without polymer amendment. Further, this research indicated required to maximize suspended solids and particulate phos-
that pressurized (i.e., pressure exceeded the slurry height within phorus removal from the backwash flow discharged from a
the geotextile bags) pilot-scale bags used to treat fish culture microscreen drum filter (Ebeling et al., 2005);
 M.J. Sharrer et al. / Aquacultural Engineering 40 (2009) 1–10 3

 the optimum combination of alum and polymer concentrations waste generated from the facility’s commercial-scale fry rearing
and mixing and flocculation conditions to remove suspended system, partial reuse system, and a fully recirculating growout
solids and phosphorus from the backwash flow discharged from system managed for annual production of approximately 35 mton/
a microscreen drum filter (Rishel and Ebeling, 2006). yr (80,000 lbs./yr) of rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) and a
series of six pilot-scale fully recirculating systems also operated for
The effectiveness of using a combination of alum and polymer production of rainbow trout. The twelve tank flow-through fry
to precipitate dissolved phosphorus and coagulate and flocculate rearing system passed approximately 37.9 lpm (10 gpm) per 1.37 m
suspended solids was also determined across a commercial (4.5 ft)  0.61 m (2 ft) circular tank equipped with a bottom-center
inclined belt filter (Ebeling et al., 2006). In summary, these studies drain. The partial reuse system recycled 1200–1850 lpm (320–
determined that application of coagulation-flocculation chemicals 490 gpm) through three 3.66 m (12 ft)  1.1 m (3.5 ft) circular dual-
can improve the capture of fine solids, phosphorus, and drain tanks operated to mechanically filter 85–90% of the flow
biochemical oxygen demand, which will produce a cleaner and through the sidewall drain and into a rotating microscreen drum
more environmentally sustainable discharge. filter (Model RFM 3236, PRA Manufacturing Ltd., Nanaimo, British
Hydrated lime can also be used to condition waste aquaculture Columbia, Canada) equipped with 90 mm filter screens (Summerfelt
biosolids captured at the bottom of a gravity thickening tank et al., 2004). Water exiting the fry rearing system tanks and the
(Bergheim et al., 1993, 1998). Bergheim et al. (1993, 1998) reports bottom-center drains of the partial reuse system were mechanically
that hydrated lime addition to a pH of 12 can be an effective filtered using a rotating microscreen drum filter (Model RFM 4848,
method to kill sludge pathogens, reduce odor problems, increase PRA Manufacturing Ltd., Nanaimo, British Columbia, Canada)
the removal of phosphorus, and improve solids thickening. The U.S. equipped with 60 mm filter screens. Wastewater was also derived
Environmental Protection Agency’s (US EPA) 40 CFR Part 503, from a fully recirculating growout system that recycled 4800 lpm
Standards for the Use and Disposal of Sewage Sludge, requires (1250 gpm) through a single 9.1 m (30 ft)  2.4 m (8 ft) circular
processing of residual wastewater biosolids before they can be dual-drain tank that was operated to direct 92–93% of the flow
beneficially used (EPA, 2000, 1995). The standard defines two types though the sidewall drain and the remaining 7–8% through a bottom
of biosolids with respect to pathogen reduction: Class A biosolids center drain and then to a radial-flow settler (Davidson and
are those wastewater residuals that have been processed to Summerfelt, 2005). Total system flow was then recombined and the
contain no detectable pathogens; Class B biosolids are those entire recirculating flow filtered though a rotating microscreen
wastewater residuals that have been processed to contain a drum filter (Model RFM 4848, PRA Manufacturing Ltd., Nanaimo,
reduced level of pathogens. Class B biosolids can be produced by British Columbia, Canada) equipped with 90 mm filter screens. The
lime stabilization of the biosolids slurry when the pH reaches or radial-flow settler was automatically flushed once every hour using
exceeds 12 after 2 h of contact (EPA, 2000). Class A biosolids can be a 7.6 cm (3 in.) pipe diameter pneumatically actuated diaphragm
produced by adding lime to the biosolids slurry until its pH reaches valve (Type 025, Georg Fisher LLC, Tustin, California). The series of six
or exceeds 12 for at least 72 h, with a temperature of 52 8C pilot-scale fully recirculating systems each recycled approximately
maintained for at least 12 h during this time. Both classes are 379 lpm (100 gpm) through individual 2.44 m (8 ft)  1.22 m (4 ft)
considered safe, but additional application requirements are circular dual-drain tanks operated to direct 80% of the flow through
necessary with Class B biosolids. If the pH drops below 9.5 during sidewall drains and the remaining 20% through radial-flow settlers.
storage, then there is potential for pathogen regrowth (EPA, 2000). Each system’s total flow was then recombined and the entire
recirculating flow filtered through rotating microscreen drum filters
1.4. Objectives (Model HDF501-1P, Hydrotech Vellinge, Sweden) equipped with
60 mm filter screens. All microscreen drum filters backwashed
The purpose of this research was to evaluate the capacity of automatically, as required to clear their screens. The microscreen
geotextile bags to capture, dewater, and store over an intermediate drum filter backwash and radial-flow settler underflow from the fry
period (i.e., approximately 3 months) fish culture biosolids found rearing system, the partial reuse and all fully recirculating fish
in the combined microscreen drum filter and radial flow settler production systems were collected (as produced) in a common sump
backwash from intensive fish culture systems. Removal capacity of immediately prior to chemical amendment and geotextile bag
particulate and dissolved water quality parameters in the dewatering.
geotextile bag filtrate over this intermediate period was assessed. All rainbow trout production systems were maintained under
A further objective was to determine how treatment efficiency was a constant 24-h photoperiod. Timer controlled mechanical
influenced by amending the bag inlet flow with a combination of a feeders on the fry rearing and six pilot-scale recirculating
long-chain polymer flocculant and three different coagulant, i.e., systems fed the fish equivalent portions during 24 daily feeding
alum, ferric chloride, or hydrated lime. The objective of testing events, i.e., two feeding events every other hour. Similarly, timer
these three coagulants was to determine if coagulant choice would controlled mechanical feeders on the partial reuse and fully
affect nutrient and cBOD5 leaching into the filtrate and the final recirculating systems fed the fish during eight daily feeding
composition of the bag-captured biosolids at the end of each events, i.e., one event approximately every 3 h. The constant
period. If nutrient leaching into the bag permeate could be lighting and uniform feeding events spaced equally over a given
minimized through coagulant selection, then geotextile bag could 24-h period produced relatively constant biological respiration
provide a convenient and effective method to dewater waste and waste production rates. Thus, a relatively consistent
biosolids and provide them in a form that fish farmers could readily backwash was supplied to the geotextile bag filters over a
transport, store, or send for disposal. given 24-h period.

2. Materials and methods 2.2. Geotextile filtration and chemical amendment

2.1. Wastewater sources Accumulated fish waste was pumped to three replicate
geotextile bags using three submersible pumps (Model 8-CIM,
The geotextile bag experiment was conducted in the greenhouse Little Giant Pump Co., Oklahoma City, OK) programmed to pump
building at the Conservation Fund Freshwater Institute utilizing fish every hour for 0.5 min using a Paragon Model EL72 electronic time
4 M.J. Sharrer et al. / Aquacultural Engineering 40 (2009) 1–10

controller (Paragon Electrical Products, Downers Groves, IL). Three wastewater flow on the outlet side of the submersible pumps.
custom-sized geotextile bags with apparent pore openings of Peristaltic pump and submersible pump initiation were controlled
0.425 mm were constructed using geotextile material (TenCate concurrently with the same electronic time controller described
Geotube, Commerce, GA). Empty bags measured 1.4 m (4.6 ft)  above. Chemical amendment and wastewater mixing was
2.2 m (7.2 ft) resulting in a total surface area of 12.3 m2 (40.3 ft2) enhanced with static inline mixers and contact time was extended
per bag. The three geotextile bags were operated at a hydraulic with approximately 30 m (98 ft) of PVC pipe prior to geotextile bag
loading rate of 60–70 L/day/m2 geotextile material. Each bag was inlet.
positioned on a timber-framed gravel surface covered with pond
liner material to ensure virtually complete filtrate capture in three 2.3. Sampling regimen and water quality parameters analyzed
approximately 0.74 m3 (195 gal) collection tanks, which facilitated
discrete capture of replicate filtrate flows. Geotextile bag replicates Two sampling sites were used for each replicate geotextile bag
were positioned on a 1% grade, atop a PVC-framed plastic screen, to assess performance. Sampling site one was located immediately
and wastewater was administered at a top-center position on after each submersible pump outlet prior to chemical amendment
the bag in order to maximize filter surface area and facilitate and characterized inlet water quality. Each sampling port was
filtrate flow. opened during the 08:00 h electronic timer-controlled pumping
Three sets of coagulant/flocculant amended geotextile dewa- event and 4 L (1 gal) grab sample of wastewater was diverted into
tering treatments were conducted independently. The first three separate buckets for the 30-s pumping event. After
treatment applied 50 mg/L alum, i.e., Al2(SO4)314H2O (594 g/ collection, each sample was thoroughly mixed to maintain
mol molecular weight; Univar USA Inc., Kirkland, WA), and 25 mg/ homogenization and a 500 mL sub-sample was obtained. Sampling
L Hychem CE 1950 polymer (Hychem Inc., Tampa, FL) to 37.9 lpm site two was collected from each of the filtrate collection tanks,
(10 gpm) wastewater flow from 4/19/06 to 7/19/06. Qualitative which contained the total filtrate volume from the previous 24 h
observations of chemically amended wastewater flow immedi- pumping events. Total collected filtrate was manually homo-
ately before bag loading indicated that dosing 50 mg/L alum and genized and a 500 mL sub-sample was obtained.
25 mg/L polymer generated the desired floc needed to properly Table 1 summarizes experiment durations and the number of
settle solids prior to geotextile dewatering; as this dose produced sampling events for each of the three treatments. Sample events
such a consistent floc, it was assumed that this would help occurred 2–4 times per week throughout the duration of each
maintain permeability through the membrane. The second experiment. Collected samples were analyzed for a series of water
treatment applied 50 mg/L ferric chloride, i.e., FeCl36H2O quality analyses using a Hach DR4000 spectrophotometer (Table 2)
(270.3 g/mol molecular weight; Fisher Scientific, Waltham, MA), to evaluate chemically amended solids dewatering and nutrient
and 25 mg/L Hychem CE 1950 polymer to 37.9 lpm (10 gpm) retention capacity for each treatment applied. Data were collected
wastewater flow from 9/19/06 to 12/15/06. Selection of optimum and assessed as the mean  standard error inlet and filtrate.
ferric chloride dose was determined by orthophosphate removal Removal efficiencies of key water quality parameters were calculated
capacity under bench-scale conditions (Ebeling et al., 2004). The (i.e., ((inlet  filtrate)/inlet)  100). Analysis of variance (ANOVA) and
third treatment applied 800 mg/L hydrated lime, i.e., Ca(OH)2 Tukey’s HSD (Honestly Significantly Different) tests were performed
(74.1 g/mol molecular weight; Old Castle Stone Products, Easton, on relevant data sets to determine significant differences in removal
PA), and 25 mg/L Hychem CE 1950 polymer to 37.9 lpm (10 gpm) efficiencies between alum, ferric chloride, and lime treatments. An
wastewater flow from 2/6/07 to 4/19/07. A side experiment was analysis of covariance (ANCOVA) was performed on all relevant data
performed to determine the relationship between concentration of to determine if inlet concentrations influenced filtrate concentra-
hydrated lime added to the wastewater flow and slurry pH (Fig. 1). tions. Statistical analyses were performed with SYSTAT 11 (2004)
This side experiment delineated that 800 mg/L of hydrated lime statistical software package. At the end of each treatment, geotextile
was required to achieve pH 12 or Class B biosolids status according bags were allowed to dewater for 7–10 days inside the greenhouse
to EPA (2000) criteria. However, incorporating data from a second facility. Homogenized sludge cake samples (1 L) from each dewatered
trial (also plotted on Fig. 1) determined that between 1100 and bag were analyzed off-site (Reliance Laboratories, Martinsburg, WV)
1200 mg/L of hydrated lime was required to achieve a slurry pH of for percent solids, total nitrogen, total phosphorus, and total
12, i.e., the 800 mg/L dose did not always produce a slurry pH of 12. potassium.
Coagulant and flocculant was pumped from individual reservoirs
with Masterflex Economy Model digital drive peristaltic pumps 3. Results and discussion
(Cole Parmer Instrument Co., Vernon Hills, IL) and added to
3.1. Change in dissolved oxygen, alkalinity, pH, and temperature

Mean inlet and filtrate dissolved oxygen concentration,

temperature, pH, and alkalinity from the three coagulant/
flocculant amended geotextile bag trials are compiled in
Table 3. With respect to oxygen and temperature, passage through
the biosolids stored within the geotextile bags warmed (1.0–
3.0 8C) the filtrate and stripped it of dissolved oxygen, i.e., filtrate
contained a mean dissolved oxygen concentration of 0.1–0.3 mg/L
of dissolved oxygen. Warming, even during winter months, was
due to housing the black (sunlight absorbing) geotextile bags in a
greenhouse.
With respect to alkalinity and pH, addition of 50 mg/L of alum
or ferric chloride is predicted to consume around 25 mg/L of
Fig. 1. Illustrates the hydrated lime dose and corresponding pH of amended rotating
alkalinity. However, the filtrate exiting the alum and ferric chloride
microscreen drum filter backwash. (Using regression equation: 1100–1200 mg/L of amended geotextile bags contained on average 60–95 mg/L more
hydrated lime is required to produce a pH of 12.0). alkalinity than was in the biosolids before amendment addition. A
 M.J. Sharrer et al. / Aquacultural Engineering 40 (2009) 1–10 5

Table 1
Duration of each experimental treatment and number of sampling events assessing coagulant/flocculant amended geotextile bags for solids dewatering and phosphorus
removal of recirculating aquaculture effluent.

Treatment (+25 mg/L polymer) Coagulant grade (%) Study period (m/d/yr) Experiment Duration (d) Sample events

50 mg/L Alum 100 4/19/06–7/19/06 91 44

50 mg/L Ferric chloride 37–42 9/19/06–12/15/06 87 34
800 mg/L Lime 98 2/6/07–4/19/07 73 29

Table 2
Laboratory methods used to assess inlet and filtrate water quality, solids dewatering, and nutrient retention capacity in coagulant/flocculant amended geotextile bags for
solids dewatering and phosphorus removal of a recirculating aquaculture effluent.

Parameter Method Units

Dissolved oxygen (DO) Hach HQ40d Meter, LDO101-10 Probe mg/L

pH Hach HQ40d Meter, PHC101-10 Probe SU
Temperature (T) Hach HQ40d Meter 8C
Alkalinity Standard Methods 2302 mg/L (as CaCO3)
Total suspended solids (TSS) Standard Methods 2560 mg/L
Total volatile solids (TVS) Standard Methods 2560 mg/L
Turbidity Hach Method 8237 NTU
Total phosphorus (TP) Hach Method 8190b mg/L (as P)
Hach Method 10127a,c mg/L (as P)
Dissolved reactive phosphorus (DRP) Hach Method 8048a mg/L (as P)
Total nitrogen (TN) Hach Method 10071d mg/L (as N)
Hach Method 10072e mg/L (as N)
Total ammonia nitrogen (TAN) Hach Method 8038a mg/L (as NH3-N)
Nitrite-nitrogen Hach Method 8507 mg/L (as NO2-N)
Nitrate-nitrogen Hach Method 8171 mg/L (as NO3-N)
5-Day carbonaceous biological oxygen demand (cBOD5) Standard Methods 5210 5-day BOD mg/L
Chemical oxygen demand (COD) Hach Method 8000 mg/L
a
Adapted from Standard Methods For the Examination of Water and Wastewater.
b
Low range (0.02–1.10 mg/L-P).
c
High range (1–100 mg/L-P).
d
Low range (0.5–25 mg/L-N).
e
Low range (10–150 mg/L-N).

small portion of the alkalinity increase could be partly due to backwash that was treated with hydrated lime in the present study.
denitrification in the bags, but the remaining alkalinity gain is Bergheim et al. (1998) report that 110 g of hydrated lime must be
unexplained. added for every kilogram of biosolids (dry weight) to lime stabilize
Adding hydrated lime to the inlet flow increased pH from the biosolids and produce a sustained pH of 12. However, to maintain
7.58  0.05 to 10.37  0.28 units before the geotextile bags. Note that the biosolids pH at 12 for extended storage times, Bergheim et al.
adding 800 mg/L of hydrated lime did not produce a slurry pH of 12, (1998) reported that more than 110 g of hydrated lime per kilogram
but of 10.37 on average. After the study was underway, we of biosolids must be added to achieve an initial biosolids pH of 12.2–
determined that between 1100 and 1200 mg/L of hydrated lime 12.3. In hind sight, the dose of hydrated lime used in the present study
was required to consistently achieve a slurry pH of 12 (Fig. 1). Thus, it should have been in excess of 1200 mg/L, which would have been
appears that the pH probe used in the 1st lime dosing study had been more likely to maintain a pH of 12 for more than 2 h. Maintaining a pH
slightly out of calibration. In comparison, Bergheim et al. (1998) of 12 for more than 2 h is required to meet the Class B biosolid
added approximately 12,000 mg/L of hydrated lime to achieve a pH of classification for domestic sewage biosolids.
12 in biosolids that had already been thickened to 10% dry weight. The The filtrate exiting the lime amended geotextile bags contained
biosolids in the Bergheim et al. (1998) study were already dewatered a mean alkalinity of 670  98 mg/L (as CaCO3) and a mean pH of
and were 50–60 times more concentrated than the TSS of the slurry 8.38  0.24. The pH of the lime supplemented filtrate was closer to a

Table 3
Dissolved oxygen, temperature, pH, and alkalinity of geotextile bag inlet and filtrate for each coagulant/flocculant treatment assessing solids dewatering and phosphorus
removal capacity of a recirculating aquaculture effluent.

Treatment (+25 mg/L polymer) DO (mg/L) T (8C) pH Alkalinity (mg/L)

50 mg/L Alum
Inlet 7.6  0.3 17.1  0.3 7.55  0.02 303  10
Filtrate 0.1  0.0 20.1  0.4 7.20  0.02 363  16

50 mg/L Ferric chloride

Inlet 6.2  0.2 13.5  0.2 7.06  0.03 287  5
Filtrate 0.1  0.0 15.9  0.6 6.92  0.02 382  2

800 mg/L Lime

Inlet 6.7  0.1 11.7  0.2 7.58  0.05 259  6
Inlet + lime 10.37  0.28
Filtrate 0.3  0.1 12.7  0.6 8.38  0.24 670  98
6 M.J. Sharrer et al. / Aquacultural Engineering 40 (2009) 1–10

Table 4
Percent solids, total nitrogen, total phosphorus, and total potassium concentrations in dewatered geotextile filter cake from a recirculating aquaculture effluent administered
a coagulant/flocculant amendment.

Treatment (+ 25 mg/L polymer) Solids concentration (%) Total nitrogen (g/kg) Total phosphorus (g/kg) Total potassium (g/kg)

50 mg/L Alum 22.1  1.1 35.6  3.2 1.51  0.04 0.387  0.005a
50 mg/L Ferric chloride 19.3  1.0 22.0  8.0 1.70  0.13 0.646  0.041a
800 mg/L Lime 20.9  0.5 29.4  0.8 1.67  0.04 0.908  0.038a
a
ANOVA results indicate a significant difference in total potassium concentration among all treatment groups.

Table 5
Inlet and filtrate concentrations and removal efficiencies for TSS, TVS, turbidity, COD, and cBOD5 for each coagulant/flocculant treatment assessing solids dewatering and
phosphorus removal capacity of a recirculating aquaculture effluent.

Treatment (+25 mg/L polymer) TSS (mg/L) TVS (mg/L) Turbidity (ntu) COD (mg/L) cBOD5 (mg/L)

50 mg/L Alum
Inlet 1874  120 1317  171 621  31 1896  125 541  58
Filtrate 98  4 79  2 56  3 577  20 235  25
% Removal 94.8 94.0 95.8 69.6 56.6b

50 mg/L FeCl
Inlet 1889  169 1330  145 542  37 2072  180 443  59
Filtrate 93  5 75  4 58  2 679  29 402  27
% Removal 95.1 94.4 91.1 67.2 9.3

800 mg/L Lime

Inlet 1515  483 900  164 425  63 1774  224 498  67
Filtrate 61  5 54  11 26  3 1147  165 734  123
% Removal 96.0 94.0 93.9 35.3a 47.4
a
Tukey’s HSD post hoc analysis indicates significantly lessened COD removal capacity applying lime when compared with alum and ferric chloride treatments.
b
Tukey’s HSD post hoc analysis indicates significantly greater cBOD5 removal capacity applying alum when compared to ferric chloride and lime treatments.

neutral pH (8.38  0.24) than the 10.37  0.28 pH that entered each solids concentrations of 12.6% (Ebeling et al., 2005). However, a
geotextile bag. Alkalinity of the lime treated filtrate averaged 670 mg/ belt filter rapidly separates and removes biosolids from the
L, which is lower than the expected 259 mg/L (inlet) plus 1080 mg/L discharge, which minimizes the leaching of nutrients (nitrogen and
of alkalinity due to addition of 800 mg/L of hydrated lime. Within the phosphorus) and cBOD5 into the filtrate.
bags, alkalinity decreased as hydroxide reacted with phosphate to Sludge cake produced by geotextile bag filtration with the
form hydroxylapatite (Eq. (3)). Alkalinity may have also been aforementioned percent solids and N:P:K characteristics are
destroyed by the release of organic acids as the biosolids mineralized amenable for either land application or composting. Typical fish
within the geotextile bags. biosolids contain more nitrogen and phosphorus than manure
removed from cattle, pig, and sheep farms, but not as much
3.2. Solids thickening nitrogen and phosphorus concentration as found in poultry litter
(Olson, 1991). In addition, typical solids concentration of
The polymer plus alum, ferric chloride, or hydrated lime dewatered sludge for land application is 15–30% (Metcalf et al.,
amended geotextile bags were operated at hydraulic loading rates 1991). And, an important advantage of dewatered sludge is the
of 61.5, 74.2, and 62.8 L/day/m2 geotextile material, respectively. capacity for farmers to use their own land application equipment,
After allowing the geotextile bag filters to dewater for 7–10 days further reducing hauling, storage, and spreading costs (Metcalf
beyond the final loading event, the mean percent solids of sludge et al., 1991). Composting process options include aerated static
cake was highest for alum treated wastewater (22.1%) followed by pile, windrow, and in-vessel systems (Metcalf et al., 1991;
lime (20.9%) and ferric chloride (19.3%) treatments (Table 4). Outwater, 1994; Adler and Sikora, 2005).
However, ANOVA results indicated no significance (p = 0.175,
a = 0.05) in percent solids concentration. Total nitrogen, phos- 3.3. TSS and turbidity removal
phorus, and potassium (N:P:K) concentration in the sludge on a dry
weight basis for the alum trial were 35.6, 1.5, and 0.4 g/kg, Results indicated that the geotextile bags under all treatment
respectively, for the ferric chloride trial were 22.0, 1.7, and 0.7 g/ conditions efficiently removed TSS from the drum filter backwash.
kg, respectively, and for the lime trial were 29.4, 1.7, and 0.9 g/kg, Removal rates for alum, ferric chloride, and lime were 94.8, 95.1,
respectively (Table 4). ANOVA results indicated no significant and 96.0%, respectively, indicating comparable dewatering capa-
difference in sludge nitrogen (p = 0.475, a = 0.05) or phosphorus city under all conditions tested (Table 5). ANOVA results indicated
(p = 0.267, a = 0.05) concentrations. However, ANOVA results no significant difference (p = 0.113, a = 0.05) in TSS removal
indicated a significant difference in potassium concentrations efficiencies for the treatments. In addition, ANOVA results
(p = 0.000, a = 0.05) is evident among all treatments. indicated no significant difference (p = 0.188, a = 0.05) in turbidity
A similar solids dewatering option comparable to geotextile removal efficiencies. Covariate analyses indicated that inlet
dewatering might involve off-line settling basins. Bergheim et al. concentration did not affect filtrate concentration. Losordo et al.
(1993) indicated that captured fish culture solids with <2% total (2006) reported a TSS removal efficiency of 96% when dewatering
solids content can be thickened (without coagulant and flocculant polymer-amended fish culture biosolids through a geotextile bag
amendment) to 5–10% total solids. And, although requiring greater operated for 230 days.
capital and operating costs, belt filter technology utilizing Examination of filtrate concentrations over the course of each
coagulant and flocculant amendment can achieve final percent treatment indicated that TSS release increases over the first 20–30
 M.J. Sharrer et al. / Aquacultural Engineering 40 (2009) 1–10 7

Fig. 2. Recirculating aquaculture drum filter backwash dewatered through Fig. 3. Recirculating aquaculture drum filter backwash dewatered through
coagulant/flocculant amended geotextile bags. Filtrate TSS concentrations for coagulant/flocculant amended geotextile bags. Filtrate cBOD5 concentrations for
each treatment (alum + polymer, FeCl + polymer, and lime + polymer) as a function each treatment (alum + polymer, FeCl + polymer, and lime + polymer) as a function
of time. of time.

days, but then TSS capture showed no trend over the remaining 90 rate when compared to ferric chloride (p = 0.011, a = 0.05) and
days (Fig. 2). This may reflect the mineralization and eventual lime (p = 0.002, a = 0.05). No statistical difference is evident in
release of some of the biosolids that collect in the geotextile bag cBOD5 removal efficiencies when comparing ferric chloride and
filters. lime treatments (p = 0.454, a = 0.05). Inlet COD and cBOD5 (Fig. 3)
concentrations did not act as a covariate on filtrate concentrations.
3.4. Chemical and biological oxygen demand removal Concentrations of COD and cBOD5 in filtrate remained relatively
constant over time during alum and ferric chloride treatments.
The geotextile bag filters did not remove COD or cBOD5 as When lime was used, however, filtrate concentrations of COD and
effectively as they removed TSS. Mean filtrate concentrations of cBOD5 (Fig. 3) increased over time and the mean concentration of
COD and cBOD5 were high under all treatments, ranging from 577 cBOD5 in the filtrate was higher than in the inflow to the bag.
to 1147 mg/L and from 235 to 734 mg/L, respectively (Table 5). Retaining biosolids under anaerobic conditions within the
Lowest mean COD removal efficiency was for lime amended geotextile bag filters most likely mineralized the organic matter
wastewater (35.3%) followed by ferric chloride (67.2%) and alum and produced a more readily biodegradable organic carbon as
(69.6%). ANOVA results indicated a significant difference in measured by the cBOD5 test, which would explain the increase in
removal efficiencies exists (p = 0.000, a = 0.05). Closer examination cBOD5 concentration across the bag filters.
applying Tukey’s post hoc analysis indicated lime treatment
results in a statistically significant lower COD removal rate 3.5. Nitrogen removal
compared to alum (p = 0.000, a = 0.05) and ferric chloride
(p = 0.006, a = 0.05), but no significant difference in COD removal The capacity of geotextile bags to remove nitrogen from drum
efficiency is evident when comparing alum with ferric chloride filter backwash over an intermediate or extended period of time
treatments (p = 0.160, a = 0.05). Least effective cBOD5 removal was limited. Poor TN removal efficiency was evident with the lime
efficiencies were for lime (47.4%) and ferric chloride (9.3%) treatment (8.9%) followed by moderate removal with alum
treated wastewater. The alum amended dewatering process (39.1%) and ferric chloride (46.7%) (Table 6). ANOVA results
performed moderately better (56.6.%) ANOVA results indicated a indicated a significant difference in TN removal efficiencies exists
significant difference in cBOD5 removal efficiency among treat- among treatments (p = 0.000, a = 0.05). Tukey’s post hoc analysis
ments (p = 0.001, a = 0.05). Tukey’s post hoc analysis indicated indicated no significant difference in TN removal efficiency when
alum application results in a significantly higher cBOD5 removal comparing alum and ferric chloride treatments (p = 0.810,

Table 6
Inlet and filtrate concentrations and removal efficiencies for total nitrogen, total ammonia nitrogen, nitrite-nitrogen, nitrate-nitrogen, total phosphorus, and dissolved
reactive phosphorus concentrations for each coagulant/flocculant treatment assessing solids dewatering and phosphorus removal capacity of a recirculating aquaculture
effluent.

Treatment (+25 mg/L polymer) TN (mg/L) TAN (mg/L) NO2-N (mg/L) NO3-N (mg/L) TP (mg/L) DRP (mg/L)

50 mg/L Alum
Inlet 61.9  3.7 1.8  0.1 0.26  0.03 2.2  0.1 40.1  2.4 1.0  0.1
Filtrate 37.7  1.8 28.1  1.4 0.01  0.00 1.4  0.1 13  0.6 11.1  0.5
% Removal 39.1 1461 96.2 36.4 67.6 1010

50 mg/L Ferric chloride

Inlet 82.6  6.8 1.4  0.1 0.306  0.030 3.3  0.2 42.1  3.7 1.0  0.1
Filtrate 44.0  2.8 28.8  2.1 0.002  0.001 1.8  0.2 22.3  0.9 20.0  1.1
% Removal 46.7 1957 99.3 45.5 47.0b 1900

50 mg/L Lime
Inlet 79.7  4.7 1.4  0.2 0.799  0.164 15.1  3.7 33.9  3.2 1.6  0.2
Filtrate 86.8  7.7 59.4  6.5 1.139  0.756 2.7  0.6 7.7  1.6 4.7  1.0
% Removal 8.9a 4142 42 82.1 77.3 194
a
Tukey’s HSD post hoc analysis indicates significantly lessened TN removal capacity applying lime when compared with alum and ferric chloride treatments.
b
Tukey’s HSD post hoc analysis indicates significantly lessened TP removal capacity applying ferric chloride when compared with alum and lime treatments.
8 M.J. Sharrer et al. / Aquacultural Engineering 40 (2009) 1–10

Fig. 5. Recirculating aquaculture drum filter backwash dewatered through

Fig. 4. Recirculating aquaculture drum filter backwash dewatered through
coagulant/flocculant amended geotextile bags. Filtrate DRP concentrations for
coagulant/flocculant amended geotextile bags. Filtrate TN concentrations for
each treatment (alum + polymer, FeCl + polymer, and lime + polymer) as a function
each treatment (alum + polymer, FeCl + polymer, and lime + polymer) as a function
of time.
of time.

a = 0.05), but that TN removal efficiency was significantly less with bind the DRP that entered the geotextile bag filters. Alum and ferric
lime application when compared to either alum (p = 0.000, chloride dosages were not sufficient to bind the large amount of DRP
a = 0.05) or ferric chloride (p = 0.000, a = 0.05). Inlet TN concen- that was released after the biosolids mineralized under anaerobic
tration did not act as a covariate on filtrate concentration. Mean conditions. Alternatively, alum and ferric chloride may lose their
bag inlet TN and TAN concentrations ranged between 61.9– capacity to bind DRP under anaerobic conditions. In contrast, DRP
82.6 mg/L and 1.4–1.8 mg/L, respectively (Table 6). Mean filtrate leaching into the filtrate was much lower in the lime treatment than
TN and TAN concentrations ranged between 37.7–86.8 mg/L and in the alum and ferric chloride treatments; DRP concentrations in
28.1–59.4 mg/L, respectively. Thus, inlet TN concentrations were the filtrate were consistently <3.0 mg/L throughout the first 40 days
comprised primarily of organically bound nitrogen, which was of lime application (Fig. 5). Over time, as biosolids captured within
captured in each geotextile bag filter with the TSS captured. Filtrate the bag began to mineralize, the release of organic acids resulted in a
TN concentrations were principally in the inorganic fraction (TAN), gradual decrease in filtrate pH during the lime trial (Fig. 6). By day 40
which suggests that the TN in captured biosolids was mineralized of the trial, the pH of the lime amended filtrate had dropped below 8
to ammonia during storage under anaerobic conditions in the and phosphorus retention was reduced. Sedlak (1991) describe two
geotextile bag. In addition, the TN concentration in the filtrate types of lime based phosphorus-removal system: a single stage, low
tended to increase over time for all treatments (Fig. 4). In lime system (pH <9.5) that can achieve filtrate TP concentrations of
comparison, Stewart et al. (2006) describe rapid leaching of 1–2 mg/L and a two-stage, high lime system (pH >11.5) that can
nitrogen into overlying water from solids settled in raceway achieve TP concentrations of <0.1 mg/L. It is likely that lime dosing
quiescent zones within the first 24 h and continual leaching after 7 conditions prior to geotextile filtration were sufficient for phos-
days. The trial in which lime was used as a coagulant showed phorus precipitation and subsequent capture in the geotextile bag
particularly poor TN capture (Fig. 4). The data suggest that the pH under the single stage, low lime model. If higher lime dosages had
increase seen in lime application correlated to an increased release been applied to achieve an inlet pH of 12, it is more likely that DRP
of TN (primarily as ammonia) from the accumulated biosolids. concentrations in the filtrate would have remained low throughout
the trial.
3.6. Phosphorus removal
3.7. Cost analysis
Coagulant and polymer amended geotextile bag filters removed
67.6, 47.0, and 77.3% of TP, on average, when treated with alum, The unit costs of polymer, alum, ferric chloride, and hydrated
ferric chloride, and lime, respectively (Table 6). ANOVA results lime were obtained from bulk chemical supplier at US $2.88/kg,
indicated a significant difference in TP removal efficiencies among $0.55/kg, $2.38/kg, and $0.42/kg (US $), respectively (Table 7).
the three treatments (p = 0.000, a = 0.05). Tukey’s post hoc analysis Combining these chemical costs with the volume of daily
shows no significant difference in TP removal efficiency between backwash treated across each pilot-scale geotextile bag filter,
the alum and lime treatments (p = 0.980, a = 0.05), but indicated a
significantly lessened removal efficiency when applying ferric
chloride as compared to alum (p = 0.000, a = 0.05) and lime
(p = 0.000, a = 0.05). No inlet covariate influence was observed.
Inlet TP and dissolved reactive phosphorus (DRP) concentrations
ranged between 33.9–42.1 mg/L and 1.0–1.6 mg/L, respectively
(Table 6), indicating the bulk of the TP was bound in the biosolids
entering the geotextile bags. However, filtrate TP and DRP
concentrations ranged from 7.7–22.3 mg/L to 4.7–20.0 mg/L,
indicating that mineralization within the geotextile bag filters
released a large portion of the TP as DRP.
Dissolved phosphorus is precipitated with alum, ferric chloride,
and hydrated lime (Eqs. (1)–(3)). However, as biosolids within the
geotextile bags began to mineralize under anaerobic conditions, TP
in the biosolids began leaching into the filtrate as DRP, especially in Fig. 6. Recirculating aquaculture drum filter backwash dewatered through
the ferric chloride and alum treatments. These results indicated that coagulant/flocculant amended geotextile bags. Filtrate pH for each treatment
the alum and ferric chloride dosages used were only sufficient to (alum + polymer, FeCl + polymer, and lime + polymer) as a function of time.
 M.J. Sharrer et al. / Aquacultural Engineering 40 (2009) 1–10 9

Table 7
The calculated costs of amending biosolids entering the pilot-scale geotextile bag filters with polymer, alum, ferric chloride, and hydrated lime. In addition, an example is
provided on the requirements for a geotextile bag filter sized to capture and dewater backwash from a hypothetical 454 ton/yr fish production facility, which includes
estimates of the biosolids bound in the backwash flow, polymer and alum requirements and annual costs.

Alum Ferric chloride Hydrated lime Commercial example (454 mton/yr)

Filter inlet TSS, mg/L 621 542 600 697a,c

Inlet flow, L/day 379 455 450 500,000a,c
Biosolids loading, kg/yr 85.91 90.01 98.55 127,273a

Polymer dose, mg/L 25 25 25 25

Polymer annual use, kg/yr 3.458 4.152 4.106 4,563
Polymer unit cost, $/kg 2.88 2.88 2.88 2.88
Polymer annual cost, $/yr 10 12 12 13,140

Coagulant dose, mg/L 50 50 800 50b

Coagulant annual use kg/yr 6.917 8.304 131.400 9,125c
Coagulant unit cost, $/kg 0.55 2.38 0.42 0.55b
Coagulant annual cost, $/yr 4 20 55 5,019b

Annual Coagulant + Polymer cost, $/yr 14 32 67 18,159

Coagulant + Polymer cost per dry weight biosolids, $/kg 0.160 0.352 0.680 0.143
Coagulant + Polymer cost per unit feed feda, $/mton feed 32.05 70.39 136.00 28.54
a
Assuming that 0.20 kg TSS captured per 1.0 kg feed fed.
b
Assuming alum is used.
c
Assuming a 0.5% backwash flow (worst case scenario), feed conversion rate of 1.4, and 0.2 kg TSS captured per kg feed fed.

we estimated the annual cost of polymer plus alum, ferric chloride, loaded at approximately 60–70 L/day/m2 bag surface area and
or hydrated lime amendment (Table 7), i.e., US $14, $32, or $67, amended with polymer plus alum, ferric chloride, or lime. Alum
respectively. This produces a cost for the polymer plus alum, ferric was found to be the most cost effective coagulant amendment
chloride, or lime amendments of US $0.16, $0.35, or $0.68 per ($0.16/kg dry weight biosolids) and hydrated lime the most
kilogram (dry weight) of TSS treated, respectively. Assuming that expensive ($0.68/kg dry weight biosolids), with cost for ferric
0.20 kg TSS is captured for every 1.0 kg feed fed (Davidson and chloride mid-way between alum and lime. Geotextile bag filters
Summerfelt, 2005), then the cost for the polymer plus alum, ferric also provide good solids dewatering, producing 19–22% biosolids
chloride, or lime amendments would be US $0.032, $0.070, or concentrations 7–10 days after wastewater treatment additions
$0.136 per kilogram of feed fed, respectively (Table 6). Alum is were discontinued. As a result, cost associated with handling and
clearly the most cost effective amendment, while lime is the most disposal of fish culture wastes can be mitigated, and sludge
expensive. However, the cost of polymer, which is required to produced is suitable for land application or composting. Con-
maintain hydraulic flux through geotextile bag filter, is more than versely, mineralization and leaching releases large concentrations
twice the cost of the required alum. Thus, even if alum were not of dissolved wastes as the captured biosolids age within the
used, the cost of adding polymer alone would only reduce geotextile bag filters. Of note, COD and cBOD5 removal under all
treatment chemical costs by about 30%. treatments were negligible, and lime application appeared to
An estimate of the costs required to apply a large geotextile bag promote release of organic acids, which produced no net removal
filter at a hypothetical commercial scale aquaculture facility of cBOD5 across the bag filters. Further, it was evident that
producing 454 mt of fish annually is summarized in Table 7. This mineralization of organic nitrogen to TAN occurred over time,
bag filter would be loaded with approximately 127 mt of TSS producing mean TAN concentrations in the filtrate of 28–60 mg/L.
annually, assuming that 0.2 kg of TSS are captured as part of drum Also, TP precipitation and capture was limited with the alum and
filter backwash per kg feed fed, and a mean facility feed conversion ferric chloride treatments. However, TP precipitation and capture
rate of 1.4. The total backwash flow to be treated would with lime amendment was evident throughout the first 40 days
conservatively be <500 m3/day, assuming a total recirculating that the bags were hydraulically loaded but after that declined.
water flow of 100,000 m3/day and a backwash that is 0.5% of the total Addition of sufficient hydrated lime to create an inlet pH of at least
recycle flow (i.e., 100,000  0.005 = 500 m3/day). Estimates of 12 would likely have further improved TP capture and storage
annual alum and polymer cost would be US $18,159 (Table 7). within the geotextile bag filters.
Assuming the 65 L/day/m2 of bag area hydraulic loading rate applied The significant amount of COD, cBOD5, DRP, and inorganic
as in the present study, four geotextile bags sized to provide a surface nitrogen that leached into the filtrate is a grave disadvantage that
area of approximately 1925 m2 each is required for bag removal and must be considered before applying geotextile bag filters in typical
replacement events to occur on a quarterly basis. This size dewatering and effluent treatment application. However, geotex-
requirement could be met with geotextile bags measuring 27.4 m tile bag filters could provide an excellent pretreatment in an
(90 ft) in circumference and approximately 69.8 m (229 ft) long, application where the TSS must be dewatered for disposal, but
which would cost approximately US $20,000 per bag. Additionally, leaching of dissolved organic carbon and cBOD5 from these
the geotextile bag filter needs to rest on an impermeable, drained biosolids is desired to drive a denitrification process removing
surface to capture the filtrate. The filtrate would also require further nitrate from another effluent. Geotextile bag filters could also
treatment, i.e., additional capital equipment and operating cost, if it provide an excellent pretreatment in an application where the TSS
were to be discharged or reclaimed and reused. must be dewatered for disposal, but leaching of inorganic nitrogen
and DRP from these biosolids is desired to feed nutrients to a
4. Conclusions downstream hydroponic/aquaponic operation or used as irrigation
for field crops.
Geotextile bag filters can consistently remove approximately The captured biosolids that have been removed from the
95% of the TSS contained in aquaculture backwash flows when geotextile bag filters can serve as a soil amendment due to their
10 M.J. Sharrer et al. / Aquacultural Engineering 40 (2009) 1–10

2.2–3.6% nitrogen, 0.15–0.17% phosphorus, and 0.4–0.9% potas- EPA (United States Environmental Protection Agency, 2000. Biosolids Technology
Fact Sheet: Alkaline Stabilization of Biosolids. EPA 832-F-00-052. EPA Office of
sium, when field applied at agronomic rates. In addition, field Water, Washington, DC.
application of lime amended biosolids can increase soil fertility, EPA (United States Environmental Protection Agency, 1995. Standards for the Use or
increase soil pH, and make metals more insoluble, which can Disposal of Sewage Sludge. 40 CFR Parts 403 and 503. EPA, Washington, DC.
Elko, N.A., Mann, D.W., 2007. Implementation of geotextile T-groins in Pinellas
minimize plant uptake and movement of metals to groundwater County, Florida. Shore Beach 75 (2), 2–10.
(EPA, 2000). Ewart, J.W., Hankins, J.A., Bullock, D., 1995. State Policies for Aquaculture Effluents
Future work with geotextile bags will explore comparisons with and Solid Wastes in the Northeast Region Bulletin No. 300. University of
Massachusetts: Northeastern Regional Aquaculture Center, North Dartmouth.
other settling (i.e., gravity thickening tank) and filtration
Idaho Division of Environmental Quality, 1998. Idaho Waste Management Guide-
techniques (i.e., inclined belt filter) in terms of performance and lines for Aquaculture Operations. Idaho Department of Health and Welfare,
cost. Additional research will also examine the capacity to Division of Environmental Quality, Twin Falls, Idaho.
Korkut, R., Martinez, E.J., Morales, R., Ettema, R., Barkdoll, B., 2007. Geobag perfor-
incorporate a modified activated sludge process to promote
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system for land-based fish-farming. Aquacult. Eng. 22 (3), 199–211.
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Acknowledgments capture and wastewater treatment in intensive tank based production systems.
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Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service under grant Agreement third edition. McGraw Hill, New York, NY.
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