Hardware
Processing Devices
Memory Devices
Input Devices
Optical Input Devices
Audio-visual Input Devices
Output Devices
Monitors
Printing Devices
Storage Devices
Magnetic
Optical Storage Devices.
Memory Devices
Memory Units:
- amount of data that can be stored
- expressed in Bytes, KB, MB, GB….
Following are the storage units:
Memory Devices
-‐
Internal
storages
areas
in
a
computer
Term
“memory”
identi6ies
the
memory
chips,
Term
“storage”
de6ines
capacity
of
devices
to
hold
the
data.
-‐ CPU
has
very
little
memory
hence
must
depend
on
other
memories
to
hold
data,
instruction
and
to
save
the
outputs/results.
-‐ Each
memory
location
has
to
have
an
address
-‐ Each
address
is
assigned
a
unique
identi,ier
speci6ic
to
that
memory
location
-‐ comes
in
various
capacity
range
(512
KB,
1MB,
2
GB….)
e.g.
mailboxes
where
their
number
remains
the
same
but
the
actual
contents
changes
continuously
Memory Devices
Two
types
of
Memory:
RAM
and
ROM.
1.
RAM
(Random
Access
Memory):
Normal RAM
-‐
aka
Main
or
primary
memory
-‐
Processor
can
read/write
contents
from/to
any
memory
locations
“RANDOM”
-‐
temporarily
stores
operating
system,
application
programs
and
data
currently
in
use
or
data
being
processed
by
the
CPU.
-‐
faster
to
read
from
and
to
write
than
other
storage
devices
like
hard
disk,
6loppy
disk,
CD-‐ROM,
USB
Drives
-‐ Volatile
behavior,
i.e.
holds
data
as
long
as
there’s
electricity.
Once
First of it’s kind
PC
is
switched
off,
RAM
looses
128 GB DDR4 RAM from Samsung
all
it’s
contents
Data Rate: 2400 Mbps
RAM
(Random
Access
Memory)
Exception:
“Flash
RAM”,
stores
data
even
when
there
is
no
electricity
But
more
expensive.
two
basic
types
of
RAM:
– (i)
Dynamic
RAM
(DRAM)
&
– (ii)
Static
RAM
(SRAM).
i)
Static
RAM
(SRAM):
-‐ Stores
data
continuously
as
long
as
there
is
electricity,
without
any
refresh
or
less
refresh
process.
-‐ used
as
cache
memory
(L1:
8
–
64
KB;
L2:
2
–
4
MB;
&
L3:
8
–
16
MB)
-‐ more
faster
than
DRAM,
but
expensive
ii)
Dynamic
RAM
(DRAM):
DRAM requires continuous current to maintain
-‐ doesn't
store
the
data
continuously
its electrical state as it’s electrical charge
decreases with time which may result in loss of
hence,
the
computer
will
refresh
the
DATA. Hence must be recharged or refreshed
data
hundreds
of
times
every
second
again and again to maintain the data. Also the
processor cannot access the data of DRAM
-‐ slower
compared
to
SRAM,
cheap.
when it is being refreshed. Hence is slower.
-‐ used
in
personal
computers.
ROM
(Read
Only
Memory)
-‐
non-‐volatile
memory
i.e.
ROM
can
store
data
permanently
-‐
also
Random
access,
i.e.
CPU
can
read
contents
of
ROM
but
cannot
make
any
modiNications,
Hence,
is
called
Read
Only.
-‐
programmed
during
manufacturing
process
itself
by
the
manufacturer.
-‐
Firmware
=>
program
stored
in
ROM
-‐ Write
once
and
read
many
-‐ Requires
special
equipment
to
remove
it’s
contents
-‐
Used
to
store
critical
programs
e.g.
program
that
boots
the
computer.
BIOS.
There
are
four
types
of
ROM:
1.
PROM:
Programmable
ROM.
3.
EEPROM:
Electrically
EPROM
2.
EPROM:
Erasable
Programmable
ROM
4.
Flash
Memory
ROM
(Read
Only
Memory)
1. PROM:
Programmable
Read
Only
Memory
- non-‐volatile.
- Can
be
programmed
with
special
tool
such
as
PROM-‐Programmers.
- one-‐time
programmable
device:
Once
programmed,
can
never
be
changed
again.
- manufactured
blank
where
as
ROM
chips
are
programmed
during
manufacturing
process.
2.
EPROM:
Erasable
Programmable
ROM
- special
types
of
PROM
chips
that
can
be
erased
and
reused
again
and
again.
- can
be
erased
by
exposing
them
to
strong
ultra-‐violet
rays
- Can
be
re-‐programmed
repeatedly
using
PROM-‐Programmers
- more
expensive
than
PROM
- Widely
used
in
personal
computers
because
it
allows
manufacturer
to
change
the
contents
before
computer
is
actually
shipped,
this
means
bugs
can
be
removed
and
new
versions
can
be
installed
shortly
before
delivery.
Memory Devices
3.
EEPROM:
Electrically
Erasable
Programmable
Read
Only
Memory
- Special
types
of
PROM
that
can
be
erased
by
an
electrical
charge
- Can
be
reprogrammed
by
using
slightly
higher
voltage.
- can
erase
one
byte
at
a
time
and
hence,
re-‐programming
is
Nlexible.
- does
not
need
additional
equipment
for
re-‐programming.
also
known
as
Flash
EEPROM,
difference
is
that
EEPROM
allows
contents
be
erased
one
Byte
at
a
time
whereas,
Flash
Memory
erases
contents
in
Block.
4.
Flash
Memory:
- special
type
of
EEPROM
that
can
be
erased
and
re-‐programmed
in
blocks
instead
of
one
byte
at
a
time.
- Hence
easy/faster
to
update.
- New
PCs
have
their
BIOS
stored
in
Nlash
memory.
- also
used
in
digital
devices
and
phones.
CMOS
CMOS:
complementary
metal
oxide
semiconductor.
-‐ special
RAM
chip
powered
and
maintained
by
a
small
battery
-‐ provides
Nlexibility
and
expandability
to
the
computer
system.
-‐ -‐
holds
basic
con6iguration
data
your
computer
needs
in
order
to
start.
e.g.
information:
total
RAM
size,
types
of
keyboard,
mouse,
monitor
and
disc
drive.
However
it’s
content
changes
according
to
changes
inside
the
computer
system,
such
as
the
addition
of
new
hardware
such
as
RAM,
graphic
cards…
CMOS Battery
BIOS
BIOS => Basic input output system.
- A program stored in a read-only memory (ROM) chip that the CPU
automatically loads and executes when it receives power.
- controls the start-up process and loads the operating system into main
memory.
- BIOS is an example of firmware.
Most BIOS chips are 64k in size,
though there is 384k address space
available for the BIOS to use.
Virtual
Memory
- using hard disk space to make main memory ‘appear’ larger
- RAM
alone
cannot
accommodate
the
entire
program
and
data.
- In
such
cases,
program
and
data
are
kept
outside
RAM
till
it
is
needed.
- This
type
of
storage
is
known
as
virtual
memory.
- On
a
system
which
uses
virtual
memory,
only
the
parts
of
the
program
and
data
currently
needed
are
stored
in
main
memory,
the
rest
remains
in
a
hard
disk,
- when
the
computer
needs
a
part
of
the
program
that
is
in
disk,
it
moves
the
contents
of
the
memory
to
the
disk
and
brings
the
required
part
to
the
main
memory.
- Both
operating
system
and
CPU
must
be
equipped
for
this
purpose.
- Reduces
cost
of
the
system
because
it
is
cheaper
to
store
data
on
a
hard
disk
instead
of
adding
additional
memory
chips
to
the
computer.
Cache Memory
- very
high
speed
semiconductor
memory,
which
speeds
up
CPU.
- Placed
between
CPU
and
Main
Memory,
hence
acts
as
a
buffer
- used
to
hold
frequently
used
parts
of
data
and
program.
- faster
to
read
from
Cache
than
main
memory.
- Only
offers
limited
storage
capacity
- very
expensive.
Operating
system
transfers
the
parts
of
data
and
programs
from
disk
to
cache
memory
from
where
CPU
can
access
them.
Secondary Memory
- known
as
external
memory
or
non-‐volatile.
- slower
than
main
memory.
- used
for
storing
Data/Information
permanently
- CPU
does
not
access
these
memories
directly,
instead
they
are
accessed
via
input-‐output
routines.
- Contents
of
secondary
memories
are
Nirst
transferred
to
main
memory
and
then
CPU
can
access
it.
- These
are
magnetic
and
optical
memories.
- Computer
may
run
without
secondary
memory.
- For
example:
Hard-‐disk,
CD-‐ROM,
DVD,
USB
sticks
etc.
