Geotechnical Engineering I

Prof. Devendra N. Singh

Department of Civil Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology-Bombay

Lecture-09
Soil aggregate and phase relations

Now I will start quantifying the soil matrix or soil aggregate.

(Refer Slide Time: 00:31)

So, this is a new topic, “Soil Aggregate”. Basically, this defines the description of the assembly
of particles. And from this point onwards, the quantification of the soil matrix starts. We also call
this as “Phase-Relations”. Now, the simple thing is that if you have a soil mass, I am sure you
must have realized that now I have switched over from discrete particle of the soil to soil mass.
As the first time I am using the word soil mass or the matrix of the soil until now I have been
dealing with mostly discrete particles, grains.

Now, I am talking about the soil mass. So? this soil mass contains all the constituents which we
have talked about. Alright? Different constituents. Now, suppose if this soil mass has the volume
of V and weight W, capital W. Now this can be depicted as a system of 3 phases and these 3
phases are it is an assumption, simplification. So, this is the air phase, this is the water phase for
the sake of the simplicity for third year students of soil mechanics, geotechnical engineering,
I am talking about simple fluid phases water and air, tomorrow if you want to manipulate it to a
multi phase system, you can do that. Air might be having vapors you know fumes of different
chemicals and so on. Water could be in semi-frozen form, liquid form, vapor perform of course
which constitutes again the air space alright. And the solids, we have talked about the air phase,
we have talked about the water phase, we have talked about the solid phase, individual particle of
the grain is incompressible, clear?

Now, if you do this type of mathematical modeling this becomes discrete modeling you are
considering each and every particle in the continuum. Continuum is the one which is a
continuous system containing several millions of particles of the soils clear. However, an
assemblage of the grains is going to be compressible clear. So, it is a very tricky material,
sometimes we talk about the incompressible grains but now the matrix of the soil mass is going
to be compressible, is still we assume that this solid phase is not going to be compressible as
compared to water which is totally incompressible.

And air which is going to be compressible at not STP standard temperature pressure. So, this is
going to be you know, getting compressed if you elevate the pressures. Under STP, we assume
that air phase, water phase, solid phase is the way it is. Now to differentiate these, what we will
do is, this is what is known as the 3 phases or the phase diagram. Where the research is? The
research is somewhere like if I want to make it a multi-phase system.

So, in multi-phase system as I said we can take different components and this becomes a very
complicated system. So, if I depict volume of air as Va, volume of water as Vw and volume of
solids as Vs, alright? And the weight associated with air, Wa will be tending to 0 or equal to 0. Is
this ok? We normally do not talk about the weight of the air. So, I will remove this, there is no
point in writing this.

However, the weight of the water component is Ww and the weight of the solids is Ws. Solids are
basically the skeleton of the soil, minerals. I hope you can realize that
V = Va + Vw + Vs
And in this, what will be the air and water combined together?
 V = Vv + Vs
So, Vv becomes volume of voids, is this part ok? Now comes the question what you are asking,
the first attribute of the soil mass is it is void ratio (e).

Most of the net Indian authors write it void but normally I prefer this as voids ratio because there
is no one void there are several voids present in the system. Now,
e = Vv / Vs
Alright? Porosity is a derivative of the void ratio and the way the porosity is defined is normally
we define this porosity as  you have used this symbol ever ? So, this is the porosity and this is
normally defined as volume of voids divided by total volume, is this part clear?

So? this is what I feel you are asking is this ok, so now we have defined the porosity and now
you can realize that porosity and the void ratios are interlinked with each other. Compute quickly
what is the relationship between void ratio and void and porosity. Sir, yes how can the water
come under voids how can water volume come under voids volume? how come yeah water
volume come under voids volume. Because this is the void space, this whole thing is voids, voids
are the ones in which the water and air is going to sit.

The voids are the ones in which the air and water will be sitting in the soil matrix, is this ok? So?
when you say voids this is Vv/ Vs. Now when I say,
=Vv / V
Is this ok now? Let me defend him, the only way to defend you would be supposed if I am
dealing with only dry soils, water will not be there, the voids will be only of the air maybe this is
what you wanted to say. is this ok?

So, we have created a subclass is this correct, now you are happy, so you are also correct. I am
also correct, but please make sure that the general equations are these. Now my question is can
you correlate these 2 quickly do it quickly.
(Refer Slide Time: 10:07)
And find out relationship between this, f is a function.

Yeah you are right, do it from the first principle. So, I will just quickly tell you how to do it. So?
e = Vv / Vs
 = Vv / (Vv + Vs)
Is this correct? So? I can write this as,
=1 / (1+ (Vs/ Vv))
Can you modify it?
What is Vv / Vs? e, so,
 = e / (1+e)
Because, e = Vv / Vs
This is the most fundamental relationship which defines the soil matrix, now come out of these
discrete systems. Now we are talking about the soil matrix. So, what we have done is we have
defined the void ratio, we have defined the porosity and we have interlinked porosity with,
 = e / (1+e)
(Refer Slide Time: 11:43)
The second fundamental thing would be saturation, normally we define this as S those of few
who are more into hydraulics would define this like Sr both are correct. So sometimes they define
is as S or Sr, I prefer S to avoid the complications of another r you know. This is defined as,
S = Vw / Vv
And remember all these terms are in percentages or you may convert them into fractions also.

So, this could be either in percentages, alright? or I can use fractions also both ways it is used.
So, this is the saturation water saturation.

The next term is if I am defining this as saturation, this is something known as air content, ac and
this is equal to (1-S). So basically, this can be written as

ac = Va / Vv

The next term in the series is gravimetric moisture content. Normally this is defined as w, again
in percentage. Can you guess what will be the definition of the moisture content? Vw upon why?
you are correct. Because, the volume of water divided by volume of solids is w. But normally we
do not write like this. We were talking about gravimetric and you brought into it, you got it, you
got 0? Is this clear? This is a fundamental mistake with many people do, so please remember you
were talking about the gravimetric analysis or we were talking about the gravimetric things and
you have included the volumes is not correct, it will be in the terms of weights.
(Refer Slide Time: 14:39)
So,
w = ww / ws
Is this okay? Now to confirm your question. Now, suppose if I say volumetric moisture content
normally this is defined as . Third year students are not supposed to know these things. But I
am trying to expose you to these concepts.
=.S
Or sometimes we can also prove that this is w  d.

Is this ok? Now, d is that dry unit weight. When I say soil it is understood that I am talking
about the soil mass, alright? We will discuss how to obtain the d value, let me complete first the
series.

Then comes the unit weight. Unit weight of the soil mass is normally defined as , we defined
this as the t, which is corresponding to total. Very soon we will realize that there are different
types of unit weights. Clear?

So?
t = w / V
How it is computed? So? let me first introduce the concepts of the unit weights. These unit
weights are; (1) total, (2) submerged, any idea how would you compute the submerged unit
weight? Please remember this is not the density these are the unit weights. So? density of the
material multiplied by g value agreed? Units are kN/m3. Specific gravity G, is g/c3, ok?

So, submerged any idea how would you obtain this? So, let us understand what this concept is. If
I take let us say, this is the ground level, water table is somewhere here. This is how the water
table is depicted, alright? If I take a point somewhere here let us say point number A, there is no
direct connection with water table, depending upon the material please remember. Depending
upon the material at this point, the unit weight could be d provided this layer happens to be
sands, I will explain what is the difference clear?

So, we are just talking about the physical attributes of the material coarse-grained material it
cannot hold water, alright? And if there is a water table we will soon study that there cannot be
any capillary action and hence water cannot raise in this layer at this point the unit weight is
going to be d . However, if I change this sand to the fine-sands or clays or compacted clays, the
story changes. Simply mugging these equations is not going to help you unless you realize the
concepts behind everything.

So, I have created several situations out of it, are you getting this point? So? if I say large grain
granular material, water table is not going to influence it ever. But the moment I say fine-grained
sands, fine-grained sands will tend to create capillarity and this water will get lifted up to a
certain depth. Clear? Or if it is clays very fine particles. And the material tends to suck water
because of capillary action. Fine? compacted clays, you were using clays and you compacted
them.

So, you have created more and more capillary action, we will discuss all these in details. So?
now this point is in the dry state. However, if I consider a point B, and if Water table remains
over here, most of the time this point B is under submerged state, clear? And submerged state is
nothing but the t- w. Normally this type of unit weight is depicted as sub. please be very very
careful with the wordings of the situation.
The material is so notorious, at the same time so obedient, that it wants to understand what the
circumstances are. Clear? Try not to do these types of mistakes. That means, you have to read
very carefully the type of situation which has been created when something is being asked to
you. So, I have created several situations materials properties and the way their deposition is
occurring is this quite clear, we will discuss about this much more, these are normal mistake
people do ok.

So, I have defined now submerged unit weight and the third one could be saturated, so this I will
say as sat . And the fourth one which I will be using is dry unit weight which I will be defining
as d. So first of all, 4 types of unit weights I am talking about, unit weight of the soil mass, t,
sub, sat, d , clear? Now coming to this point, what I said is this is the ground level you have the
water level, a point A over here is in the dry state as long as the material is not a fine-grained
material and not compacted material.

And it is a granular material which cannot hold water for a long time. That means capillarity is
not going to be in this region at all. However, as long as the water table remains intact over here,
any point which is lying over here is in the submerged condition. And when we talk about the
submerge sometime people also call this as buoyant. Buoyancy, you have studied, is this part
clear now?

So, this is a differentiation the way the layers are placed, the point where it is and the material
property and the compaction effect, fine? And yes, yeah, because this is submerged so what you
have to do is this unit weight is going see you have subtracted the unit weight of water because
this is submerged. So, this is a sort of a buoyancy which is acting at this point. So, unit weight of
this point is going to be sub, buoyant clear.

So? either you write b. Also, it is a good idea to follow the symbols which I am using in the
class, so that there is no confusion between both of us at least alright, you agree is this fine. So?
this is either b or sub, t, sat, d -4 types of gamma we will talk about, take few minutes to
assimilate these thoughts in your mind yes.
So,
 = S   = w  d
Oh,  there is no formula. Normally what we do is  is directly measured. So?  ok I will tell
you if you are interested in knowing  would be volume of water present in volume of voids,
now try to prove it.

This will be a good homework for you, now I think you are the guy who said clear gravimetric
versus volumetric. Now what we have done, this is the gravimetric thing weighting of the
weights and now you are talking in terms of volume. So? look at the volumetric moisture
content, this is volume fractions. The moisture content in gravimetric form was the weight
fractions, clear? Sir the formula for the saturation in s you have written same saturation and 
yeah sir Vw no Abi do one thing you please do this as an exercise.

Like you have defined gravimetric moisture content as Ww upon Ws, so  should be also equal to
read Vw upon Vs. That is what I am saying, so please remember the volumetric moisture content
is always defined as the volume of water or the moisture which is present in the volume of the
voids clear? So, this is volume of water which is present in volume of voids what is gravimetry
first of all. In chemistry you have done gravimetric analysis, you weigh everything clear?

So, that is gravimetric weights volume, volumetric moisture content clear? So, volumetric
moisture content cannot be weight what you have to do, you have to measure it, this is the
volumetric moisture, so this has to be measured in the volumetric fashion. Now, these are 2
thoughts of schools, one talks about gravimetric one talks about volumetric. Now tell me in
today's world in 21st century when you are using these concepts which one you like to use and
why?

This is the age of electronic sensing clear, I need not to take a sample from the ground and bring
it to the lab by the time I bring it to the lab from Rajasthan everything is lost, it my moisture gets
evaporated, agreed. So? what I want to do, I want to use a sensor I want to install it there itself
what sensor is going to do, it is going to measure volumes clear, this is becoming obsolete.
Because lot of problems first of all take undisturbed sample, bring it all the way to Bombay in
your laboratory, there temperature would be 45, 50. How would you maintain the moisture
sample very big question clear? So? nowadays it is good that you are asking this question I am
sure you are getting exposed to lot of interesting ideas. So? the whole thing is use sensors install
them in the field measure this.

Most of the automated sprinkling systems which are working are based on measurement of
volumetric moisture. One more thing for gravimetric and volumetric moisture content is if you
do the experiment then you will come to know the temperature that we used for gravimetric
moisture content and at that temperature most of the organic matter also get vanished ok very
good. So? explain this again, so what he is trying to tell you is that why gravimetric moisture
content should not be used when you are dealing with the soils.

Because you have recently studied that soils have lot of organic matter and if I expose the soils to
high temperatures I may lose the organic content and hence the result will be wrong. And this is
the reason why people are not adopting the gravimetric methods these days, alright?
(Refer Slide Time: 27:44)

So? please make 2 corrections d upon w into moisture content which is gravimetric and Vw upon
V.
(Refer Slide Time: 28:10)
Now let us go into the s, what is t? Suppose there is a soil mass like this, this is the ground
level and I want to find out what is the total unit weight of the soil at point A there are several
techniques. One of these techniques is you know we call it as a core-cutter method. I am sure
there is a laboratory experiment on this you must have done this. What normally we do is we
make a small hole over here on the ground, alright? scrape out this soil, remove this soil put it in
a polythene bag, so that the moisture does not get lost.

And this weight of the soil which you have remove from here and if I measure the volume of the
cavity which I have created over here, alright? this can be done with the help of sand
replacement. So, core-cutter method and sand-replacement methods are normally use to obtain t
value. The procedure is like this you take a small, you know pre-punctured sheet of metal keep it
over here. There is will be an orifice in this and through this orifice you drop sands clean dry
sands.

I can measure the volume of the sands which is filled in this cavity, I know the specific gravity of
the sands, I can compute the volume. clear? I will tell you how to do this. The soil which you
have removed is taken to the lab, dry it in the oven, get the weight, obtain the moisture content
and that is what is going to help you. Normally core-cutter method is done in cohesive soils, you
will be surprised to know that despite all this technological advancement when it comes to the
payment of the contractors. The only method which is use to establish the compaction adequacy
of the compaction is by core cutter method, there is no other way.

(Refer Slide Time: 31:14)

Nowadays, what people are doing is, they are also using different type of nuclear density gauges,
ok? Nuclear density gauge can be utilized to obtain the moisture content and the d directly.
There is another method which is known as a balloon method. This is the history of Geotechnical
Engineering, people used to put a balloon inside and they used to pump air, the balloon use to
take the size of the cavity which you have created. And I can compute what is the volume of the
cavity, I have taken out the soil, I know the weight of the soil which is displaced from here, I
know the volume, t is known, alright? Those of you who are interested in reading what is the
state of the art on moisture content measurement, please go through the papers written by Susha
Lakshmi and myself about 2 years back in the journal “Measurement”.

So, all the recent techniques of moisture content measurement of the soils are listed there,
whenever you get time, please read that and that talks about the historic development and what is
being practiced right now. So, I am now coming to your question slowly alright, so whatever
sample you have taken out from here, you weigh it. You know the volume, you get the t, now t
and d they are related to each other.
So,
d = t / (1+w)
Clear? you see in the soil is such a tricky material that everything is possible on paper. But in
field nothing of the sort is possible, so I am sure the moment you scrape it out, is not a intact
lump, you will be very lucky if you can take out a core intact sample is very difficult. So, what
you are saying is also possible if you are extremely good experimentalist and a researcher and
you value everything up to point third decimal place everything can be done, no doubt about it.

But very difficult do in the field, so what we do is, we measure the volume and weigh the soil,
clear? You can do other way also, that is not a problem but that is difficult. So, this is a
relationship between t and d. So? I think we have sorted out now t, we have sorted out d and
sub is nothing but t -w. Now one thing which is still pending is saturated.

Now so how would you go ahead with this, can you solve these expressions try to derive now,
normally I cannot remember these things I have to derive. So?
t = w  (G+(Se))/(1+e)
Try to prove this, is this correct? Bhini, sure? So, using these functions try to come to this, this is
your homework, I will read out the expressions. t is w multiplied by G, the specific gravity of
the soil if you remember.

Learn the method of finding out specific gravity you might be doing in the laboratory s  e, s is
saturation multiplied by e/(1 + e), (1 + e) is known as what? sorry, you are right, this is what is
known as a specific volume, a specific volume of the soil, clear? One of the ways of
philosophically looking at these expressions is that you are normalizing the weights with the
volume and I will show you how it is done, is this part clear, (1+e) is the specific volume of the
material. So truly speaking, this whole term is a weight term divided by the volume, now I can
create one more condition out of it.
(Refer Slide Time: 36:05)
Suppose if the soil is dry, see you are talking about this situation, so when you are dealing with
dry soil mass S = 0 what happens to gamma t?

Mathematically,
t = G / (1+e)
I will remove the brackets now. So truly speaking this is G into gamma w over (1 + e) fine? One
of the conditions when S = 1, this is saturated soils ok, what is going to happen now? So, your
sat this will become d, is this ok? t has been replaced with d.

So? this becomes gamma w G + e over (1 + e), I hope you will not have much problem in
deriving these, what you have to do is may be as a rule 30th when I am not here, you treat this as
a practice session and it should not take you more than 1 hour get conversant with all these
things is so easy alright? So, this matrix is like this, now you can derive this we have talked
about d , one more way of d was this defining d was this correct?

This is normally done when you are dealing with the experimental work either laboratory or
field. So, the best thing is you take out the sample measure the d we never say we are dividing
with 1+w, I call this as a normalization, this is part clear? I am normalizing something which
with something and this happens to be your unit specific volume, (1+w) is also sort of a specific
volume in gravimetric form.
So, this is how we normally treat d , are you happy? This was your question how to compute d ,
sat, sub, t. Is this ok? Any other question? This is the state where ac is going to be 100%. What
is ac? air content, this is the state where ac is equal to 0. Clear? Now what you should do is, start
from the first principle keep on substituting these values and see what are the values you are
going to get.

Your initial hunch was that you were talking about the porosity if you remember. So now I am
giving you lot of homework, what you should be doing is use this function and see whether your
hunch was correct or not. But as we discussed earlier, your air component voids will have water
also but I am now creating a situation where there are no voids clear, your question of
hygroscopic moisture content is a very tricky question.

When I am saying d, this is a bone fried soil, a gross injustice with the soil which should not be
done but it is being done. So this is the shift between the conventional and unconventional, new
geotechnical engineering, so all this G which I am using if you remember in the previous lecture,
what I said is normally G is defined as G skeleton or G of minerals clear, but for the sake of
simplicity, we do not write G already there are so many times we are using s saturation and all
those things just for the sake of simplicity, good question.

So G is meant for the minerals which are present in the soil solid phase, the skeleton clear if a
soil is multi mineral soil, then you have to go for a composite of G weighted average of G value,
mineral phase number 1, specific gravity multiplied + G1, G2, G3, G4 these divided by total
weight God knows it clear, funda clear, now what you should do is try to prove this.
(Refer Slide Time: 40:51)
So? I will tell you the philosophy part, this is a relationship which is known as phase
relationship. Now if you look at the left-hand part of the equation, can you recognize what it is
and what this part of the equation is? you get the answer. I think we were discussing if you
remember this was this, this volumetric versus this, what is G? Is a volumetric phenomenon or
gravimetric phenomena? What is G? How do you obtain G? so is the gravity.

Read this, gravimetric phenomena w again gravimetric phenomena clear, weights, volumetric
phenomena, biggest flaw in geomechanics. But this is the starting point what you are doing here
unknowingly you are matching gravimetric with correct big question mark. If you answer like
this in interview board they will very happy though she is the most state of the art person. And
then comes all this R and D which is being done, you know, whatever was done in 1930-40s and
what is happening right now there is a big shift.

But forget about this question off for the timing as far as your third year (()) (42:45) concerned,
this is the Brahmavakya, we have to follow it, try to prove it. So, G is normally obtained by
pycnometer bottles, you must be doing it in the lab, go to the website read how G is obtained
pycnometer bottles, weight displacement. So? they take a bottle like this these pycnometer
bottles are like this, you weigh this weight of the soil mass put it inside, weigh the whole thing
fill it with water, the equal volume of the water has been displaced, alright?
You measure that, that is one way, second way would be weight of a material in air and divided
by weight of the material in water, 2 methods, third method is more complicated. But what
people like researchers use, so this could be gravimetric also, displacement of water, these are
known as gas pycnometers. We use these types of equipment in our laboratory where the helium
gas is replaced by the material and we measure the volume of the gas replaced. Why? Because
helium is a conservative gas, it won’t react with the material and hence the chemical activity of
the material remains intact. Another thing could be there are several other methods like thermo
gravimetric analysis, TGA which chemical engineers do they find out a specific gravity of resins
and so on. So? there are several methods but for the time being, please read this, this and forget
about this. ok?

So? what is going to happen for saturated soils, S = 1 that Gw = e. It is an interesting
relationship but for a very specific case when the soils are saturated alright? sub, you try to
derive as t - w and this you should be getting as,
sub = w (G-1)/(1+e)
This expression we will use later on, when we are discussing the seepage theory, alright? I am
sure you can realize that sub / w, alright, this becomes a non-dimensional term.

So? this is the normalized submerged unit weight of the material, which is (G – 1)/(1 + e)
interesting philosophy behind this. G is the skeleton of the material of the soil, minerals clear?
and e is the void ratio. So? this is a term which can be utilize in defining the stability of the
structures. The effects of unit weights get filtered out. So? one of the ways of looking at these
expressions is how are you normalizing something with what. Is this ok? All this expression is
used for determining stability of structures, write down this question. We will discuss this when
we start discussing on the seepage theory alright stability of the dams and all, then we will use
this as a critical hydraulic gradient correct. So? if that is the situation where I am trying to
simulate the dancing sands, liquefaction you know the effect of the weight has gone, gravity does
not affect this material now, what has happened? The material in itself is now behaving the way
it has to behave in a matrix this subject is more of a philosophy rather than mathematics, is this
ok?
So specific gravity of the minerals, the heavier the minerals, this system is going to be more
stable, organic clays what is going to happen? god knows G is a extremely low we will talk
about this void ratios could be very high, marine clays, I said very sensitive material, very high
value of this, very low value of this, very susceptible to decay, forget about hydraulic gradients,
decay, they just get decayed, alright?, is this ok?

So? the way to look at these expressions is trying to put a lot of physics behind. Ok. So? I think
this we have already done t and d. So, another interesting thing is you might you should learn
how to change gamma t to gamma dry also, so the moment I put S=0, this system becomes you
know, one of the ways to convert this to d would be I will use now d henceforth is this ok?
(Refer Slide Time: 47:59)

So? d would be substitute S = 0, so this becomes,

d = Gw / (1+e)
Until now what I did is you know I was dealing with this 3-phase model like the way I was
dealing with it.
(Refer Slide Time: 48:29)
Now suppose if I say, I define V as ‘1’ you think concept will change, until now what we did, we
were defining V as Vv + Vw clear? This is another perception of looking at the things the total
volume I am assuming to be unity. So that I can get rid of (1+e) thing which I use as a specific
volume is a cumbersome process you know getting e value, w value there are so much
discussion, which we did of how to get the water content, how to get the void ratio, how to get
the porosity, this, that what not. Get rid of all this.

You assume that the total volume of the soil is unity and then back compute everything. How
will you do this? Any idea? So? what will happen to the porosity now? See or this system is now
1 alright? This is another way of looking at the things. Yes. Yeah, you are right this is Vs + Vv =1
correct, so the total volume is 1, thank you very much, keep correcting. Now what is going to
happen the whole story will change, how? any guess?

I am talking in terms of now volumetric things earlier we were discussing everything in

gravimetric things write down these final expressions and try to prove them.
(Refer Slide Time: 50:38)
You see your,  = Vv / V = Vv
So, Vs = 1-
ws = Gw (1-)
where w is w weight of water upon weight of solids. So? if you substitute this whole thing, what
you will be getting is this will be equal to se(1-), try to prove this function and of course w
will come.
(Refer Slide Time: 51:51)
Here what has happened is, this 3-phase system if you remember with which we were working
Va, Vw, Vs this whole thing has been treated as unity. So, I am doing now calculations which are
volumetric, volume centric you may say try to prove that
d = G w (1-)
And what about the saturated thing?
sat = G w (1-) + w
This will be interesting for you to derive I expect all of you to derive these expressions. Another
thing is derivation does not mean that you manipulate with this term and show it equal to t fine?
It also does not mean that you substitute the values of some parameters and say that this is equal
to gamma t, it should be always starting from first principle. In short what has happened, as I
said there are 2 ways of looking at the things.

Look at this function, you know we very conveniently got rid of the volume of the pores which is
very difficult to measure. So, when you get a chance to do higher studies, then you will realize
that the volume of the pores is measured by using lot of sophisticated instruments like SEM,
MIP. This is beyond your purview. A scanning electron microscopy can be utilized to compute
the volume of the pores, you remember the picture which I showed in the last lecture and I
showed you that there are cavities between the minerals.

So those cavities can be scanned by using SEM though it is very difficult or you have to use
mercury intrusion porocimetry, this equipment is available in our lab. Those of you who are
interested are most welcome the entire country uses this equipment in our lab, you intrude
mercury at a certain pressure and get the pore sizes. In short it is a difficult task to measure
volume of the whole soil mass but what you are saying is correct, you can take out the soil and
put it in a mercury pot and this is what is known as displacement method.

So? you find out what is the volume of the mercury which got displaced, that is the volume of
the solids and then you can go ahead with this. But again, a difficult process clear? what we have
done is mathematically we have got rid of the volume by assuming this as unity. This is the
beauty of the system and then we are saying that the volume of voids is same as the porosity
clear? and from here we can compute the Vs as (1-).
This has it is own advantages but delicate thing to handle, just for the academic interest, you
should be aware of what are the specific gravities of different type of soils.
(Refer Slide Time: 56:11)

You may say Gs what I have been using all the time as G, quartz is 2.65, Illite-2.84, basically it
varies from 2.62 to 2.86, then Montmorillonite-2.74. These are peculiar numbers and these
numbers indicate prima facie, what is the soil with which you are dealing. Oh, in medical
profession, this is your diagnostics clear? You need not to do much take the soil, put it beneath
XRD and you can quickly get the mineralogical composition and you can establish what type of
soil this would be predominantly. Because later on now you will see what is the art of consulting
first to understand the material whether these mechanisms are going to take place in this type of
material or not. So? I get lot of information from this numbers. Highly stable system for your
information and highly unstable system clear? I have the strategy in my mind, how I have to treat
this patient, highly stable, highly unstable, with the poor surface area, very high surface area,
very high cation exchange capacity, very high-water absorption capacity clear. Extremely low
everything, very poor cation exchange capacity, very poor water absorption, very poor surface
area. So? the moment you look at the first number in your report of the material, you have a
strategy and you can catch the person by the way this profession is becoming more of forensic in
nature. Forensic means first thing you have to establish is what are the material which was
utilized for creating something and you can prove that this is a fundamental mistake, agreed?
So, looking at these numbers, I can make out lot of things about it. Just to give you a feel of what
peats would be, if you remember peats are organic substances a specific gravity is 1.26 to 1.8
Humus-1.37, peculiar numbers. Bentonite-2.34, clays mostly would exhibit between 2.68 to 2.8.
I am just to give you a feel of silica fume, which is manmade specific gravity would be
something of 0.5-0.7 alright? Very good admixture for concretes, it gives you a lot of durability,
this is ok?

The best way to analyze this would be take help of XRD which I was discussing the other day in
the class, X-ray diffraction. You remember? or sometimes those who are very good in chemistry,
what they will do, they will do stoichiometry to find out what mineral is present. So, if you go to
the organization where they are dealing with the production of coal they keep a strict vigil on the
type of coal which is being produced you know why?

It gets reflected over here and the cost of the coal depends directly on inversely proportional on
the specific gravity are you realizing this, go to the steel industry. So? when you make sponge
iron, when you make different type of irons, cast iron a specific gravity is very, very important
what is the specific gravity steel, where it would set quick sorry very good 7.8. So, steel is
somewhere 7.8 at the extreme end alright?

So? the blast furnace log which you are using for making different type of concretes and all and
suppose if I mix them with the soil what is going to happen. The system is going to become
denser and hence I am stabilizing it clear? concrete is nothing but combination of these minerals.
So? the moment you add GGBFS slags it becomes denser, it becomes more durable, more
strengthful and so on is this ok, do not mug up all these numbers and all ok.

But just keep it in your mind that numbers tell you a lot, let spend some time on now, the grain
structure again having done all this particularly the granular soils.
(Refer Slide Time: [Link])
If you remember in the power point presentation, I showed you that most of the granular
structures are you know, single grain structures and we normally depict them as perfect spherical
entity. But I am sure if you look at you know below a microscope even you will find that they
are very distorted. So? there is nothing known as a standard sand which normally is used in the
practice that this is a standard sand when standard sand is also going to be quite irregular in
shape.

But we assume this because this is how these sands are produced, so normally standard sands are
used for finding out the in-situ t agreed? you remember that core cutter method or soil
displacement method you may call it, sand displacement. So? you use standard sand, so granular
soils are normally depicted as perfect sphere and they have 2 types of structures, one is what is
known as cubic.

So? a cubic structure would look like this, the front view or the plan it does not matter. Can you
compute the void ratio of the system compute e and compute , fine keep doing this, this is all
homework for you? The second thing is, now this is what is going to be the loosest state of the
material, where e is corresponding to emax fine? and  is corresponding to what will be eta now
porosity max or minimum? max very good say it loudly, why?
I am happy that you did not get confused though I try to confuse you, now this is where the
concepts are important you are getting this point. This material is highly permeable it will allow
everything to pass through it very good filters and so on whatever we discuss there, at the same
time now what is going to happen earthquake comes ok? Is this a stable state of the structure? or
the structure of the soil or the grain structure soil, no I hope you can understand.

So? in case of any lateral motion, lateral stresses shearing of any type, what happens is this get
converted to what will happen? suppose if I depict the plan view like this, please excuse me for
my poor art and on the top of this will be the second series of the grains, it will be sitting like this
in the void space, can you imagine this? So? what is going to happen? in the side view if you see
what type of structure is this? Ceramic? pyramid, yes you are right very good.

So? this is a pyramidal sometimes people also call it as a rhombic structure, pyramidal is correct.
Now what is the mechanism of transformation from this state to this state, have you understood?
So? this is going to be a pyramidal structure, people who are coming from the Gangetic belt,
parts of northern India you know close to the Bihar, UP and all these places, single grain
structure agreed, gravity is predominant. These particles are coming in sediments all the way
from Himalayas, because of the velocity of water, they got grinded enough water is the most
abrasive material what it did, all sorts of is irregularity is taken care of the particle becomes
spherical, shining particles remember. They would settle down slowly and slowly how they will
settle in water body, first layer, second layer, third layer loosest possible for is ok? Have you
understood this? Dangerous situation.

You cannot construct any infrastructure on this, the moment earthquake comes, what is going to
happen because this is not a stable state of the material, you can use entropy of the particles to
make sure that this is not a stable system because the entropy is going to be more or less here?
Read this. So those of few who are going to master this concept would go into the particulate
mechanics by using the concepts of entropy associated with the particle system, particulate
mechanics, it is going to be more.
Any system cannot remain at higher entropy, small shaking up is going to cause rearrangement
of the particles in this form, which is more stable. So? you are very happy with this restructuring
or not, life is not so simple. So even if you densify the materials from this state to this state, now
this is a practice of geotechnical engineering, remember and again earthquake comes on this
system also what is going to happen? Pore pressure is ok, that is fine pore pressure will never
develop in coarse-grained materials remember.

Please remove this from your mind, in coarse-grained material pore pressures will not come into
the picture clear? this earthquake loading is for a few seconds. And within that few seconds the
permeability of the system is so high that pore of pressures are not going to build up over there,
now what is going to happen is, the moment this type of situation occurs, look at this tomorrow
you go to the hostel number, I do not know in which hostel you have a snooker table, try to stack
the snooker balls like this and press them like this. Look at the hand motion, what tectonic
motion does earthquake comes, everything oozes out ice cream scoops are a beautiful example of
learning how the state of stress develops in the system alright all type of hollers which you use in
civil engineering construction, they go this and they push the soil up ice cream scoop is this like
this. Is it not. You push it and then take it out snatch it, so that means if again earthquake comes
what is going to happen the rolling starts.

But the intensity of volumetric deformations from this to this are less and from this to this are
less, lesser. So? the whole concept of modifying the grounds for making infrastructure would be
to create a state of the grains particularly in the granular soils which is more stable. Now this
concept, we will study in the second course, have you followed this? Now this is going to give
you please compute now the porosity and this is going to be eminimum, minimum possible instead
of the void ratios and the porosities are also going to be minimum clear.

I will give you quick numbers, so that but try to prove them analytically, this is the cubic
structure and this is the pyramidal structure, where the balls are coming and sitting over the
hollow spaces, this is how it looks like in the side view, it is ok? This is the first layer of the
particles first layer, on the top of this the second layer comes and gets deposited second layer and
third and fourth and so on, it is ok?
So, typically for sphericals like this, the emax value is 0.91 and porosity is 0.34, eminimum is 0.476.
These are the magic numbers 0.253 try to prove this. Very unstable state so called a stable state
but still it is under threat because of the dynamic loading. Pore-water pressures will never
develop is a granular material clear. So? understand the material first but yes if you have fines
into it, somehow impregnated yes you might think of, we will discuss about that slowly.
(Refer Slide Time: [Link])

Now there is a concept of somebody may ask you, is it possible that void ratios can be greater
than 1? is it possible to have more voids than the solids? are you are sure? sure negative marking
your answer is correct, it is possible. But only nature do this, remember, we cannot do this. We
cannot reconstitute the soils with void ratios more than 1, now nature is a great engineer, what it
does slowly is it produces the deposits, where the void ratios could be more than 100%,
extremely soft sensitive deposits AXA beach beautiful example.

They put a warning during rains nobody should go there why? the chances of drowning are more
not in the water. So, imagine this is a state of material, where the voids are more than the solids,
you are right absolutely right, clear? We define a concept relative density of the matrix of the soil
remember, we call it as RD, now in mathematical terms, RD is defined as
RD = 100  (emax-e) / (emax- emin)
Apart from the mathematical expression, the way to understand this would be truly speaking we
are trying to find out the deviation of the void ratios in 2 states of the material, clear? One is very
loose state and one is very dense state, so this becomes a benchmark of the torture which a
material can be subjected to, this is a torture clear you have disturbed the whole thing by
torturing it.

So emax and emin the difference between the 2 becomes a scale which is use to normalize the state
of the material, this e is in-situ another new term which I have used today, in-situ is as it exists in
the nature clear ex-sit,u once you have taken out the sample you have disturbed the as in nature
state we call that as ex-situ, bring the sample to the lab you can compute e, t is known dry it d
is known and d is (Ge)/(1+e) not Ge, this is G/(1+e) w clear? So, from there if you know the
void if you want to know the void ratio, you know the d you know the value of G do test get the
value of e substitute it over here. So this becomes infield, the best way to get emax, emin is take a
small cylindrical ring pour the samples very gently, volume is known, weight of the material can
be obtained and from if there you compute emaximum, shake it on a shaker table, let it settle down,
compute the volume change which has occurred, measure that volume, weight it is constant, you
get the emin value this is how it is done, fine?

Now this RD is an indicative of all the engineering properties of the soils and there is the
classification system based on this. Sir as you said about the emax how we find the eminimum, no
what you have to do is for emax and emin there is a we call it as a standard ring or a cylinder. So,
you take a cylindrical unit and, in this unit, you just pour the dry sand, you know the initial
weight of the cylinder.

You pour the sand up to the brim stop the process, you know the weight of the cylinder plus
weight of the solid weight of the soil, you know the volume of the cylinder internals, you get the
d value G can be obtained e is known. So? you get e value this is how you are getting the
maximum value emax, shake this whole thing on a shaker table you get emin value alright 3 things,
so the field sample which you are going to bring is e.
(Refer Slide Time: [Link])
Now try to prove this relationship RD equal to now can you derive RD as a function of let us say
max, min and max and min, based on the RD of the material 0-15, 15-35, 35-65. You should try
to remember this though I cannot I am sorry for that but this is going to be useful for you. So?
this is very loose state, this is loose state, this is medium dense sand and this is dense sand. So?
for the practice of geotechnical engineering, these numbers are required, do not bother much all
this is available in the codes. So? when you practice a subject, you have the Bibles with you is it
not and the Bibles are nothing but the codes.

(Refer Slide Time: [Link])

This is the container, I will keep on pouring the soil very gently from a lower height let it get
filled up, I will stop the process I will weigh the soil, I know the volume,  is known it is a dry
material d, G/(1 + e), G is known, e comes from there and that e is corresponding to emaximum
because they are looser state clear? So, if you do like this, what happened, it gets density I can
put on a shaker table that is a better scientific way of doing this.

I can fix amplitude I can fix the number of frequencies, whatever, so this is going to drop down
in volume. So? I know the new volume, I know the weight remains constant, I know the specific
gravity, now this is what is going to be your eminimum sure. So? this is known and this is you take
out the sample from the field and good.