Module 4

Defects in Lumber

Photos by João Victor Heinrichs

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Defects in Lumber
Wood as a natural material is highly varied in its structure and has many natural
characteristics or defects which are introduced during the growing period and during the
conversion and seasoning process. Often such characteristics or defects can cause
trouble in timber in use either by reducing its strength or impairing its appearance.

Any irregularities found in wood or lumber is called as defects. Defects of a lumber can
be classified into two:
1. Natural characteristic of lumber
2. Conversion of lumber

Defects due to Natural Characteristics of Lumber

Kinds of Defects due to Natural Characteristics of Lumber
1. Knots
2. Slope of Grains
3. Reaction of Wood
4. Shakes
5. Juvenile Wood
6. Cracks and Fissures
7. Fungal Decay

1. Knots
Knots are formed by the change of wood structure that occurs where limbs grow
from the main stem of the tree. The limb, extending approximately radially in the
main trunk, has its own annual rings and rays, and this local arrangement of cells
interrupts the normal pattern for the main portion of the tree. The influence of knots
depends on their size, shape, frequency, and location in the structural member.
The presence of knots has adverse effects on most mechanical properties of
timber as they distort the fibers around them, causing fiber discontinuity and stress
concentrations or non-uniform stress distributions. Their effects are further
magnified in members subjected to tensile stress either due to direct or bending
stresses. The knot has a weakening effect that is illustrated by figure below. The
grain direction changes severely as the wood fibers pass around the knot (cross
grain). In this region, the applied load causes tensile stress components normal to
the grain of the knot. Since tensile strength normal to the grain is very low, the knot
weakens the member significantly. Tensile strength is affected most by the knot,
but compressive strength is reduced also. Bending strength is reduced too, the
amount of reduction depending on where the knot is located on the beam cross
section.

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 In drying, wood shrinks more radially than longitudinally, so knots frequently
become loose and may even fallout. Then, obviously, they are as damaging to
bending, compressive, or shear strength as they are to tensile strength. The
manner in which the tree is cut to produce lumber influences the degree of effect
a knot will have on strength.

2. Slope of Grain
Wood grain refers to the general direction of the arrangement of fibers in wood and
is expressed with respect to the longitudinal axis of the sawn timber or the round
timber (log or pole). In general, the direction of the fibers does not lie truly parallel
to the longitudinal axis of the sawn or round timbers. In softwoods, the deviation
with respect to the log (longitudinal) axis is often constant, resulting in the
production of spiral grain. Interlocked grains are often produced in tropical
hardwoods where the grain direction changes routinely from one direction to
another.

When the longitudinal axis of the cells is not parallel to the edge of a piece of wood,
the piece is said to have cross grain. Cross grain involves both spiral grain and
diagonal grain. Cross grain occurs at knots and other locations. Nearly all lumber
has this strength-reducing characteristic to some degree. A cross grain occurs

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 when the grain direction is at an angle to the longitudinal axis of the sawn section.
A cross grain occurs during conversion (sawing process) as a result of conversion
of a bent or heavily tapered log or a log with spiral or interlocked grain. Grain
deviation can severely impair the strength properties of timber. Visual grading rules
limit the grain deviation; in general, a grain deviation of 1 in 10 is accepted for high-
grade timber whereas 1 in 5 often relates to a low-grade one.

Figure below illustrates several cases of cross grain, differing from each other
according to the orientation of the annual rings with the faces of the piece of
lumber. It shows how cross grain reduces the strength of a piece of wood. Almost
everyone has tried to bend a stick with cross grain, only to have it break in the
manner shown by Figure A. This break occurs because the flexural stress (which
is parallel to the surface) has a component perpendicular to the grain, and tensile
strength in that direction is very low. The Mohr's circle in Figure A shows how
appreciable perpendicular-to-grain tension can occur with small cross-grain
angles.

Similarly, Figure B shows how a compression member with cross grain is

weakened. Here. it is either the low strength in compression perpendicular to the
grain or the low longitudinal shear strength that precipitates failure. Strength at an
angle to the grain may be estimated by a simple equation called Hankinson's
formula. This equation, shown in later chapters, is used in designing members and
connections " where the forces to be transferred are neither parallel to nor
perpendicular to the grain.

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 Many trees grow in a spiral fashion, so that the direction and degree of cross grain
varies along the length of a piece of lumber. This special case of cross grain is
called spiral grain. Spiral grain makes wood very difficult to work. Further, as its
moisture content changes, the wood warps-all plane surfaces become twisted,
warped surfaces. Spiral grain is common and is a hereditary trait in some trees.

Diagonal grain is caused by the way in which a piece of lumber is cut from the log,
rather than being due to an inherent defect of the tree itself. However, there will
always be variations in grain direction in the tree (cells are not everywhere perfectly
parallel), so it is not possible in the mill to cut lumber so as to completely eliminate
diagonal grain.

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 3. Reaction Wood
Reaction wood is referred to abnormal wood tissues produced in tree trunks
subjected to strong wind pressures. Horizontal branches and leaning branches are
believed to form reaction wood in an attempt to prevent them from excessive
bending and cracking under their own weight.
There are two types of reaction wood: in softwoods it is referred to as compression
wood and in hardwoods as tension wood.
Compression wood, Figure A forms on the underside of branches of leaning
softwoods and contains more lignin than normal wood. It is a form of "reaction
wood," in which an unsymmetrical growth pattern has been caused by long-term
bending stresses in the live tree. For example, a tree that leans badly during its
growth will have to resist a high bending moment caused by the tree's own weight.
Compressive stresses due to this bending occur on the lower side. The
compressive stresses, being combined with the direct vertical compressive stress,
𝑃 ⁄𝐴, are the highest stresses for the entire cross section. These high stresses
cause the tree to grow thicker annual rings on that side, as shown by Figure B.

Figure 1 Figure 2

Cell walls in compression wood are thicker, and specific gravity is higher than for
normal wood. Also, in the internal microstructure of a compression wood fiber, the
angle of inclination of its component fibrils is altered in a way that affects physical
properties. Compression wood is undesirable mainly because, with moisture
change, its longitudinal shrinkage and swelling are as much as ten times greater
than for normal wood.

Timber containing compression wood is liable to excessive distortion during drying

and tends to fail in a brittle manner. It is harder to drive a nail in compression wood,
there is a greater chance of it splitting, and compression wood may take a stain
differently than normal wood. Most visual strength grading rules limit the amount
of compression wood in high quality grades.

Tension wood forms on the upper sides of leaning hardwoods and contains more
cellulose than normal wood. Tensile stresses due to bending occur on the upper
opposite side of the compression wood.

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 Reaction wood is much denser than normal wood with the specific gravity of
around 35% greater in compression wood and 7% greater in tension wood.
Longitudinal shrinkage is also greater, 10 times more than normal for compression
wood and 5 times for tension wood.

Annual Ring Width

This can be critical in respect of strength in that excess width of such rings can
reduce the density of the timber. (See Figure B)

4. Shakes
Shakes are longitudinal planes of separation (cracks) in the wood. Shakes
originate in the tree. They may be in the longitudinal/radial plane, in which case
they are called heart shakes or rift cracks. When they are in the
longitudinal/tangential plane they are called ring shakes, the plane of the break
being parallel to the annual rings. Heart shakes are thought to be caused by tensile
stresses in the tangential direction, the stresses resulting from growth pressures
within the tree. Ring shakes are thought to be caused by shear due to wind.
perhaps combined with weakness due to cell damage by frost. Figure below shows
types of shake. Surface checks may sometimes be removed by planning however,
if drying continues, they may reappear.

5. Juvenile wood
This is a wood that is produced early in the first 5–20 rings of any trunk cross-
section (Figure 1.1) and, in general, exhibits lower strength and stiffness than the
outer parts of the trunk and much greater longitudinal shrinkage than mature,
normal wood. Juvenile wood is mainly contained within the heartwood. In this
regard, in young, fast grown trees with a high proportion of juvenile wood,
heartwood may be inferior to sapwood, but is not normally considered a problem.

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 6. Cracks and Fissures
They are caused by separation of the fibers along the grain forming fissures and
cracks that appear on one face or at the end grain but do not necessarily continue
through to the other side. Their presence may indicate decay or the beginnings of
decay.

7. Fungal Decay
This may occur in growing mature timber or even in recently converted timber, and
in general it is good practice to reject such timber. Decayed spots represent
portions of the wood that should be considered to have no strength, since the wood
fibers are interrupted by the decay. Further, decay can easily spread to adjacent
areas. Wood with decay should not be used in new construction, but a designer
may be called upon to evaluate the strength of an existing structure in which decay
is already present. If the decay can be removed or its growth arrested, the structure
can conceivably continue to be used.

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Defects due to Conversion of Woods
Kinds of Defects due to Conversion of Woods
1. Checks
2. Split
3. Sawing Defect
4. Seasoning Defects

1. Checks
Checks are longitudinal planes of separation (cracks) in the wood. It occurs as the
wood seasons after the tree is felled. They may occur in the log itself or in pieces
of lumber cut from the log. Checks are longitudinal cracks, usually in the
longitudinal/radial plane but occasionally in the longitudinal/tangential plane. They
occur because of stresses resulting from differential shrinkage in the tangential
and radial directions during drying. or from uneven drying in different portions of
the lumber. Too rapid drying can cause severe checking. Thus. checking can be
reduced by careful attention to drying procedures during lumber production. The
major structural effect of checks is to reduce longitudinal shear strength, often the
deciding factor in designing timber beams.

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 2. Split
Splits represent complete separations of the wood fibers through the thickness of
a member. A split may result from a shake or seasoning or both. Splits are
measured as the penetration of the split from the end of the member parallel to its
length

3. Sawing Defect
Some of the better-quality ones are sent to peeling plants for the manufacture of
veneers but the majority (depending on the quality) are sent to sawmillers to
convert round logs to sawn timber.
There are many cutting patterns used to produce timber, but the first step in most
sawmill operations will start by scanning the log for the best alignment and cutting
pattern for optimum return; then removing one or two wings (slabs) from the logs
to give some flat surfaces to work from.
The log, referred to as a cant, is turned on a flat face and sawn through and through
to give boards (sections) of the required thickness.

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 Each sawmill establishes its own cutting patterns for different sized logs;
maximizing the number of pieces cut in the most popular sizes.
Through conversion produces mostly tangentially sawn timber and some quarter
sawn sections.

Tangential timber is economical to produce because of the relatively less repetitive

production methods. Boxing the heart eliminates the heartwood from the boards
that would otherwise produce shakes, juvenile wood or may even be rotten.

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 The quarter sawn techniques are more expensive processes, with more wastage,
because of the need to double (or more) handle the log. They are, however, more
decorative, and less prone to cupping or distortion.

Wane
Wane is the lumberman's term for the absence of wood. Often wane consists of
bark remaining on the surface of the finished lumber. Obviously, the strength is
reduced by wane, so wane is taken into account in the allowable design stresses
assigned to a given grade of lumber. Inclusions of bark, called bark pockets,
occasionally occur within the tree. These result from tree injury that is covered by
new wood as the tree grows. The injury giving rise to bark pockets is usually
something minor, such as holes made by bird pecks or boring insects.

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 4. Seasoning Defects
Seasoning defects are directly related to the movements which occur in timber due
to changes in moisture content. Excessive or uneven drying, as well as the
presence of compression wood, juvenile wood or even knots, exposure to wind
and rain, and poor stacking and spacing during seasoning can all produce defects
or distortions in timber. Examples of seasoning defects such as cupping (in
tangential cuts), end splitting, springing, bowing, twisting, etc. are illustrated in
Figure 1.6. All such defects have an effect on structural strength as well as on
fixing, stability, durability and finished appearance.

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Self-Assessment Questionnaire No.4 (SAQ4):
1. What is defect in wood?
2. What are the classifications of defects?
3. What are the kinds of natural defects?
4. What are the kinds of conversion defects?

References:
1. Porteous, Jack, Kermani, Abdy Structural Timber Design to Eurocode 5, 2007
Publish by Blackwell Publishing.
2. Kermani, Abdy, Structural Timber Design, 1998, Published by Wiley Blackwell
3. Judith J. Stalnaker, Ernest C. Harris, Structural Design in Wood 1997, Published
by Springer US

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