Respiratory system

FUNCTIONS OF THE RESPIRATORY SYSTEM

Ventilation or breathing

Exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide between the air in the lungs and the blood

Transport of oxygen and carbon dioxide in the blood

Exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide between the blood and the tissues

Regulation of blood pH

The respiratory system can alter blood pH by changing blood CO2 levels

Innate immunity

Protects against some microorganisms and other pathogens

Voice production

Air movement past the vocal cords makes sound and speech possible

Olfaction

The sensation of smell occurs when airborne molecules are drawn into the nasal cavity

TWO DIVISIONS

UPPER RESPIRATORY TRACT

LOWER RESPIRATORY

TRACT

NOSE

• Consist of external nose and nasal cavity

EXTERNAL NOSE

• Visible structure that forms a prominent feature of the face

• Composed of hyaline cartilage

NARES

• External opening of the nose

CHONAE

• Opening into the pharynx

NASAL CAVITY

• Extends from the nares to the chonae

NASAL SEPTUM

• Partition dividing the nasal cavity into left and right pairs

HARD PALATE

• Separates the nasal cavity from the oral cavity

• Present on the lateral walls on each side of the nasal cavity

NASOLACRIMAL DUCTS

• Carry tears from the eyes

PARANSAL SINUSES

• Air-filled spaces within bone

ANATOMY OF THE RESPIRATORY SYSTEM

LEFT MAIN BRONCHUS

HORIZONTAL

RIGHT MAIN BRONCHUS

• Wider, shorter and more vertical than the left main bronchus and is more direct line with the
tracheas

PHARYNX

Ψ “throat” passageway for respiratory and digestive system

Ψ leads to the rest of the respiratory system through the opening into the larynx and to the
digestive system through the esophagus.

Ψ It has 3 regions: Nasopharynx, Oropharynx, laryngo-pharynx

Nasopharynx

Ψ is the superior part of the pharynx.

Ψ - It is located posterior to the choanae and superior to the soft palate. The uvula (ū′ vū-lă; a
little grape) is the posterior extension of the soft palate. The soft palate forms the floor of the
nasopharynx.

Ψ - The nasopharynx is lined with pseudostratified ciliated columnar epithelium that is continuous
with the nasal cavity. The auditory tubes extend from the middle ears and open into the
nasopharynx. The posterior part of the nasopharynx contains the pharyngeal tonsil.
Oropharynx

Ψ - extends from the uvula to the epiglottis, and the oral cavity opens into the oropharynx. Thus,
food drink, and air all pass through the oropharynx.

Ψ - The oropharynx is lined with stratified squamous epithelium

Ψ - includes tonsils, tongue base, soft palate, pharyngeal walls

Lyringopharynx

Ψ -  passes posterior to the larynx and extends from the tip of the epiglottis to the esophagus.
Food and drink pass through the laryngopharynx to the esophagus.

Ψ - A small amount of air is usually swallowed with the food and drink. The laryngopharynx is
lined with stratified squamous epithelium and ciliated columnar epithelium.

LARYNX

Ψ commonly called the voice box, is located in the anterior throat and extends from the base of
the tongue to the trachea

3 main functions

1. Maintains open airway

2. Protects the airway during swallowing

3. Produces the voice

4. NINE CARTILAGES

Structures 3 Singles ( connected one another by muscles and ligaments)

1. Thyroid Cartilage ( shield- shaped, Adams Apple) - First single and largest cartilage - Attached
superiorly to the hyoid bone

2. Cricoid Cartilage ( ring-shaped) - Second single and most inferior cartilage - forms the base of the
larynx - Thyroid and cricoid cartilage maintains open passageway for air movement.

3. Epiglottis ( on the glottis) - consist of elastic cartilage rather than hyaline cartilage

3 Pairs of Cartilage ( Posterior part of Larynx)

4. Cuneiform cartilage ( wedge-shaped) - Top cartilage

5. Corniculate cartilage (horn-shaped) - middle cartilage

6. Aryntenoid cartilage (ladle-shaped) - bottom cartilage

2 Sets of Ligaments ( Posterior surface of thyroid to the paired cartilage)

7. Vestibular Folds (false vocal cords) - Superior set of ligaments

8. Vocal folds (true vocal cords) - Inferior set of ligaments - primary source of voice production

9. Larnygitis -inflammation of the mucous epithelium of the vocal folds

Ψ A flexible tube also called windpipe

Ψ Extends through the mediastinum and lies anterior to the esophagus and inferior to the larynx

Ψ Cartilage rings reinforce and provide rigidity to the tracheal wall to ensure that the trachea
remains open at all times

Ψ At the level of the sternal angle, the trachea bifurcates into two smaller tubes, called the right
and left primary bronchi

Ψ Each primary bronchus projects laterally toward each lung

BRONCHI

The trachea divides into the left and right main bronchi or primary bronchi

Ψ Like the trachea, the main bronchi are lined with pseudostratified ciliated columnar epithelium
and they are supported by cartilage rings

Ψ The right bronchus is wider, shorter and more vertical in direction, whereas the left bronchus is
vice-versa, because it is displaced by the heart

LUNGS

Each lung has a conical shape. Its wide, concave base rests upon the muscular diaphragm

Ψ Its superior region called the apex projects superiorly to a point that is slightly superior and
posterior to the clavicle

Ψ Both lungs are bordered by the thoracic wall anteriorly, laterally, and posteriorly, and
supported by the rib cage

Ψ Toward the midline, the lungs are separated from each other by the mediastinum

Ψ The relatively broad, rounded surface in contact with the thoracic wall is called the costal
surface of the lung

ALVEOLI

Ψ The alveoli are moist, thin-walled pockets which are the site of gas exchange.

A slightly oily surfactant prevents the alveolar walls from collapsing and sticking together

VENTILATION AND RESPIRATORY VOLUMES

VENTILATION

Process of moving air into and out of the lungs

Two phases of ventilation:

• Inspiration
 • Expiration

INSPIRATION

• Movement of air into the lungs

• MUSCLE OF INSPIRATION

• Diaphragm

• Muscle that elevate the ribs

• Sternum

EXPIRATION

Movement of air out of the lungs

MUSCLE OF EXPIRATION

Internal intercostals

Depress the ribs and sternum

 At the end of a normal, quiet expiration, the respiratory muscles are relaxed (figure 15.10a). During
quiet inspiration, contraction of the diaphragm causes the top of the dome to move inferiorly, which
increases the volume of the thoracic cavity. The largest change in thoracic volume results from
movement of the diaphragm. Contraction of the external intercostals also elevates the ribs and sternum
(figure 15.10b), which increases thoracic volume by increasing the diameter of the thoracic cage.
Expiration during quiet breathing occurs when the diaphragm and external intercostals relax and the
elastic properties of the thorax and lungs cause a passive decrease in thoracic volume.

PRESSURE CHANGES AND AIRFLOW

 Changes in volume result in changes in pressure

As the volume of a container increases, the pressure within the container decreases. As the volume of a
container decreases, the pressure within the container increases

Air flows from an area of higher pressure to an area of lower pressure

The greater the pressure difference, the greater the rate of airflow

LUNG RECOIL

The tendency for an expanded lung to decrease in size

Two factors keep the lungs from collapsing:

SURFACTANT

is a mixture of lipoprotein molecules produced by secretory cells of the alveolar epithelium. The
surfactant molecules form a single layer on the surface of the thin fluid layer lining the alveoli, reducing
surface tension

PLEURAL PRESSURE

pressure in the pleural cavity, is less than alveolar pressure, the alveoli tend to expand

CHANGE ALVEOLAR VOLUME

2. As the lungs expand, lung recoil increases, increasing the suction effect and lowering the pleural
pressure.

RESPIRATORY VOLUME AND CAPACITIES

• Spirometry - is the process of measuring volumes of the air that move into and out of the
respiratory system.

• Spirometer - the device that measures these respiratory volumes.

• Respiratory volumes - measure of the amount of air movement during different portion of
ventilation

• Respiratory Capacities - sums of two or more respiratory volume. Respiratory system ranges
from 4 to 6 L

THE FOUR RESPIRATORY VOLUMES AND THEIR NORMAL VALUES

1. Tidal Volume (TV)- the volume of air inspired and expired with each breath. At rest,
quiet breathing results tidal volume 500 mL

2. Inspiration Reserve Volume (IRV)- the amount of air that can be inspired forcefully
beyond the resting tidal volume 3000 mL

3. Expiration Reserve Volume (ERV)- the amount of air that can be expired forcefully
beyond resting tidal volume 1100 mL

4. Residual Volume (RV)- the volume of air still remaining in the respiratory passages and
lungs after maximum expiration (1200 mL)

VALUES OF RESPIRATORY CAPACITIES

1. Functional residual capacity- the reserve volume plus the residual. The amount of air
remaining in the lungs at the end of normal expiration (2300 mL at rest).

2. Inspiratory capacity- is the tidal volume plus the inspiratory reserve volume. The
amount of air a person can inspire maximally after a normal expiration (3500 mL at
rest).

3. Vital capacity- the sum of the inspiratory reserve volume. It is the maximum volume of
the air that a person can expel from the respiratory tract after a maximum inspiration
(4600 mL)

4. Total capacity- the sum of the inspiratory and expiratory reserves and the tidal and
residual volumes (5800 mL). The total lung capacity is also equal to the vital capacity
plus the residual volume.

EXCHANGE OF GAS

• Ventilation supplies atmospheric air to the alveoli.

• The next step in the process of respiration is the diffusion of gases between the alveoli and the
blood in the pulmonary capillaries.

• As previously stated, gas exchange between air and blood occurs in the respiratory membrane
of the lungs.

• The major area of gas exchange is in the alveoli, although some takes place in the respiratory
bronchioles and alveolar ducts.
 • Gas exchange between blood and air does not occur in other areas of the respiratory
passageways, such as the bronchioles, bronchi, and trachea.

• The volume of these passageways is therefore called anatomical dead space.

Factors that affect Gas Exchange

Respiratory Membrane Thickness

- The thickness of the respiratory membrane increases during certain respiratory diseases. For
example, in patients with pulmonary edema, fluid accumulates in the alveoli, and gases must diffuse
through a thicker than normal layer of fluid. If the thickness of the respiratory membrane is doubled or
tripled, the rate of gas exchange is markedly decreased. Oxygen exchange is affected before
CO2 exchange because O2 diffuses through the respiratory membrane about 20 times less easily than
does CO2.

Surface Area

- The total surface area of the respiratory membrane is about 70 square meters (m2) in the
normal adult. Under resting conditions, a decrease in the surface area of the respiratory membrane to
one-third or one-fourth of normal can significantly restrict gas exchange. During strenuous exercise,
even small decreases in the surface area of the respiratory membrane can adversely affect gas
exchange. Possible reasons for having a decreased surface area include the surgical removal of lung
tissue, the destruction of lung tissue by cancer, and the degeneration of the alveolar walls by
emphysema. Collapse of the lung—as occurs in pneumothorax—dramatically reduces the volume of the
alveoli, as well as the surface area for gas exchange.

Partial Pressure

- Gas molecules move randomly from higher concentration to lower concentration until an
equilibrium is achieved. One measurement of the concentration of gases is partial pressure. The partial
pressure of a gas is the pressure exerted by a specific gas in a mixture of gases, such as air.

 if the total pressure of all the gases in a mixture of gases is 760 millimetres of mercury (mm Hg), which
is the atmospheric pressure at sea level, and 21% of the mixture is made up of O , the partial pressure
for O is 160 mm Hg(0.21*760 mm Hg=160 mm Hg). If the composition of air is 0.04% CO at sea level, the
partial pressure for CO is 0.3 mm Hg(0.0004 *760= 0.3 mm Hg).

Diffusion of Gas in the Lungs

The cells of the body use O2 and produce CO 2.

Thus, blood returning from tissues and entering the lungs has a decreased Po2 and an increased Pco2
compared to alveolar air.

Oxygen diffuses from the alveoli into the pulmonary capillaries because the Po2 in the alveoli is greater
than that in the pulmonary capillaries.

In contrast, CO2 diffuses from the pulmonary capillaries into the alveoli because the Pco2 is greater in
the pulmonary capillaries than in the alveoli.

The cells of the body use O2 and produce CO 2. Thus, blood returning from tissues and entering the
lungs has a decreased Po2 and an increased Pco2 compared to alveolar air (figure 15.13). Oxygen
diffuses from the alveoli into the pulmonary capillaries because the Po2 in the alveoli is greater than
that in the pulmonary capillaries. In contrast, CO2 diffuses from the pulmonary capillaries into the
alveoli because the Pco2 is greater in the pulmonary capillaries than in the alveoli.

When blood enters a pulmonary capillary, the Po2 and Pco2 in the capillary are different from the
Po2 and Pco2 in the alveolus. By the time blood flows through the first third of the pulmonary capillary,
an equilibrium is achieved, and the Po2 and Pco2 in the capillary are the same as in the alveolus. Thus, in
the lungs, the blood gains O2 and loses CO2.
During breathing, atmospheric air mixes with alveolar air. The air entering and leaving the alveoli keeps
the Po2 higher in the alveoli than in the pulmonary capillaries. Increasing the breathing rate makes the
Po2 even higher in the alveoli than it is during slow breathing

During labored breathing, the rate of O2 diffusion into the pulmonary capillaries increases because the
difference in partial pressure between the alveoli and the pulmonary capillaries has increased. There is a
slight decrease in Po2 in the pulmonary veins due to mixing with deoxygenated blood from veins
draining the bronchi and bronchioles; however, the Po2 in the blood is still higher than that in the
tissues.

Increasing the rate of breathing also makes the Pco2 lower in the alveoli than it is during normal, quiet
breathing. Because the alveolar Pco2 decreases, the difference in partial pressure between the alveoli
and the pulmonary capillaries increases, which increases the rate of CO2 diffusion from the pulmonary
capillaries into the alveoli.

Diffusion of Gases in the Tissues

Blood flows from the lungs through the left side of the heart to the tissue capillaries. Figure 15.13
illustrates the partial pressure differences for O2 and CO2 across the wall of a tissue capillary. Oxygen
diffuses from the capillary into the interstitial fluid because the Po2 is lower in the interstitial fluid than
in the capillary. Oxygen diffuses from the interstitial fluid into cells, in which the Po2 is less than in the
interstitial fluid (figure 15.13, step 4). Within the cells, O2 is used in cellular respiration. There is a
constant difference in Po2 between the tissue capillaries and the cells because the cells continuously use
O2. There is also a constant diffusion gradient for CO2 from the cells. Carbon dioxide therefore diffuses
from cells into the interstitial fluid and from the interstitial fluid into the tissue capillaries, and an
equilibrium between the blood and tissues is achieved (figure 15.13, step 5).

After O2 diffuses through the respiratory membrane into the blood, about 98.5% of the O2 transported
in the blood combines reversibly with the iron-containing heme groups of hemoglobin . About 1.5% of
the O2remains dissolved in the plasma. Hemoglobin with O2 bound to its heme groups is called
oxyhemoglobin

The ability of hemoglobin to bind to O2 depends on the Po2. At high Po2, hemoglobin binds to O2, and
at low Po2, hemoglobin releases O2. In the lungs, Po2 normally is sufficiently high so that hemoglobin
holds as much O2 as it can. In the tissues, Po2 is lower because the tissues are using O2. Consequently,
hemoglobin releases O2 in the tissues. Oxygen then diffuses into the cells, which use it in cellular
respiration. At rest, approximately 23% of the O2 picked up by hemoglobin in the lungs is released to the
tissues.

The amount of O2 released from oxyhemoglobin is influenced by four factors. More O2 is released from
hemoglobin if (1) the Po2 is low, (2) the Pco2 is high, (3) the pH is low, and(4) the temperature is high.
Increased muscular activity results in a decreased Po2, an increased Pco2, a reduced pH, and an
increased temperature. Consequently, during physical exercise, as much as 73% of the O2 picked up by
hemoglobin in the lungs is released into skeletal muscles.

Carbon Dioxide Transport and Blood pH

Carbon dioxide diffuses from cells, where it is produced, into the tissue capillaries. After CO2 enters the
blood, it is transported in three ways: (1) About 7% is transported as CO2 dissolved in the plasma; (2)
23% is transported in combination with blood proteins, primarily hemoglobin; and (3) 70% is
transported in the form of bicarbonate ions.

Carbon dioxide (CO2) reacts with water to form carbonic acid (H2CO3), which then dissociates to form
H+ and bicarbonate ions (HCO3−)

An enzyme called carbonic anhydrase is located inside red blood cells and on the surface of capillary
epithelial cells. Carbonic anhydrase increases the rate at which CO2 reacts with water to form H+ and
HCO3− in the tissue capillaries. Thus, carbonic anhydrase promotes the uptake of CO2 by red blood cells.
In the capillaries of the lungs, the process is reversed, so that the HCO3− and H+ combine to produce
H2CO3, which then forms CO2 and H2O. The CO2 diffuses into the alveoli and is expired.

Carbon dioxide has an important effect on the pH of blood. As CO2 levels increase, the blood pH
decreases (becomes more acidic) because CO2 reacts with H2O to form H2CO3. The H+ that results from
the dissociation of H2CO3 is responsible for the decrease in pH. Conversely, as blood levels of CO2
decline, the blood pH increases (becomes less acidic, or more basic).

RHYTMIC BREATHING

RESPIRATORY ADAPTATIONS TO EXERCISE

• Tidal volume is the amount you breathe in and out in one normal breath

• Respiratory rate is how many breaths you take per minute

• Minute volume is the volume of air you breathe in one minute

• Vital capacity is the maximum volume of air you can breathe out after breathing in as much as
you can

- Inspiratory reserve – ability to fill the lungs(inhale)

- Expiratory reserve volume – ability to empty the lungs(exhale)

• Residual volume is the amount of air left in your lungs after you have breathed out as hard as
you can

• With regular exercise your respiratory systems efficiency will increase.

• Vital capacity increases and residual volume decreases slightly. Tidal volume at rest and during
normal activities does not change, however, tidal volume increases during maximal exercise.

• With athletes, the respiratory rate at your rest or during normal activities is slightly lower,
however, at maximal exercise, respiratory rate is usually increased.

• In athletes, minute volume is slightly reduced at rest and essentially unchanged during normal
activities, but greatly increased at maximal exercise.

• Poor exercise: Minute volume of 120L/min

• Regular exercise: Minute volume of 150L/min

• Elite athlete: Minute volume 180L/min

EFFECTS OF AGING ON THE RS

Effects of aging on the RS

Ψ Decreased inspiratory reserve volume

Ψ Decreased expiratory reserve volume

Ψ Decreased maximum minute ventilation rate

Ψ Weakening of respiratory muscles

Ψ Stiffening of cartilage and ribs

Ψ Increased residual volume

Ψ Decreased amount of air available for gas exchange

Ψ With age, mucus becomes more viscous and accumulates within the respiratory passage ways,
and cilia, which aides mucus movement, in the trachea decrease in their rate of movement.
Which makes elderly people more susceptible to respiratory infections.