How OLEDs Work
BY CRAIG FREUDENRICH, PH.D.
Browse the article How OLEDs Work
Samsung's prototype 40-inch OLED TV. See
more HDTV pictures.
PHOTO COURTESY: SAMSUNG ELECTRONICS
Imagine having a high-definition TV that is 80 inches wide and less than
a quarter-inch thick, consumes less power than most TVs on the market
today and can be rolled up when you're not using it. What if you could
have a "heads up" display in your car? How about a display monitor built
into your clothing? These devices may be possible in the near future
with the help of a technology called organic light-emitting diodes
(OLEDs).
OLEDs are solid-state devices composed of thin films of organic
molecules that create light with the application of electricity. OLEDs can
provide brighter, crisper displays on electronic devices and use less
power than conventional light-emitting diodes (LEDs) or liquid crystal
displays (LCDs) used today.
In this article, you will learn how OLED technology works, what types of
OLEDs are possible, how OLEDs compare to other lighting technologies
and what problems OLEDs need to overcome.
OLED Components
OLED components include organic layers that
are made of organic molecules or polymers.
Learn about some of the different OLED
components.
CONFIRM CREDIT BEFORE USING THIS IMAGE
Like an LED, an OLED is a solid-state semiconductor device that is 100
to 500 nanometers thick or about 200 times smaller than a human hair.
OLEDs can have either two layers or three layers of organic material; in
the latter design, the third layer helps transport electrons from the
cathode to the emissive layer. In this article, we'll be focusing on the
two-layer design.
An OLED consists of the following parts:
Substrate (clear plastic, glass, foil) - The substrate supports the OLED.
Anode (transparent) - The anode removes electrons (adds electron
"holes") when a current flows through the device.
Organic layers - These layers are made of organic molecules or
polymers.
Conducting layer - This layer is made of organic plastic molecules that
transport "holes" from the anode. One conducting polymer used in
OLEDs is polyaniline.
Emissive layer - This layer is made of organic plastic molecules
(different ones from the conducting layer) that transport electrons from
the cathode; this is where light is made. One polymer used in the
emissive layer is polyfluorene.
Cathode (may or may not be transparent depending on the type of
OLED) - The cathode injects electrons when a current flows through the
device.
The biggest part of manufacturing OLEDs is applying the organic layers
to the substrate. This can be done in three ways:
Vacuum deposition or vacuum thermal evaporation (VTE)
- In a vacuum chamber, the organic molecules are gently
heated (evaporated) and allowed to condense as thin films
onto cooled substrates. This process is expensive and
inefficient.
Organic vapor phase deposition (OVPD) - In a low-
pressure, hot-walled reactor chamber, a carrier gas
transports evaporated organic molecules onto cooled
substrates, where they condense into thin films. Using a
carrier gas increases the efficiency and reduces the cost of
making OLEDs.
Inkjet printing - With inkjet technology, OLEDs are sprayed
onto substrates just like inks are sprayed onto paper during
printing. Inkjet technology greatly reduces the cost of OLED
manufacturing and allows OLEDs to be printed onto very
large films for large displays like 80-inch TV screens or
electronic billboards.
How do OLEDs Emit Light?
OLED light is created through a process called
electrophosphorescence. Learn about
electrophosphorescence and find out how
OLED light is created.
CONFIRM CREDIT BEFORE USING THIS IMAGE
OLEDs emit light in a similar manner to LEDs, through a process called
electrophosphorescence.
The process is as follows:
1. The battery or power supply of the device containing the
OLED applies a voltage across the OLED.
2. An electrical current flows from the cathode to the anode
through the organic layers (an electrical current is a flow of
electrons). The cathode gives electrons to the emissive
layer of organic molecules. The anode removes electrons
from the conductive layer of organic molecules. (This is the
equivalent to giving electron holes to the conductive layer.)
3. At the boundary between the emissive and the
conductive layers, electrons find electron holes. When an
electron finds an electron hole, the electron fills the hole (it
falls into an energy level of the atom that's missing an
electron). When this happens, the electron gives up energy
in the form of a photon of light (see How Light Works).
4. The OLED emits light.
5. The color of the light depends on the type of organic
molecule in the emissive layer. Manufacturers place several
types of organic films on the same OLED to make color
displays.
6. The intensity or brightness of the light depends on the
amount of electrical current applied: the more current, the
brighter the light.
SMALL MOLECULE OLED VS.
POLYMER OLED
The types of molecules used by Kodak scientists in 1987
in the first OLEDs were small organic molecules. Although
small molecules emitted bright light, scientists had to
deposit them onto the substrates in a vacuum (an
expensive manufacturing process called vacuum
deposition -- see previous section).
Since 1990, researchers have been using large polymer
molecules to emit light. Polymers can be made less
expensively and in large sheets, so they are more suitable
for large-screen displays.
Types of OLEDs: Passive and Active Matrix
OLED types include passive-matrix OLEDs,
active-matrix OLEDs and transparent OLEDs.
There are several types of OLEDs:
Passive-matrix OLED
Active-matrix OLED
Transparent OLED
Top-emitting OLED
Foldable OLED
White OLED
Each type has different uses. In the following sections, we'll discuss
each type of OLED. Let's start with passive-matrix and active-matrix
OLEDs.
Passive-matrix OLED (PMOLED)
PMOLEDs have strips of cathode, organic layers and strips of anode.
The anode strips are arranged perpendicular to the cathode strips. The
intersections of the cathode and anode make up the pixels where light is
emitted. External circuitry applies current to selected strips of anode
and cathode, determining which pixels get turned on and which pixels
remain off. Again, the brightness of each pixel is proportional to the
amount of applied current.
PMOLEDs are easy to make, but they consume more power than other
types of OLED, mainly due to the power needed for the external circuitry.
PMOLEDs are most efficient for text and icons and are best suited for
small screens (2- to 3-inch diagonal) such as those you find in cell
phones, PDAs and MP3 players. Even with the external circuitry, passive-
matrix OLEDs consume less battery power than the LCDs that currently
power these devices.
Active-matrix OLED (AMOLED)
AMOLEDs have full layers of cathode, organic molecules and anode, but
the anode layer overlays a thin film transistor (TFT) array that forms a
matrix. The TFT array itself is the circuitry that determines which pixels
get turned on to form an image.
AMOLEDs consume less power than PMOLEDs because the TFT array
requires less power than external circuitry, so they are efficient for large
displays. AMOLEDs also have faster refresh rates suitable for video. The
best uses for AMOLEDs are computer monitors, large-screen TVs and
electronic signs or billboards.
Types of OLEDs: Transparent, Top-emitting, Foldable and White
Transparent OLED
Transparent OLEDs have only transparent components (substrate,
cathode and anode) and, when turned off, are up to 85 percent as
transparent as their substrate. When a transparent OLED display is
turned on, it allows light to pass in both directions. A transparent OLED
display can be either active- or passive-matrix. This technology can be
used for heads-up displays.
Top-emitting OLED
Top-emitting OLEDs have a substrate that is either opaque or reflective.
They are best suited to active-matrix design. Manufacturers may use
top-emitting OLED displays in smart cards.
Foldable OLED
Foldable OLEDs have substrates made of very flexible metallic foils or
plastics. Foldable OLEDs are very lightweight and durable. Their use in
devices such as cell phones and PDAs can reduce breakage, a major
cause for return or repair. Potentially, foldable OLED displays can be
attached to fabrics to create "smart" clothing, such as outdoor survival
clothing with an integrated computer chip, cell phone, GPS receiver and
OLED display sewn into it.
White OLED
White OLEDs emit white light that is brighter, more uniform and more
energy efficient than that emitted by fluorescent lights. White OLEDs
also have the true-color qualities of incandescent lighting. Because
OLEDs can be made in large sheets, they can replace fluorescent lights
that are currently used in homes and buildings. Their use could
potentially reduce energy costs for lighting.
In the next section, we'll discuss the pros and cons of OLED technology
and how it compares to regular LED and LCD technology.
OLED Advantages and Disadvantages
The LCD is currently the display of choice in small devices and is also
popular in large-screen TVs. Regular LEDs often form the digits on
digital clocks and other electronic devices. OLEDs offer many
advantages over both LCDs and LEDs:
The plastic, organic layers of an OLED are thinner, lighter
and more flexible than the crystalline layers in an LED or
LCD.
Because the light-emitting layers of an OLED are lighter,
the substrate of an OLED can be flexible instead of rigid.
OLED substrates can be plastic rather than the glass used
for LEDs and LCDs.
OLEDs are brighter than LEDs. Because the organic layers
of an OLED are much thinner than the corresponding
inorganic crystal layers of an LED, the conductive and
emissive layers of an OLED can be multi-layered. Also, LEDs
and LCDs require glass for support, and glass absorbs
some light. OLEDs do not require glass.
OLEDs do not require backlighting like LCDs (see How
LCDs Work). LCDs work by selectively blocking areas of the
backlight to make the images that you see, while OLEDs
generate light themselves. Because OLEDs do not require
backlighting, they consume much less power than LCDs
(most of the LCD power goes to the backlighting). This is
especially important for battery-operated devices such as
cell phones.
OLEDs are easier to produce and can be made to larger
sizes. Because OLEDs are essentially plastics, they can be
made into large, thin sheets. It is much more difficult to
grow and lay down so many liquid crystals.
OLEDs have large fields of view, about 170 degrees.
Because LCDs work by blocking light, they have an inherent
viewing obstacle from certain angles. OLEDs produce their
own light, so they have a much wider viewing range.
Problems with OLED
OLED seems to be the perfect technology for all types of displays, but it
also has some problems:
Lifetime - While red and green OLED films have longer
lifetimes (46,000 to 230,000 hours), blue organics currently
have much shorter lifetimes (up to around 14,000
hours[source: [Link]]).
Manufacturing - Manufacturing processes are expensive
right now.
Water - Water can easily damage OLEDs.
In the next section, we'll talk about some current and future uses of
OLEDs.
Current and Future OLED Applications
OLED display for Sony Clie
PHOTO COURTESY SONY CORPORATION
Currently, OLEDs are used in small-screen devices such as cell phones,
PDAs and digital cameras. In September 2004, Sony Corporation
announced that it was beginning mass production of OLED screens for
its CLIE PEG-VZ90 model of personal-entertainment handhelds.
Kodak was the first to release a digital camera with an OLED display in
March 2003, the EasyShare LS633 [source:Kodak press release].
Kodak LS633 EasyShare with OLED display
PHOTO COURTESY HOWSTUFFWORKS SHOPPER
Several companies have already built prototype computer monitors and
large-screen TVs that use OLED technology. In May 2005, Samsung
Electronics announced that it had developed a prototype 40-inch, OLED-
based, ultra-slim TV, the first of its size [source: Kanellos]. And in
October 2007, Sony announced that it would be the first to market with
an OLED television. The XEL-1 will be available in December 2007 for
customers in Japan. It lists for 200,000 Yen -- or about $1,700 U.S.
[source: Sony].
The Sony 11-inch XEL-1 OLED TV.
PHOTO COURTESY SONY
Research and development in the field of OLEDs is proceeding rapidly
and may lead to future applications in heads-up displays, automotive
dashboards, billboard-type displays, home and office lighting and
flexible displays. Because OLEDs refresh faster than LCDs -- almost
1,000 times faster -- a device with an OLED display could change
information almost in real time. Video images could be much more
realistic and constantly updated. The newspaper of the future might be
an OLED display that refreshes with breaking news (think "Minority
Report") -- and like a regular newspaper, you could fold it up when you're
done reading it and stick it in your backpack or briefcase.
For more information on OLEDs and related technologies, check out the
links on the next page.
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More Great Links
Kodak: OLED Tutorial
[Link]
Wave Report: OLED Tutorial
Sources
Antoniadis, Homer, Ph.D. "Overview of OLED Display
Technology." Osram Optical Semiconductors.
[Link]
/[Link]
"Brilliant Plastics." Siemen's Webzine.
[Link]
/artikel18/)
"DuPont shows new AMOLED materials and OLED
displays" [Link]. 3/6/2007. (10/9/2007).
[Link]
Howard, Webster E. "Better Displays with Organic Films."
Scientific American. [Link]
/print_version.cfm?articleID=0003FCE7-2A46-1FFB-
AA4683414B7F0000
Kanellos, Michael. "New Samsung panel pictures inch-
thick TV." CNET [Link]. 5/18/2005. (10/8/2007).
[Link]
thick-TV/2100-1041_3-[Link]
Kodak: OLED Tutorial.
" Kodak Unveils World's First Digital Camera with OLED
Display" Eastman Kodak. 3/2/2003. (10/8/2007).
[Link]
/[Link]
Michael J. Felton (2001) "Thinner lighter better brighter,
Today's Chemist at Work."; 10 (11): 30-34
[Link]
/[Link]
"OLED." AUO. [Link]
/[Link]?sec=OLED
Universal Display Corporation: Technology.
[Link]
Wave Report: OLED Tutorial.
Williams, Martyn. "PC World - Sony Readies OLED
TV".4/12/2007 (10/8/2007). [Link]
/article/id,130653-pg,1/[Link]
