Introduction to SQL

Structured Query
Language
Beginners to Advance

[Link]
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▪ Explore basic commands and functions

of SQL
▪ How to use SQL for data administration
(to create tables, indexes, and views)

Objectives ▪ How to use SQL for data manipulation

(to add, modify, delete, and retrieve
data)
▪ How to use SQL to query a database to
extract useful information
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▪ SQL functions fit into two broad

categories:
▪ Data definition language
▪ SQL includes commands to:

Introduction
▪ Create database objects, such as
tables, indexes, and views

to SQL ▪ Define access rights to those database

objects
▪ Data manipulation language
▪ Includes commands to insert, update,
delete, and retrieve data within database
tables
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▪ SQL is relatively easy to learn

▪ Basic command set has vocabulary of

Introduction to less than 100 words

SQL ▪ Nonprocedural language

▪ American National Standards Institute
(continued) (ANSI) prescribes a standard SQL
▪ Several SQL dialects exist
Introduction to SQL (continued)

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Introduction to SQL (continued)

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Introduction to SQL (continued)

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▪ Examine simple database model and

database tables that will form basis for

Data Definition many SQL examples

Commands ▪ Understand data environment

The Database Model

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▪ Following two tasks must be completed:

▪ Create database structure
▪ Create tables that will hold end-user data

Creating the ▪ First task:

▪ RDBMS creates physical files that will
Database hold database
▪ Tends to differ substantially from one
RDBMS to another
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▪ Authentication
▪ Process through which DBMS verifies that
only registered users are able to access

The Database database

▪ Log on to RDBMS using user ID and
Schema password created by database administrator

▪ Schema
▪ Group of database objects—such as tables
and indexes—that are related to each other
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▪ Data type selection is usually dictated

by nature of data and by intended use

Data Types ▪ Pay close attention to expected use of

attributes for sorting and data retrieval
purposes
Data Types (continued)

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▪ Use one line per column (attribute)

definition
▪ Use spaces to line up attribute
characteristics and constraints
Creating Table ▪ Table and attribute names are
Structures capitalized
▪ NOT NULL specification
▪ UNIQUE specification
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▪ Primary key attributes contain both a

NOT NULL and a UNIQUE specification
Creating Table ▪ RDBMS will automatically enforce
Structures referential integrity for foreign keys

(continued) ▪ Command sequence ends with

semicolon
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▪ NOT NULL constraint

▪ Ensures that column does not accept
nulls

▪ UNIQUE constraint
▪ Ensures that all values in column are

SQL unique

▪ DEFAULT constraint
Constraints ▪ Assigns value to attribute when a new
row is added to table

▪ CHECK constraint
▪ Validates data when attribute value is
entered
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▪ When primary key is declared, DBMS

automatically creates unique index

▪ Often need additional indexes

▪ Using CREATE INDEX command, SQL indexes
can be created on basis of any selected
attribute
SQL Indexes ▪ Composite index
▪ Index based on two or more attributes
▪ Often used to prevent data duplication
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▪ Adding table rows

▪ Saving table changes
▪ Listing table rows
Data ▪ Updating table rows
Manipulation ▪ Restoring table contents

Commands ▪ Deleting table rows

▪ Inserting table rows with a select
subquery
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▪ INSERT
▪ Used to enter data into table
Adding Table ▪ Syntax:
Rows ▪ INSERT INTO columnname
VALUES (value1, value2, … , valuen);
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▪ When entering values, notice that:

▪ Row contents are entered between
parentheses
▪ Character and date values are entered
Adding Table between apostrophes
▪ Numerical entries are not enclosed in
Rows apostrophes

(continued) ▪ Attribute entries are separated by

commas
▪ A value is required for each column
▪ Use NULL for unknown values
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▪ Changes made to table contents are not

physically saved on disk until, one of the
following occurs:
▪ Database is closed
Saving Table ▪ Program is closed
Changes ▪ COMMIT command is used
▪ Syntax:
▪ COMMIT [WORK];
▪ Will permanently save any changes made
to any table in the database
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▪ SELECT
▪ Used to list contents of table
▪ Syntax:
▪ SELECT columnlist
FROM tablename;
Listing Table ▪ Columnlist represents one or more
Rows attributes, separated by commas
▪ Asterisk can be used as wildcard character
to list all attributes
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▪ UPDATE
▪ Modify data in a table
▪ Syntax:
▪ UPDATE tablename
Updating SET columnname = expression [,
columname = expression]

Table Rows [WHERE conditionlist];

▪ If more than one attribute is to be

updated in row, separate corrections
with commas
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▪ ROLLBACK
▪ Used to restore database to its previous
condition
▪ Only applicable if COMMIT command has
not been used to permanently store changes
Restoring in database

Table Contents ▪ Syntax:

▪ ROLLBACK;
▪ COMMIT and ROLLBACK only work with data
manipulation commands that are used to add,
modify, or delete table rows
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▪ DELETE
▪ Deletes a table row
▪ Syntax:
▪ DELETE FROM tablename
Deleting Table [WHERE conditionlist ];

Rows ▪ WHERE condition is optional

▪ If WHERE condition is not specified, all
rows from specified table will be
deleted
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▪ INSERT
▪ Inserts multiple rows from another table
(source)

Inserting Table ▪ Uses SELECT subquery

Rows with a
▪ Query that is embedded (or nested) inside
another query

Select ▪ Executed first

▪ Syntax:
Subquery ▪ INSERT INTO tablename SELECT columnlist
FROM tablename;
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▪ Select partial table contents by placing

restrictions on rows to be included in

Selecting Rows output

▪ Add conditional restrictions to SELECT
with statement, using WHERE clause

Conditional ▪ Syntax:
Restrictions ▪ SELECT columnlist
FROM tablelist
[ WHERE conditionlist ] ;
 Selecting Rows with
Conditional Restrictions (continued)

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 Selecting Rows with
Conditional Restrictions (continued)

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Arithmetic ▪ Perform operations within parentheses

Operators: ▪ Perform power operations

▪ Perform multiplications and divisions
The Rule of ▪ Perform additions and subtractions
Precedence
 Arithmetic Operators:
The Rule of Precedence (continued)

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▪ BETWEEN
▪ Used to check whether attribute value is
within a range

▪ IS NULL
Special ▪ Used to check whether attribute value is
Operators null

▪ LIKE
▪ Used to check whether attribute value
matches given string pattern
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▪ IN
▪ Used to check whether attribute value
Special matches any value within a value list

Operators ▪ EXISTS
(continued) ▪ Used to check if subquery returns any
rows
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▪ All changes in table structure are made

by using ALTER command

Advanced ▪ Followed by keyword that produces

specific change
Data Definition ▪ Following three options are available:

Commands ▪ ADD
▪ MODIFY
▪ DROP
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▪ ALTER can be used to change data type

Changing a ▪ Some RDBMSs (such as Oracle) do not
Column’s Data permit changes to data types unless
Type column to be changed is empty
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▪ Use ALTER to change data

characteristics
Changing a ▪ If column to be changed already
Column’s Data contains data, changes in column’s
Characteristics characteristics are permitted if those
changes do not alter the data type
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▪ Use ALTER to add column

Adding a ▪ Do not include the NOT NULL clause for
Column new column
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▪ Use ALTER to drop column

Dropping a ▪ Some RDBMSs impose restrictions on the
Column deletion of an attribute
Advanced Data Updates

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▪ SQL permits copying contents of

selected table columns so that the data
need not be reentered manually into
Copying Parts newly created table(s)

of Tables ▪ First create the PART table structure

▪ Next add rows to new PART table using
PRODUCT table rows
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▪ When table is copied, integrity rules do

not copy, so primary and foreign keys
need to be manually defined on new
Adding table
Primary and ▪ User ALTER TABLE command
Foreign Key ▪ Syntax:

Designations
▪ ALTER TABLE tablename ADD
PRIMARY KEY(fieldname);
▪ For foreign key, use FOREIGN KEY in place
of PRIMARY KEY
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▪ DROP
Deleting a ▪ Deletes table from database
Table from the ▪ Syntax:

Database ▪ DROP TABLE tablename;

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▪ SQL provides useful functions that can:

▪ Count
▪ Find minimum and maximum values

Advanced ▪ Calculate averages

Select Queries ▪ SQL allows user to limit queries to only

those entries having no duplicates or
entries whose duplicates may be
grouped
Aggregate Functions

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Aggregate Functions (continued)

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Aggregate Functions (continued)

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Aggregate Functions (continued)

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Aggregate Functions (continued)

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Grouping Data

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Grouping Data (continued)

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Grouping Data (continued)

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▪ View is virtual table based on SELECT

query
▪ Can contain columns, computed columns,
Virtual Tables: aliases, and aggregate functions from one
or more tables
Creating a ▪ Base tables are tables on which view is
based
View ▪ Create view by using CREATE VIEW
command
Virtual Tables: Creating a View (continued)

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▪ Ability to combine (join) tables on

common attributes is most important
distinction between relational database
and other databases
Joining ▪ Join is performed when data are
Database retrieved from more than one table at a
time
Tables ▪ Join is generally composed of an
equality comparison between foreign
key and primary key of related tables
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▪ Alias can be used to identify source

table
▪ Any legal table name can be used as
Joining Tables alias
▪ Add alias after table name in FROM
with an Alias clause
▪ FROM tablename alias
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▪ SQL commands can be divided into two

overall categories:
▪ Data definition language commands
▪ Data manipulation language commands

Summary ▪ The ANSI standard data types are

supported by all RDBMS vendors in
different ways
▪ Basic data definition commands allow
you to create tables, indexes, and views
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▪ DML commands allow you to add, modify, and

delete rows from tables

▪ The basic DML commands are SELECT,

INSERT, UPDATE, DELETE, COMMIT, and
Summary ROLLBACK

(continued) ▪ INSERT command is used to add new rows to

tables

▪ SELECT statement is main data retrieval

command in SQL
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▪ Many SQL constraints can be used with

columns
▪ The column list represents one or more
Summary column names separated by commas

(continued) ▪ WHERE clause can be used with

SELECT, UPDATE, and DELETE
statements to restrict rows affected by
the DDL command
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▪ Aggregate functions
▪ Special functions that perform arithmetic
computations over a set of rows
▪ ORDER BY clause
Summary ▪ Used to sort output of SELECT statement

(continued) ▪ Can sort by one or more columns and use

either an ascending or descending order
▪ Join output of multiple tables with
SELECT statement
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▪ Natural join uses join condition to match

only rows with equal values in specified
columns
Summary
▪ Right outer join and left outer join used
(continued) to select rows that have no matching
values in other related table