metals

Article
Influence of Welding on Dynamic Fracture Toughness
of Strenx 700MC Steel
Eva Schmidová 1, * , Fatih Bozkurt 1 , Bohumil Culek 1 , Sunil Kumar 1 , Lenka Kuchariková 2
and Milan Uhríčik 2
1 Faculty of Transport Engineering, Department of Mechanic and Materials, University of Pardubice,
Studentská 95, 53210 Pardubice, Czech Republic; st43852@[Link] (F.B.);
[Link]@[Link] (B.C.); sunilmr21@[Link] (S.K.)
2 Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Department of Materials Engineering, University of Žilina, Univerzitná
8215/1, 01026 Žilina, Slovakia; [Link]@[Link] (L.K.); [Link]@[Link] (M.U.)
* Correspondence: [Link]@[Link]; Tel.: +420-466-036-444




Received: 7 February 2019; Accepted: 26 April 2019; Published: 28 April 2019


Abstract: Thermomechanically processed high-strength steels feature specific fracture behavior. One
of the decisive criteria for their application is their stability against internal defects during impact
loads, especially in connection with the welding. The work is focused on experimental analyses of the
influence of welding on static and dynamic fracture toughness of Strenx 700MC steel. The fracture
toughness was determined using the circumferentially notched round bar specimens during static
loads and two dynamic load levels. To achieve a homogeneous zone for the requirements of fracture
toughness tests, simulation of the welding influence was performed. Fractographic and metallographic
analyses described a specific fracture behavior controlled by the internal structural heterogeneity. A
limiting degradation process due to welding was identified by the microstructural analysis.

Keywords: dynamic fracture toughness; high strength steels; fracture behavior; welding influence;
heat-affected zone; simulation of welding; heterogeneous carbide precipitation

1. Introduction
The use of high-strength steel in the construction of means of transport has grown over the
years. The driving force is both technical and environmental, where passive safety requirements have
brought about the development of ultra-high-strength steel based on specific processes of dynamic
strengthening during the crash-strain rate [1,2]. Particularly for the application in means of transport,
a variety of steels after thermomechanical treatment meet the increasing requirements for lightweight
construction and therefore for an increased efficient loading capacity and lower fuel consumption [3–5].
One of the most effective processes to increase material resilience to a critical sudden fracture is to
influence the natural crack propagation through microstructural heterogeneity. The thermomechanical
treatment of steels with limited semi-product thickness leads to microstructural and mechanical
heterogeneity, which can positively affect the fracture behavior of steel. The presented study is focused
on the mentioned process using one of the prospective steels for lightweight constructions—Strenx
700MC. Strenx 700MC steel is characterized by the strain hardening and strain-rate hardening; the
prospective restriction in the particular application can be a thermal softening effect after welding.
The strength decrease caused by thermal impacts of specific technology is the subject of numerous
studies [6–9]. The worst impact properties are commonly obtained in the coarse-grained zone near the
fusion line [10,11].
A frequent limitation for the wider use of this type of steel, such as in the railway vehicle chassis
design, is the lack of data on induced material sensitivity changes due to internal defects during impact

Metals 2019, 9, 494; doi:10.3390/met9050494 [Link]/journal/metals

Metals 2019, 9, 494 2 of 15

loads. During heating, fine carbides dissolve and re-form with the intensity depending on the cooling
rate. The resulting fracture behavior in the weld joint critical zone is a question of the interaction of the
change in the grain structure and specified phase changes, which can counteract the stability against
the development of defects.
The fracture mode of the tested steel is driven by local heterogeneity. The extension of the plastic
zone at the tip of a crack strictly depends on numerous variables, such as the yield stress, the crack
length, the strain rate, and the thickness of the cracked component. In the case of significant toughness
anisotropy, crack growth tends to be in the direction of a weaker zone and may not be in the direction
of the initial crack even for mode-I loading [12,13]. Determination of fracture toughness is a way
to quantify the crack sensitivity, especially in connection with the thermal effect after welding. The
crack depth, section thickness, specimen size, crack geometry and loading configuration have a strong
effect on fracture toughness measurements. In order to obtain conservative, constraint-independent
fracture toughness measurements, all fracture test standards prescribe strict specimen geometry
requirements [14–17]. Despite a tendency to reduce the thickness of construction components, their
real toughness is driven by the overall design, including welding joints.
The main objective of the experimental analyses was to obtain information about the fracture
behavior of this steel at precisely defined load parameters and also at the defined initial structural steel
state. Various loading rates and the impact of structural degradation by welding were included in
the analyses.
Presented work has also verified the possibility of using the non-standardized circumferential
pre-cracked round bar test method (CCRB) [18–24] to assess fracture toughness under static and
dynamic loading. Advantageously, the positive influence of the peripheral initiated fatigue crack on
the fracture propagation was applied. This method made it possible to perform the comparative tests
to quantify the two main examined effects—dynamic load and structural degradation in the critical
layer of welded Strenx 700MC steel.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Experimental Material

The Strenx 700MC steel used in this study belongs to the category of microalloyed high-strength
steels widely used for trailers, containers, truck frame rails, dump truck cabs, etc. The mechanical
properties of Strenx 700MC meet or exceed the requirements in EN 10149-2. Strenx 700MC is a
hot-rolled structural steel with a minimum yield strength of 700 MPa, made for cold forming and
intended for stronger and lighter structures.
This steel type is typical by a low carbon content, an increased content of manganese, a reduced
sulphur content, and the addition of micro-alloyed elements (see Table 1). The sum of Nb, V, and Ti
is maximal 0.22% of steel content, and together with thermomechanical processing results in grain
refinement and increases the strength and toughness. As for the influential technical, manufacturing,
economic, and environmental aspects, this steel has good prerequisites for use in railway transport to
reduce weight and increase payload.

Table 1. Chemical composition (wt. %) of the used steels.

Used Steels/Standards C Si Mn P S Altot Nb V Ti

Strenx EN 10149-2 (max.) 0.12 0.21 2.1 0.020 0.010 0.015 0.09 0.20 0.15
700MC Sample 0.047 0.028 1.75 0.009 0.0026 0.041 0.061 0.016 0.091
Standard (max.) 0.23 0.05 1.60 0.05 0.05 - - - -
S355NJ
Sample 0.15 0.18 1.32 0.017 0.0056 0.035 - 0.0016 0.001

Today’s railway frames are primarily made of material with a yield strength of 235–355 MPa.
For that reason, the S355NJ steel (see Table 1 for chemical composition) was used as a referential
steel for the performed experimental analyses. The real mechanical properties may significantly vary
Metals 2019, 8, x FOR PEER REVIEW 3 of 15

Today’s railway frames are primarily made of material with a yield strength of 235–355 MPa.
For that reason, the S355NJ steel (see Table 1 for chemical composition) was used as a referential3steel
Metals 2019, 9, 494 of 15
for the performed experimental analyses. The real mechanical properties may significantly vary
depending on the rolling direction. The mechanical parameters of the analyzed steels in a
depending
longitudinal ondirection,
the rollingi.e.,
direction. The
the same as mechanical parameters
the direction of samples ofused
the analyzed steels in aanalyses,
for all performed longitudinal
are
direction,
in Table 2. i.e., the same as the direction of samples used for all performed analyses, are in Table 2.

Table 2. Static mechanical parameters

Table 2. parameters of
of the
the used
used steels.
steels.

Material
Material Yield
Yield Strength
Strength (MPa)
(MPa) Tensile
Tensile Strength
Strength (MPa)
(MPa)
S355NJ
S355NJ 516 516 550550
Strenx 700MC
Strenx 700MC 623 623 683683

2.2. Methodology
2.2. Methodology of
of Fracture Testing
Fracture Testing
The Strenx
The Strenx 700MC
700MC steel
steel is
is typical
typical byby significant
significant structural
structural heterogeneity,
heterogeneity, where
where thethe fracture
fracture
response is controlled by local differences of plasticity. The structural state of material
response is controlled by local differences of plasticity. The structural state of material affects the affects the
usability of
usability of possible
possible assessment
assessment methods,
methods, especially
especially for dynamic fracture
for dynamic toughness assessments.
fracture toughness assessments.
One of the ways to evaluate the dynamic fracture toughness for steel
One of the ways to evaluate the dynamic fracture toughness for steel plates of limited width plates of limited widthis is
a
a measurement
measurement of of fracture
fracture toughness
toughness at impact
at impact loading
loading rates rates
usingusing pre-cracked
pre-cracked Charpy-type
Charpy-type test
test pieces.
pieces. single-edge
Testing Testing single-edge bend specimens
bend specimens (SENB),
(SENB), fatigue fatigue pre-cracked
pre-cracked and loadedand loaded in three-point
in three-point bending, is
bending, is introduced in the ISO 26843 [25] and ASTM E 1820 [26], standards,
introduced in the ISO 26843 [25] and ASTM E 1820 [26], standards, including the recommended shape, including the
recommended
specimen shape, specimen
dimensions, and fatigue dimensions,
pre-cracking andrequirements.
fatigue pre-cracking requirements.
The pre-cracked Charpy-type test was
The pre-cracked Charpy-type test was employed to employed to verify
verify this
this methodology
methodology for for the
the used
used steel
steel
with defined thickness. For the dynamic test, 10 mm × 5 mm × 55 mm samples were used with aa
with defined thickness. For the dynamic test, 10 mm × 5 mm × 55 mm samples were used with
chevron notch
chevron notch(according
(accordingtotoEN ENISOISO 12737),
12737), as as shown
shown in Figure
in Figure 1. shown
1. As As shown below,
below, theofuse
the use of a 1-
a 1-sided
sided notched specimen has led to an unacceptable deflection of the crack face and
notched specimen has led to an unacceptable deflection of the crack face and false plasticity indication. false plasticity
indication.

Figure
Figure 1. Chevron notched
1. Chevron notched sample
sample for
for dynamic
dynamic fracture
fracture toughness
toughness testing
testing (unit:
(unit: mm).
mm).

Therefore, we used the variant method to assess the material sensitivity against the development
Therefore, we used the variant method to assess the material sensitivity against the development
of cracks using the round specimens. This approach enables radial pre-cracking and uniaxial static
of cracks using the round specimens. This approach enables radial pre-cracking and uniaxial static
and also dynamic loading, e.g., research of strain rate sensitivity up to the standard crash rate
and also dynamic loading, e.g., research of strain rate sensitivity up to the standard crash rate loading
loading [13–16]. The circumferential pre-cracked round bar test method (CCRB) is based on round
[13–16]. The circumferential pre-cracked round bar test method (CCRB) is based on round specimens
specimens fatigue pre-cracked at a defined notch and loaded in a uniaxial tensile test (at different
fatigue pre-cracked at a defined notch and loaded in a uniaxial tensile test (at different loading rates)
loading rates) until failure. The specimens with V-type notches with notch angles of 60◦ and 1 mm
until failure. The specimens with V-type notches with notch angles of 60° and 1 mm radial depth,
radial depth, mean notch radius 0.225, and with the dimensions displayed in Figure 2 were used in the
mean notch radius 0.225, and with the dimensions displayed in Figure 2 were used in the performed
performed
Metals 2019, 8,analyses.
x FOR PEERThe specimen was prepared from steel plates parallel to rolling.
REVIEW 4 of 15
analyses. The specimen was prepared from steel plates parallel to rolling.

Figure 2.
Figure Round specimen
2. Round specimen for
for dynamic
dynamic fracture
fracture toughness
toughness testing
testing (unit:
(unit: mm).
mm).

An R.R. Moore four-point rotating bending fatigue-loading machine (MEZIM, Moscow,

Russian) was used for specimen pre-cracking as shown in Figure 3 and the crack propagated radially
towards the center of the specimens. The specimens were subjected to cyclic tensile-compressive
loads (Rstress = −1). The chosen bending loading (M) had to respond to the maximum stress intensity
Metals 2019, 9, 494 4 of 15
Figure 2. Round specimen for dynamic fracture toughness testing (unit: mm).

An R.R.
An [Link]
Moore four-point
four-point rotating
rotating bending
bending fatigue-loading
fatigue-loading machine machine
(MEZIM, (MEZIM,
Moscow,Moscow,
Russian)
Russian) was used for specimen pre-cracking as shown in Figure 3 and the crack propagated
was used for specimen pre-cracking as shown in Figure 3 and the crack propagated radially towards radially
the
towards the center of the specimens. The specimens were subjected to cyclic tensile-compressive
center of the specimens. The specimens were subjected to cyclic tensile-compressive loads (Rstress = −1).
loads
The (Rstressbending
chosen = −1). The chosen(M)
loading bending
had toloading
respond(M) hadmaximum
to the to respond to the
stress maximum
intensity stress
factor Kmaxintensity
, which
factor Kmax, which should not exceed 60% of the minimum expected KIC fracture toughness of the
should not exceed 60% of the minimum expected KIC fracture toughness of the tested material.
tested material.

Figure
Figure 3. R. R.
3. R. R. Moore
Moore four-point
four-point fatigue
fatigue testing
testing machine.
machine.

The pre-cracking process was controlled by a JK–1 Crack Depth Meter device (JaKM, Prague,
The pre-cracking process was controlled by a JK–1 Crack Depth Meter device (JaKM, Prague,
Czech Republic), based on the measurement of the electrical resistance at the notched area. Particular
Czech Republic), based on the measurement of the electrical resistance at the notched area. Particular
resistance levels, according to the surface and initial notch geometry conditions of each sample, were
resistance levels, according to the surface and initial notch geometry conditions of each sample, were
measured during individual calibration processes for all samples. When a fatigue crack was detected,
measured during individual calibration processes for all samples. When a fatigue crack was detected,
the specimen was ready for the static or dynamic tensile test.
the specimen was ready for the static or dynamic tensile test.
For mode-I loading conditions, the pre-cracked specimen was loaded under both static and
For mode-I loading conditions, the pre-cracked specimen was loaded under both static and
dynamic tension conditions. A crosshead displacement rate of 0.5 mm/min until failure was used for
dynamic tension conditions. A crosshead displacement rate of 0.5 mm/min until failure was used for
the evaluation of the static fracture response. In order to investigate the effect of the loading rate on the
the evaluation of the static fracture response. In order to investigate the effect of the loading rate on
dynamic fracture toughness of the materials, the impact tensile tests were conducted at two different
the dynamic fracture toughness of the materials, the impact tensile tests were conducted at two
impact velocities, namely 3.48 and 5.23 m/s. In the present study, a Zwick/Roell RKP 450 connected to
different impact velocities, namely 3.48 and 5.23 m/s. In the present study, a Zwick/Roell RKP 450
a PC with the testXpert testing software (TestXpert II Master, Zwick&[Link], Ulm, Germany, 2016)
connected to a PC with the testXpert testing software (TestXpert II Master, Zwick&[Link], Ulm,
was chosen to conduct the instrumented impact tensile tests. The force and crosshead displacement
Germany, 2016) was chosen to conduct the instrumented impact tensile tests. The force and crosshead
were also recorded during the static and dynamic tensile tests. All tests were performed at room
displacement were also recorded during the static and dynamic tensile tests. All tests were performed
temperature. A minimum of three specimens of the material was tested under the same conditions for
at room temperature. A minimum of three specimens of the material was tested under the same
fracture toughness calculation. The maximum loads reached by each specimen were specified.
After completion of the uniaxial tests, the fracture surface of the specimen was investigated, and
specified dimensions were measured with a stereomicroscope as shown in Figure 4. To calculate
fracture toughness, defined dimensions were machined notch depth (am —region A) and length of
fatigue pre-crack (af —region B). Stable vs. unstable fracture modes were distinguished inside the final
fracture range (region C) in the case of different fracture modes action.
For determination of the fracture toughness of the material, the effective diameter (deff ) was stated:

deff = D − 2(am + af ) (1)

Depending on the effective diameter (deff ), unnotched section diameter (D) and maximum reached
force during the impact tensile test, static fracture toughness (KIC ) and dynamic fracture toughness
(KId ) were calculated as follows [24]:
Metals 2019, 9, 494 5 of 15
Metals 2019, 8, x FOR PEER REVIEW 5 of 15

" #
conditions for fracture toughness calculation. Pf The maximum
D loads reached by each specimen were
KIC = 3/2 1.72 − 1. 27 (2)
specified. D deff
After completion of the uniaxial tests, the fracture " surface of # the specimen was investigated, and
specified dimensions were measured with Pdmax
a D
stereomicroscope as shown in Figure 4. To calculate
KId =regions
Figure 4. Defined fracture 1.72
for fracture−1.27
toughness determination. (3)
fracture toughness, defined dimensions were D3/2machined deff notch depth (am—region A) and length of
fatigue
where Ppre-crack
For f and Pdmax(af—
determination region
were B).
thethe
of Stable
maximum
fracture vs. unstable
static fracture
and dynamic
toughness modes were
fracture
of the material, thedistinguished
load, respectively.
effective inside
The
diameter (dthe
valid ) final
effrange
was
fracture
of range
Equations
stated: (region
(2) and (3)C)
isin the
0.46 <case
(deff /D)
of <
different
0.86 fracture
[24]. modes action.

deff = D − 2(am + af) (1)

Depending on the effective diameter (deff), unnotched section diameter (D) and maximum
reached force during the impact tensile test, static fracture toughness (KIC) and dynamic fracture
toughness (KId) were calculated as follows [24]:
Pf D
KIC = 3/2
1.72 - 1.27 (2)
D deff
Pdmax D
KId = 3/2
1.72 - 1.27 (3)
D deff
where Pf and Pdmax were the maximum static and dynamic fracture load, respectively. The valid range
Figure
Figure
of Equations 2 and 4.
3 is 0.46Defined
4. Defined fracture
fracture
< (deff/D) regions
< 0.86regions for fracture
[24]. for fracture toughness
toughness determination.
determination.

2.3. Experimental Welding and Simulation of Impact of Welding on Samples for Fracture Tests
For determination
2.3. Experimental WeldingofandtheSimulation
fracture toughness
of Impact of of the material,
Welding thefor
on Samples effective
Fracturediameter
Tests (deff) was
The above-mentioned approach, using round-bar specimens, was also used to provide a more
stated:
The description
detailed above-mentioned approach, using
and understanding of theround-bar
degradationspecimens,
causedwas also usedThe
by welding. to provide
weldinga effect
more
detailed description and understanding d
ofof =
the
eff D − 2(a + a )
degradationwelding
m f causedandby welding. The welding of (1)
effect
evaluation was performed with the support experimental subsequent simulation the
evaluation
Depending
maximal was performed
on the
degradation with
in thethe
effective
effect support
diameter
area ofeffexperimental
(d
of fracture unnotched welding
), propagation. section and subsequent
diameter (D) and simulation
maximum of
the maximal
reached
Steelforcedegradation
during
plates effect
with dimensions in
the impact of the area
tensile
120 mm of fracture
test,×static
300 mm propagation.
fracture
× 10 mm toughness (KIC)grooves
and V-type and dynamic fracture
were prepared
Steel
toughness
for plates with
(KId) were
the resistance dimensions
calculated
welding process, of 120
as follows
as shownmm [24]:× 300 mm × 10 mm and V-type grooves
in Figure 5. The Kempact 253R welding equipment was were prepared
for the
used forresistance
MAG weldingwelding (COprocess,
and Arasshielding
shown ingases),Figurewith5. The Kempact 253R welding equipment was
2 Pf D three welding passes using Böhler UNION
used for MAG welding (CO 2 and Ar shielding
NiMoCr Ø1 mm filler wire (Table 3).KIC The= heat 1.72 for- three
gases),
3/2 input
with each welding
1.27 weldingpasses using
pass was Böhler UNION
between (2)
1.1 and
NiMoCr Ø1 mm filler wire (Table 3). The D
heat input d eff
for each welding pass was between 1.1 and 1.5
1.5 KJ/mm; no heat treatment process such as stress relief annealing was carried out after or before the
KJ/mm; no heat treatment process such as Pstress
dmax reliefD annealing was carried out after or before the
welding process. KId = 1.72 - 1.27 (3)
welding process. D3/2 deff
where Pf and Pdmax were the maximum static and dynamic fracture load, respectively. The valid range
of Equations 2 and 3 is 0.46 < (deff/D) < 0.86 [24].

2.3. Experimental Welding and Simulation of Impact of Welding on Samples for Fracture Tests
The Figure
above-mentioned
5. Details of Vapproach, using round-bar
type configuration specimens,
and dimensions was
of Strenx also plate
700MC used(unit:
to provide
mm). a more
Figure 5. Details of V type configuration and dimensions of Strenx 700MC plate (unit: mm).
detailed description and understanding of the degradation caused by welding. The welding effect
evaluation was Table 3. Chemical
performed withcomposition
the support([Link]%) of filler wire Böhler
experimental weldingUNION NiMoCr Ø1. simulation of
and subsequent
the maximal degradation
C effect
Si in the areaMnof fracture propagation.
Cr Mo Ni
Steel plates with dimensions of 120 mm × 300 mm × 10 mm and V-type grooves were prepared
0.08 0.60 1.70 0.20 0.50 1.50
for the resistance welding process, as shown in Figure 5. The Kempact 253R welding equipment was
used for MAG welding (CO2 and Ar shielding gases), with three welding passes using Böhler UNION
The Ø1
NiMoCr realmm
weldfiller
jointwire
evaluation wasThe
(Table 3). used to input
heat identifyforthe heat
each affectedpass
welding zonewas
(HAZ) sublayer
between critical
1.1 and 1.5
to the initial strength of the steel. The hardness measurement and microstructural evaluation
KJ/mm; no heat treatment process such as stress relief annealing was carried out after or before the served as
parameters for
welding process. identifying the critical degradation effects of the used experimental welding technology.
The minimum hardness value of the heat affected zone showed a critical temperature for the next
simulation of a critical degradation process.
The simulation of welding heat effect on the Strenx 700MC steel was carried out for two reasons.
The first reason was the potential presence of microscopic defects that cannot be totally excluded and
that affect the results of any weld joint tests. The purpose of the performed research was not to verify

Figure 5. Details of V type configuration and dimensions of Strenx 700MC plate (unit: mm).
 technology. The minimum hardness value of the heat affected zone showed a critical temperature for
the next simulation of a critical degradation process.
The simulation of welding heat effect on the Strenx 700MC steel was carried out for two reasons.
The first reason was the potential presence of microscopic defects that cannot be totally excluded and
Metals 2019, 9, the
that affect 494 results of any weld joint tests. The purpose of the performed research was not to 6verify
of 15
the technology itself, but to examine the degradation effect on the material in question, its substance
and its influence on dynamic fracture behavior. Secondly, the welding effect simulation allows the
the technology itself, but to examine the degradation effect on the material in question, its substance
creation of a geometrically optimized HAZ for fracture toughness analysis. As an accurate orientation
and its influence on dynamic fracture behavior. Secondly, the welding effect simulation allows the
of the developing crack to the zone with the maximum degradation impact of the welding is
creation of a geometrically optimized HAZ for fracture toughness analysis. As an accurate orientation
necessary for these tests, this area must be structurally homogeneous throughout the tested cross
of the developing crack to the zone with the maximum degradation impact of the welding is necessary
section. The simulation, by the localized critical heating, allows the controlled preparation of much
for these tests, this area must be structurally homogeneous throughout the tested cross section. The
wider critical HAZ sublayers with typical heat levels and corresponding microstructural effects. The
simulation, by the localized critical heating, allows the controlled preparation of much wider critical
used approach was chosen to suppress the natural structural gradient in the HAZ, which usually
HAZ sublayers with typical heat levels and corresponding microstructural effects. The used approach
results in scattering results. The critical thermal effect was simulated to create the critical HAZ
was chosen to suppress the natural structural gradient in the HAZ, which usually results in scattering
sublayer located in the crack propagation plane and, thereby, to accurately evaluate the fracture
results. The critical thermal effect was simulated to create the critical HAZ sublayer located in the crack
toughness after welding.
propagation plane and, thereby, to accurately evaluate the fracture toughness after welding.
A welding simulation was performed using the WTU 315-3 welding equipment without the filler
A welding simulation was performed using the WTU 315-3 welding equipment without the filler
material. The specimens made for the fracture analyses were heated by an electric arc over copper
material. The specimens made for the fracture analyses were heated by an electric arc over copper
rings. The critical temperature and thus the limit degradation effect were induced in the notched part
rings. The critical temperature and thus the limit degradation effect were induced in the notched
of the samples. During the welding simulation process, the temperature was recorded by an Omega
part of the samples. During the welding simulation process, the temperature was recorded by an
HH309A four-channel data logger thermometer over time. Time and temperature records were used
Omega HH309A four-channel data logger thermometer over time. Time and temperature records
to reproduce the heating regime used. The structural analysis and hardness measurement were
were used to reproduce the heating regime used. The structural analysis and hardness measurement
performed to validate the simulation process by means of comparison with the real critical HAZ
were performed to validate the simulation process by means of comparison with the real critical
sublayer. The specimens before and after the welding simulation process and typical induced
HAZ sublayer. The specimens before and after the welding simulation process and typical induced
temperature gradient are shown in Figure 6a,b, respectively.
temperature gradient are shown in Figure 6a,b, respectively.

(a) (b)

[Link]
Figure Simulationofofthe
thecritical
criticalinfluence
influenceofofwelding:
welding:(a)
(a)Samples
Samplesbefore/after
before/afterheating;
heating;(b)
(b)induced
induced
temperature gradient.
temperature gradient.

[Link]
Results

3.1. Verification Analysis of Welding Simulation

3.1. Verification Analysis of Welding Simulation
As a first step, the complex material analyses of experimentally welded Strenx 700MC steel were
As a first step, the complex material analyses of experimentally welded Strenx 700MC steel were
performed to identify the critical sublayer of HAZ in terms of structural degradation and to describe
performed to identify the critical sublayer of HAZ in terms of structural degradation and to describe
the involved degradation process. The local differences in hardness have shown the weakest area of
the welding joint and the most intensive degradation effect of welding in the used high-strength steel.
Identification of the most softened sublayer provided information about the critical temperature level
for the design of the weld thermal influence simulation.
The Vickers hardness measurement of the welded specimen (according to EN ISO 6507-1) was
conducted perpendicularly to the weld joint axis, on the HV1 scale, with a 0.2 mm interval—see
Figure 7. The hardness measurement indicated the lowest values in the sublayer of the outer part of
the grain refinement zone (236 HV1).
Identification of the most softened sublayer provided information about the critical temperature level
Identification
for the designof ofthe
themost
weldsoftened
thermal sublayer
influenceprovided information about the critical temperature level
simulation.
for the
Thedesign
Vickersof the weld thermal
hardness influence
measurement simulation.
of the welded specimen (according to EN ISO 6507-1) was
The Vickers hardness measurement of
conducted perpendicularly to the weld joint axis, the welded specimen
on the (according
HV1 scale, with ato0.2
ENmmISOinterval—see
6507-1) was
conducted
Figure 7. The perpendicularly to the weld
hardness measurement joint axis,
indicated on the values
the lowest HV1 scale,
in thewith a 0.2ofmm
sublayer the interval—see
outer part of
Metals 2019,
Figure 7. 9, 494hardness measurement indicated the lowest values in the sublayer of the outer part
The 7 of of
15
the grain refinement zone (236 HV1).
the grain refinement zone (236 HV1).

Figure
Figure 7.
7. HV1
HV1 hardness
hardness vs.
vs. distance
distance from
from weld
weld center
center for
for welded
welded Strenx
Strenx 700MC
700MC specimen.
specimen.
Figure 7. HV1 hardness vs. distance from weld center for welded Strenx 700MC specimen.
A simulation of the degradation process was designed based on the analyses of experimental
A simulation of the degradationthe process was designed basedthe on specimen,
the analyses of experimental
welding process influences. During During the thermal
thermal cycle simulation,
simulation, with geometry for
welding process influences. During the thermal cycle simulation,
static or dynamic uniaxial tests, was heated to a maximum temperature of 800 °C the specimen, with
◦ C and geometry for
held at this
static or dynamic
temperature for 5 uniaxial tests, was heated to a maximum temperature time. of
For800 °C and held at this
s; the temperature was recorded as a function of time. validation of the used
temperature for 5 s; the temperature was recorded as a function of time.
simulation, the thermal cycle influence was evaluated by the metallography analyses and For validation of the used
hardness
simulation, the
measurement. The thermal
samplescycle influence
were extractedwas evaluated
from the by the metallography
longitudinal axis of the analyses and
circumferentially hardness
round
The samples were extracted
measurement. The samples were extracted from the
bar specimen of the Strenx 700MC steel and prepared by a standard longitudinal axis of the circumferentially
standard metallographic
metallographic preparationround
bar specimen
process. Stableof the Strenx
hardness 700MC
values at thesteel
notch and
tip prepared
presentedby a standard
very importantmetallographic
results in termspreparation
of material
process. Stable hardness values at the notch tip presented very important results in
homogeneity in the fracture plane, i.e., they prove the suitable conditions for the fracture resistance terms of material
homogeneity
evaluation. The in the fracture plane, i.e., they prove the suitable conditions for the fracture resistance
The hardness
hardness values varied from 216 to 233 HV1, and and the
the mean
mean value
value was
was approximately
approximately
evaluation.
225 HV1. As The hardnessabove,valuesthevaried from 216 toto
233 HV1, and the meanhardness
value waslevel
approximately
As mentioned above, the main aim was to approach the lowest hardness level (236
mentioned main aim was approach the lowest (236 HV1),
HV1),
225 HV1. As mentioned
was induced
inducedin inthe above, the
theexperimental main
experimentalwelding aim was
weldingsampleto approach
sampleofofStrenx the lowest
Strenx700MC. hardness
[Link] this level
way, (236 HV1),
which was this way, thethe suitability
suitability of
which
of was induced in the experimental welding process
sample of Strenx 700MC. In this way, the suitability
thethe simulation
simulation used used to assess
to assess thethe degradation
degradation process duedue to welding
to welding waswas verified.
verified.
of the simulation used to assess the degradation process due to welding was verified.
Metallography Evaluation of Related Structural Effects
3.2. Metallography
3.2. Metallography Evaluation of Related Structural Effects
The microstructure
microstructureofofuninfluenced
uninfluenced Strenx700MC
Strenx700MC steelsteel
consists of a fine-grained
consists polygonal
of a fine-grained ferrite
polygonal
with The
a microstructure
limited amount of
of uninfluenced
pearlite. Strenx700MC
Outstanding strength steel
and consists
impact of a fine-grained
toughness
ferrite with a limited amount of pearlite. Outstanding strength and impact toughness are a result are a polygonal
result of the
of
ferrite with
fine-grained
the a
fine-grainedlimited amount
microstructure
microstructure of pearlite.
in combinationOutstanding
in combinationwith
with strength
thermomechanicaland
thermomechanical impact
rollingtoughness
rollinginina ahot are
hotstrip a result
stripmill. of
mill. The
the fine-grained
overall view of microstructure
of the
the experimentalinHAZ
experimental combination
HAZ weld with thermomechanical
weldisispresented
presented ininFigure rolling
[Link]
Typical in a hot strip mill.
microstructural
microstructural The
effects of
effects
overall
thethe
of view
applied
applied of the
welding experimental
welding technology, HAZ weld
compared
technology, is presented
to the
compared simulation
to the in
simulationFigure
effect, 8. Typical
are are
effect, microstructural
documented
documented in Figure effects
9. 9.
in Figure
of the applied welding technology, compared to the simulation effect, are documented in Figure 9.

Macroscopic view
Figure 8. Macroscopic view of
of the HAZ; the positions of detailed views in Figure 9.
Figure 8. Macroscopic view of the HAZ; the positions of detailed views in Figure 9.
The ferritic structure of the uninfluenced test steel has shown a partial acicular morphology
along with the distribution of very fine carbides (Figure 9a), which contributes to increased strength.
Re-austenitisation caused a typical grain coarsening in the so-called superheated welding area adjacent
to the fusion zone (Figure 9b). Grain refinement was observed in a substantial part of the HAZ;
in addition to the influence on the grain size, the heat input led to the carbide re-precipitation.
Significant distribution of relatively coarsened carbides (up to 1 µm thick) was found in the band
Metals 2019, 9, 494 8 of 15

immediately above the austenitisation temperature (Figure 9c), contrary to the partially austenitization
Metals 2019, 8, x FOR PEER REVIEW 8 of 15
zone (Figure 9d). Much finer and less globularised carbides were formed in the grain-coarsened zone.

Figure 9. Strenx 700MC structural changes after used welding technology and simulation:
Figure
(a) 9. Strenx steel;
Uninfluenced 700MC (b) structural changes
grain coarsened after
zone used
along thewelding technology
fusion zone; and simulation:
(c) carbides coarsening
(a) Uninfluenced steel; (b) grain coarsened zone along the fusion zone; (c) carbides coarsening in the
in the grain refined zone; (d) partially austenitization zone; (e) microstructure obtained by simulation;
grain
(f) refined zone;
microstructure (d) partially
obtained austenitization
by simulation near the zone; (e) microstructure obtained by simulation;
fracture.
(f) microstructure obtained by simulation near the fracture.
After completion of the welding influence simulation, a sample for the metallographic examination
The ferritic
was prepared fromstructure of the uninfluenced
the circumferential test steel
notched round has shownComparative
bar specimen. a partial acicular morphology
structural analyses
alongconducted
were with the distribution
directly in of
thevery
areafine carbides
of the notch(Figure
tip, i.e.,9a), which
in the areacontributes to increasedwithin
of crack propagation strength.
the
Re-austenitisation caused a typical
fracture toughness examination. grain coarsening
The carbide in the
reprecipitation so-called
process superheated
was found to be the welding area
most effective
adjacent to the
degradation fusionbyzone
process (Figure 9b). Grain
the metallography refinement
evaluation of thewas
realobserved
weldingin a substantial
influence. part
Due to of the
that,
HAZ; in addition to the influence on the grain size, the heat input led to the carbide re-precipitation.
Significant distribution of relatively coarsened carbides (up to 1 μm thick) was found in the band
immediately above the austenitisation temperature (Figure 9c), contrary to the partially
austenitization zone (Figure 9d). Much finer and less globularised carbides were formed in the grain-
coarsened zone.
also an important validation effect of the performed simulation process. As shown in Figure 9e,
coarsening of the primary carbides was induced by the simulation process. This observation confirms
accordance with the critical structural influence of real welding processes. The initiation of
microcracks along the coarsened carbides during mechanical testing was also visible (Figure 9f).

Metals 2019, 9, 494

3.3. Fracture Response Evaluation 9 of 15

Chevron-notched sample testing led to unacceptable fracture responses in all tested positions.
comparison
The plane ofof thedissolution and reprecipitation
fracture deflected immediatelyofascarbides
the tip ofwas
thealso
crackanreached
importantthe validation
carbide row, effect of
so the
the performed simulation process. As shown in Figure 9e, coarsening of the primary
real distribution of carbides has de facto driven the following fracture plane and thus influenced all carbides was
induced by theresults,
the measured simulation
namelyprocess. This observation
the maximal force and confirms accordance
total energy with the
consumption. critical
Figure 10astructural
presents
influence of real
the influence of welding processes.
the position of crack The initiationonofthe
deflection microcracks along the of
fracture resistance coarsened
the Strenxcarbides
700MCduringsteel.
mechanical testing was also visible (Figure 9f).
Furthermore, the tendency to ductile fracture is evident from the detail in Figure 10b, i.e., plane
deformation condition, was not achieved.
3.3. Fracture Response
The results Evaluation
of static versus dynamic fracture toughness of the parent material, determined using
the CCRB method, are listed
Chevron-notched samplein testing
Table 4 ledcompared to the S355NJ
to unacceptable [Link]
fracture Dynamic in values obtained
all tested at the
positions.
maximal loading rate are significantly higher compared to the static values, so
The plane of the fracture deflected immediately as the tip of the crack reached the carbide row, so the a strengthening
process
real has beenofinvolved.
distribution It points
carbides has de factoto driven
the presence of an effective
the following fractureplastic
plane andzonethus
on influenced
the tip of the all
moving
the fracture,
measured which
results, enables
namely the dislocation
the maximal force and hardening
total energyprocess. An increased
consumption. Figure scattering
10a presents of
dynamic strength and fracture toughness values was obtained at the maximal loading
the influence of the position of crack deflection on the fracture resistance of the Strenx 700MC steel. rate. The heat
input of simulated
Furthermore, welding caused
the tendency to ductilesignificant
fracturechange of static
is evident fromand thealso dynamic
detail fracture
in Figure 10b, responses;
i.e., plane
the fracture toughness
deformation condition,values
was not are listed in Table 5.
achieved.

Figure
Figure 10. Fractured chevron
10. Fractured chevron notched samples: (a)
(a) Crack
Crack deflection
deflection due
due to carbide precipitation;
(b) ductile fracture mode.
(b) ductile fracture mode.

The results of
An uneven static versus dynamic
circumference fatigue crackfracture toughness
caused of the
by a stripe ofparent
carbide material, determined
precipitation using
was typical
the
for CCRB method,
all loading are listed
conditions. Thein Table
lamellar 4 compared to themorphology
final fracture S355NJ steel. Dynamic
(Figure values
11) was obtained
observed at
and
the maximal loading rate are significantly higher compared to the static values,
evaluated in both the macro and microscale to assess an increased loading rate influence on fracture so a strengthening
process
[Link] Figure
been involved. It points
11a compared totoFigure
the presence of an effective
11b presents plastic zone
the macroscopic on the tipof
appearance of the
the fracture
moving
fracture, whichitsenables
surface after static the dislocation
compared hardeningloads.
to dynamic process.
In An
bothincreased scattering
cases, the of dynamic
influence strength
of the lamellar
and fracture toughness values was obtained at the maximal loading rate. The heat
precipitation of very fine carbides is dominant, with the higher occurrence of secondary cracks typicalinput of simulated
welding
of dynamic caused significant
loading, whichchange
partlyof ledstatic andfracture
to the also dynamic fracture responses;
relief refinement. the fracture
The simulation toughness
of the critical
values are listed in Table 5.
welding influence has led to the fundamental change in the morphology of the fracture surface. The
An uneven
lamellar character circumference
of the fracturefatigue crack causedsuppressed
was completely by a stripe (Figure
of carbide precipitation
11c), was typical
which corresponds for
to the
all loading conditions. The lamellar final fracture morphology (Figure 11) was observed and evaluated
in both the macro and microscale to assess an increased loading rate influence on fracture behaviour.
Figure 11a compared to Figure 11b presents the macroscopic appearance of the fracture surface after its
static compared to dynamic loads. In both cases, the influence of the lamellar precipitation of very
fine carbides is dominant, with the higher occurrence of secondary cracks typical of dynamic loading,
which partly led to the fracture relief refinement. The simulation of the critical welding influence has
led to the fundamental change in the morphology of the fracture surface. The lamellar character of
the fracture was completely suppressed (Figure 11c), which corresponds to the observed structural
effect, i.e., carbide reprecipitation. It also proves the complete removal of dislocation reinforcement
after thermomechanical treatment.
Metals 2019, 9, 494 10 of 15
Metals 2019, 8, x FOR PEER REVIEW 11 of 15

Figure Fracture
11. 11.
Figure morphology
Fracture morphologyof of tested
tested samples,
samples, (a)(a)static—uninfluenced
static—uninfluenced steel;
steel; (b) dynamic—
(b) dynamic—
uninfluenced steel;
uninfluenced (c) (c)
steel; dynamic—HAZ;
dynamic—HAZ;(d,e) (d,e) static loadeduninfluenced
static loaded uninfluenced steel;
steel; (f,g)(f,g) uninfluenced
uninfluenced steel steel
loaded
loaded by impact
by impact velocity
velocity 3.48
3.48 m/s;(h,i)
m/s; (h,i)uninfluenced
uninfluenced steel
steelloaded
loadedbyby
impact
impact velocity
velocity5.235.23
m/s.m/s.
Metals 2019, 9, 494 11 of 15

Table 4. Fracture response results of the Strenx 700MC at different loading rate—parent material.

Loading Sample deff KI

F max (N) D (mm) am (mm) af (mm) deff /D
Rate No. (mm) (MPa·m1/2 )
S1 28,744 7.7 0.7 0.64 5.02 0.65 58.2
S2 31,953 7.65 0.695 0.47 5.32 0.70 57.5
Static
0.02 m/s S3 32,243 7.61 0.69 0.38 5.47 0.72 54.5
Average value 57
Average value—S355NJ 45
D-01 43,676 7.62 0.69 0.2 5.84 0.77 64
D-02 41,164 8.11 0.75 0.42 5.77 0.71 64.7
Dynamic
3.48 m/s D-03 44,534 8.11 0.73 0.25 6.15 0.76 60.9
Average value 63
Average value—S355NJ 67
D-1 41,484 7.59 0.695 0.3216 5.56 0.73 67.7
D-2 40,534 7.78 0.66 0.38 57 0.73 63.7
D-3 43,833 6.95 0.535 0.211 5.46 0.79 69.6
Dynamic
5.23 m/s D-4 38,764 7.84 0.725 0.4865 5.42 0.69 68.1
D-5 43,510 7.8 0.72 0.49 5.38 0.69 77.3
Average value 69
Average value—S355NJ 69

Table 5. Strenx fracture response at different loading rate—simulated heat affected zone (HAZ).

Loading Sample F max am deff KI UTS

D (mm) af (mm) d /D
Rate No. (N) (mm) (mm) (MPa.m1/2 ) eff (MPa)
WS-01 34,183 7.67 0.735 0.21 5.78 51.5 0.75 1303
Static WS-02 24,784 6.98 0.74 0.35 4.8 52.3 0.69 1370
0.02 m/s WS-03 24,972 7.26 0.73 0.43 4.94 50.8 0.68 1303
Average value 51.5 0.70 1325
DWS-01 36,057 7.22 0.83 0.45 4.66 82 0.65 2114
Dynamic DWS-02 22,769 7.74 0.805 1.68 2.77 118.2 0.36 3778
5.23 m/s DWS-03 32,839 7.2 0.575 0.67 4.71 73.1 0.65 1885
Average value 91.1 0.55 2592

Our microscopic images document the effect of various load rates, i.e., deformation, on the
mechanism of crack development in the thermally unaffected steel. The fracture mode in the initial
phase of destruction, i.e., at the interphase of the fatigue fracture, was decisive for the further
propagation of fractures and, thereby, for the total energy consumption. In the case of static loads
(Figure 11d,e), we documented the onset of the ductile fracture, as determined over the entire fatigue
crack circumference. When increasing the load speed to 3.48 m/s, a change in the orientation of
microscopic shear bridges was observed. This effect may be attributed to the reduced opening of
the V-notch prior to the crack development due to the increased load rate. Again, a ductile fracture
mechanism was identified around the entire fatigue crack circumference. We have observed the
quasi-cleavage fracture mode (Figure 11h,i) at the maximum tested load rate (5.23 m/s) on the fatigue
crack face. The area of a ductile fracture mode, corresponding to the stable crack propagation, reached
a decreasing area with increasing loading rate. The transition to a final unstable fracture was more
affected by the carbide phase precipitation.

4. Discussion
Experimental welding revealed the substantial microstructural changes due to the applied metal
active gas welding method. The hardness measurement indicated the lowest value in the sublayer at
Metals 2019, 8, x FOR PEER REVIEW 12 of 15

4. Discussion
Metals 2019, 9, 494 12 of 15
Experimental welding revealed the substantial microstructural changes due to the applied metal
active gas welding method. The hardness measurement indicated the lowest value in the sublayer at
the rim
the rim of
of the
thegrain
grainrefinement
refinementzonezonetowards
towardsa alowered
lowered temperature
temperature (236
(236 HV1).
HV1). This
This result
result seemed
seemed to
to contradict
contradict the generally
the generally known known grain refining
grain refining [Link]
effect. Based on themicrostructure
the detailed detailed microstructure
evaluation,
evaluation,
it it could bethat
could be concluded concluded
it was athat it was
result of aapartial
result of a partial austenitisation
austenitisation process,
process, together together
with with
the loss of
the loss of both primary-strengthening processes—dislocation hardening and
both primary-strengthening processes—dislocation hardening and precipitation hardening. The latter precipitation
hardening.
process wasThemore latter process
effective, wasthe
hence more effective, hence
reprecipitation the reprecipitation
of carbides leading to aof carbides leading
substantial decreasetoina
substantial decrease in hardness. The minimal hardness level was an important
hardness. The minimal hardness level was an important parameter for the performed temperature parameter for the
cycle
performed temperature cycle simulation (for the chosen maximal temperature). The
simulation (for the chosen maximal temperature). The region of grain coarsening was very narrow. region of grain
coarsening was veryofnarrow.
Microadditives titanium, aluminium, and vanadium in this type of microalloyed steel strongly
Microadditives of titanium, aluminium, and vanadium in this type of microalloyed steel
influenced the grain growth, recrystallization of austenite, and phase transformation as well as
strongly influenced the grain growth, recrystallization of austenite, and phase transformation as well
morphology of the transformed products. The most common effect of grain coarsening, i.e., the
as morphology of the transformed products. The most common effect of grain coarsening, i.e., the
decreasing of hardness, was overcome by the partial transformation to acicular ferrite and bainite. The
decreasing of hardness, was overcome by the partial transformation to acicular ferrite and bainite.
presence of nitrogen carbides, revealed in the HAZ by chemical microanalysis, indicated that there
The presence of nitrogen carbides, revealed in the HAZ by chemical microanalysis, indicated that
are sufficient levels of titanium needed to bind to free nitrogen, which is related to reduced aging
there are sufficient levels of titanium needed to bind to free nitrogen, which is related to reduced
processes, in the investigated steel.
aging processes, in the investigated steel.
4.1. Fracture Behaviour under Welding Influence, Specific Conditions for Methodology of Fracture
4.1. Fracture
Toughness Behaviour under Welding Influence, Specific Conditions for Methodology of Fracture
Evaluation
Toughness Evaluation
The standardized pre-cracked Charpy-type test according to ISO 26843-2015 was used in the first
The
step of standardized
testing. pre-cracked
The distinctive row Charpy-type test according
of carbide precipitation to ISO
in the Strenx26843-2015
700MC steelwas ledused to in the
crack
first step of testing. The distinctive row of carbide precipitation in the Strenx 700MC
deflection, and de facto thereby caused the evaluation of the tests to be impossible. So the first step steel led to crack
deflection,
of experimentaland de facto thereby
analyses underlinedcausedthethe
need evaluation of the tests
for non-standard to be
tests. impossible.
Uniaxial So theround
tests using first step
bar
of experimental analyses underlined the need for non-standard tests. Uniaxial
pre-cracked samples allowed the comparative static and dynamic fracture behaviour evaluation. Two tests using round bar
pre-cracked samples allowed the comparative static and dynamic fracture behaviour
main points—the effect of carbide reprecipitation and the sensitivity of steel to the strain rate—were evaluation. Two
main points
found – the effect
to be crucial of carbide
parameters reprecipitation
for the and the sensitivity
prospective application. Fractureoftoughness
steel to the straindetermined
values, rate – were
found to be crucial parameters for the prospective application.
at the dynamic loading of up to 5.23 m/s, differ from values measured at quasi-static loadingFracture toughness values,
rates.
determined at the dynamic loading of up to 5.23 m/s, differ from values measured
Principally, it applies (and it is reported, e.g., in ISO 26843), that an increase in loading rate causes a at quasi-static
loading rates.
decrease Principally,
in fracture toughnessit applies
when (and it isperformed
tests are reported, e.g., in ISO
in brittle or26843), that an increase
ductile-to-brittle fracture inregimes;
loading
rate causes a decrease in fracture toughness when tests
an increase in fracture toughness is observed in the fully ductile [Link] performed in brittle or ductile-to-brittle
fracture
Thisregimes;
generallyanacknowledged
increase in fracture
relationtoughness
has been is observedThe
confirmed. in the fully ductileofregime.
strengthening the parent Strenx
700MC This generally
steel acknowledged
and the simulated criticalrelation
sublayerhas beenratios
of HAZ confirmed. The strengthening
under different loading rates ofisthe parent
displayed
Strenx 700MC steel and the simulated critical sublayer of HAZ ratios under different
in Figure 12. A substantial increase in sensitivity to the rate of loading was observed in HAZ. This can loading rates is
displayed
be explained in by
Figure 12. A substantial
the reprecipitation increasemicrostructure
of carbides; in sensitivity to the rate of loading
homogenization led to was
a moreobserved
intensive in
HAZ. This can be explained
dislocation hardening effect. by the reprecipitation of carbides; microstructure homogenization led to
a more intensive dislocation hardening effect.

Figure 12. Fracture toughness of Strenx 700MC at different loading rate.

Figure 12. Fracture toughness of Strenx 700MC at different loading rate.
Metals 2019, 9, 494 13 of 15

Metals 2019, 8, x FOR PEER REVIEW 13 of 15

4.2. Effect of Structural Heterogenity

4.2. Effect of Structural Heterogenity
The observed fracture response revealed significant influence on the primary structural
The observed fracture response revealed significant influence on the primary structural
heterogeneity of the Strenx 700MC steel. Lamellar-like tearing was observed in the uninfluenced
heterogeneity of the Strenx 700MC steel. Lamellar-like tearing was observed in the uninfluenced area;
area; hence the obtained values of energy were over-valuated due to the branching crack propagation.
hence the obtained values of energy were over-valuated due to the branching crack propagation.
Complex fracture patterns appeared in all tested samples. The simulation of the welding degradation
Complex fracture patterns appeared in all tested samples. The simulation of the welding degradation
effect caused substantial changes in the fracture response. A slight decrease in fracture toughness at
effect caused substantial changes in the fracture response. A slight decrease in fracture toughness at
the static loading was observed together with more intensive dynamic strengthening. This can be
the static loading was observed together with more intensive dynamic strengthening. This can be
explained by the induced contradictional structural effects in the HAZ—carbide reprecipitation as a
explained by the induced contradictional structural effects in the HAZ – carbide reprecipitation as a
crucial process towards strength impairment versus microstructural homogenization (by suppressing
crucial process towards strength impairment versus microstructural homogenization (by
the row of carbide distribution) leading to increased susceptibility to deformation hardening. The
suppressing the row of carbide distribution) leading to increased susceptibility to deformation
performed experimental analysis of the static and impact crack behavior of simulated welded joints
hardening. The performed experimental analysis of the static and impact crack behavior of simulated
showed the real level of degradation caused by welding. The homogenization effect in the HAZ is
welded joints showed the real level of degradation caused by welding. The homogenization effect in
capable of suppressing the primary strip-like carbide precipitation.
the HAZ is capable of suppressing the primary strip-like carbide precipitation.
The fracture behavior of the Strenx 700MC steel in the particular fracture stages is reflected in the
The fracture behavior of the Strenx 700MC steel in the particular fracture stages is reflected in
force-displacement diagrams. Representative records at different loading rates of the uninfluenced
the force-displacement diagrams. Representative records at different loading rates of the
steel are displayed in Figure 13. A substantially different displacement of the final fracture presents
uninfluenced steel are displayed in Figure 13. A substantially different displacement of the final
the above-discussed effect of crack deflection due to the lamellar carbide precipitation. The generally
fracture presents the above-discussed effect of crack deflection due to the lamellar carbide
acknowledged approach to fracture toughness evaluation using round-notched samples does not
precipitation. The generally acknowledged approach to fracture toughness evaluation using round-
reflect the significant energy consumption differences in the case of similar maximal force to fracture.
notched samples does not reflect the significant energy consumption differences in the case of similar
In this specific case, however, there is no continuous development of macroplastic deformation. The
maximal force to fracture. In this specific case, however, there is no continuous development of
decisive factor is that, as opposed to the fracture toughness test using the Charpy-type samples, the
macroplastic deformation. The decisive factor is that, as opposed to the fracture toughness test using
evaluation regime used here leads to a magistrate crack in the final plane and thus de facto allows
the Charpy-type samples, the evaluation regime used here leads to a magistrate crack in the final
for evaluation.
plane and thus de facto allows for evaluation.

Figure 13. Typical

Figure 13. Typical fracture
fracture response
responseat
atdifferent
differentloading
loadingrate
rate((1):
((1):0.02
0.02m/s,
m/s,(2):
(2): 3.48
3.48 m/s,
m/s,(3):
(3): 5.28
5.28 m/s).
m/s).
5. Conclusions
5. Conclusions
The comparative experimental analyses revealed the specifics of fracture behavior in the Strenx
700MCThe comparative
steel. experimental
The fracture toughness, analyses
determined revealed
by CCRB thesamples
specificsunder
of fracture behavior
the static loading inconditions,
the Strenx
700MCthe
proved steel. Thevalues
higher fracture toughness,
for the Strenx 700MC determined by CCRBtosamples
steel as compared the S355NJunder
steel. the
The static loading
opposite ratio
was observed when increasing the loading rate. The surprisingly lower dynamic fracture toughnessThe
conditions, proved the higher values for the Strenx 700MC steel as compared to the S355NJ steel. of
opposite ratio was observed when increasing the loading rate. The surprisingly
the Strenx 700MC steel compared to the S355NJ steel was observed despite the superiority of a brittle lower dynamic
fracture mode
fracture toughness
in theofS355NJ
the Strenx
steel.700MC steel compared to the S355NJ steel was observed despite the
superiority of a brittle fracture
Increased fracture toughness modedue in
to the S355NJ steel.
an increased loading rate for both tested steels confirmed the
Increased fracture toughness due to an increased
decisive role of a plastic zone on top of the propagated crack. loading rate for dynamic
Intensive both tested steels confirmed
strengthening took
the decisive role of a plastic zone on top of the propagated crack. Intensive dynamic strengthening
took place in the Strenx 700MC steel in the case of primary microstructure conditions as well as after
Metals 2019, 9, 494 14 of 15

place in the Strenx 700MC steel in the case of primary microstructure conditions as well as after the
simulated degradation due to welding. The final dynamic fracture resistance of the temper-influenced
zone even overcame the fracture resistance of the parent steel.
The critical sublayer of HAZ was defined as a maximal softening zone; the induced phase
transformation and change of the structural components’ morphology were evaluated in direct
connection with the fracture response in this zone. Contrary to the common limited effect of the
grain-coarsening zone adjacent to the fusion line, intensive reprecipitation was induced near the partial
austenitisation zone.
The following advantages of the CCRB methodology have been confirmed:

• A uniaxial loading system as the optimal mode for monitoring all the circumstances of
crack development;
• The ability to apply different loading rates, e.g., using the standard Charpy hammer system up to
5.23 m/s;
• Suppression of the plane stress state, typically influencing the crack propagation near the surface
of the simple notched Charpy-type samples;
• Support for the plane orientation of the fracture due to the circumferential initiation of
fatigue cracks.

The methodology used in this testing is especially effective for materials with heterogeneous
microstructures and thereby with heterogeneous local mechanical parameters. Circumferential fatigue
pre-cracking suppresses the fracture deflection towards weaker microvolumes and thus supports
planar crack propagation. The CCRB methodology supports the plane strain condition; a transition of
fracture to the main shear stress plane is suppressed significantly compared to Charpy-type samples.

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, E.S. and B.C.; Methodology, E.S., F.B. and B.C.; Investigation, E.S., F.B.,
S.K., M.U. and L.K.; Resources, E.S., and F.B.; Data curation, E.S., F.B. and S.K.; Writing—original draft preparation,
E.S. and F.B.; Writing—review and editing, E.S. and F.B.; Visualization, E.S. and F.B.
Funding: This research was funded by the Railway Vehicle Competence Centre, project No.TE01020038.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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