EL 115 – A Survey of English and American Literature

NIPSCBC BSED Department

st
1 Semester, AY 2021-2022

Course Description: A Survey of English and American Literature offers

students exposure to a variety of literary texts, cultures,
and ways of thinking and analyzing. Students will read a
wide range of engaging works of fiction, poetry, drama,
and non-fictional prose from the England and the United
States. They will learn to interpret these works from a
variety of theoretical perspectives and develop an
understanding of literary history.

Credit Hours: 3 hours every week for 18 weeks or 54 hours/semester

Pre-requisite: NONE

Program Objectives: In consonance with the mission statement of the

Teacher Education Department, its Bachelor in Secondary
Education (BSED) program is designed to: provide quality
instruction to produce teachers with sufficient knowledge
and skills necessary for immediate and gainful employment
and to make them competent professionals; expose
students to varied learning activities and experiences that
will enhance their critical thinking so that they will be able
to do their work well; involve students in research,
extension, and production activities that will make them
knowledgeable, useful and productive citizens; and instill in
students values to make them better persons.

Instructions: This module is intended for BSEd 3 students taking up A

Survey of English and American Literature subject. Students
without ICT gadgets and internet connections, modules will
be printed and distributed to them. Students have to take
the module from the designated area in every barangay of
the municipality where the students reside. The college will
determine the drop off points of the modules as a dispatch
coordinator is assigned to do the task. Dispatching of the
first batch of modules will be on September 15-18, 2020.
Students' outputs will be retrieved two (2) weeks after
which is also the schedule of the dispatchment of the
second batch of modules.
For students with ICT gadgets and internet connections, modules will be uploaded
online through messenger.
 Module 1
The Anglo-Saxon Period
(495–1485)
September 1-10, 2021
[Link]
6-hour lesson

Introduction

This module will present you stories from epic legends of heroism and glory, honor,
and betrayal as you go to the British Isles and ancient Greece. Exploring the shipwrecks and
exploring text, discover historical and literary links.

In using this module, many English literary texts from the old English (Anglo-Saxon)
period (450–1066) with their respective writers are to be presented and recognized. The
literary era descends from their conquest by Celtic England (and the Jutes) in 450. The period
concludes with Norman France conquering England under William I in 1066.

Much of the first half — oral literature, at least before the seventh century. Much of
the prose was a transcription of something else or legally or religiously at this time, but other
works, such as Beowulf and the poets of Caedmon and Cynewulf, were notable.

Learning Outcomes

Upon completion of this Lesson 1, you will have to :

1. recognize a wide variety of literary texts with its authors in English from Old
English (Anglo-Saxon) Period (450–1066);
2. identify various descriptions of the heroic characters in a selection; and
3. characterize a hero in a work of fiction.

Learning Contents

Pre-Discussion

Activity 1 – Prior Knowledge

Drawing from your knowledge in old English (Anglo-Saxon) British literature, answer the
following questions and write your answer in the spaces provided:

1. Besides providing entertainment, why were epic poems like Beowulf important to the
Anglo-Saxons?

____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
 2. Who were the first important inhabitants of Britain prior to the Romans?

____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________

Very good !

The course lesson will lead you through comprehending and recognizing a wide range of
literary works of English dating back to its invasion (together with the Jutes) by Keltic writers
from the Old (Anglo-Saxon) period (450–1066) Britain about 450. In addition, several
descriptions of the heroic signs will be identified in the selected literature.

Old English (Anglo-Saxon) Period

(450–1066)

Three tribes, dubbed Angles, Saxons, and Jute tribes, were formed by England that
migrated from Europe. The two most significant were the Angle and Saxon. Therefore, we knew
them today as Anglo-Saxons. They were ferocious people and, during their dominance in
Britain, fought many battles—often struggling! Two competing influences - Christianity and
Paganism - impacted ancient English literature. The Anglo-Saxons imported paganism during
their conquest of the British Isles (5th and 6th centuries). The Irish missionaries, on the other
hand, introduced Christianity. Working with pagans emphasized love for struggle, loyalty to the
master, and the unrelentingness of destiny. On the other hand, works with Christian elements
aimed to temper the heroic view of the heathen works.

Anglo-Saxon literary devices – alliteration, caesuras, kennings, and lithographs are used
in epics and elegies and are characterized by regular, unrhythmic, and free rhythm lines. A lot
of alliteration and kennels Kennings for the Word of God are Caedmon's "Hymn." The father of
English song is arguably Caedmon.

The Hymn of Caedmon was created between 775-825 in Bede's Ecclesiastical History of
the English People. This is the first example of poetry recorded in English, originally an oral
hymn made by a cowherd called Caedmon. Much later in his ecclesiastical history, it was written
by the scholarly monk Bede. Some of the remaining versions of the poem are written in Latin,
and a few are in English-Saxon. Even in translations, this poem contains 18 lines, which are an
example of the four-beat line typical of Anglo-Saxon poetry, including Beowulf. Beowulf, around
750.

A long and sore poem about how the youthful Beowulf warriors arrive at the Kingdom of
Hrothgar to get rid of the terrible Grendel monster. Beowulf confronts both Grendel himself
AND Grendel's mother in the course of the tale and eventually grows from a warrior who
exercises heroic code to a leader who can take on the kingdom of his own country. Several
translations are available online, free of charge. In the Gutenberg project, see, for example,
Beowulf) yet many think that Beowulf's translation by poet Seamus Heaney is the greatest.

Read the poem for adventure and its bold, four-beat lines of poetry from England to
Sachsen, which are meant to be said aloud, stuffed with beautiful figures called kennings.
Kenning is lyrical two-word sentences, which give life to ordinary words, such as "bone locks,"
meaning muscle, or "slaughter-storm," which is a terrible struggle.

Some others spent some time there learning — Klingon, an utterly fictitious language.
You can enjoy learning old English if you like such an imagined language. As recorded in
Beowulf, Old English sounds tremendous and audacious, suitable for chanting in many other
moods, before, during, and after battles.

A poet from Mercy named Cynewulf became famous during the 9th century with
Christian Beowulf, and the dream of the rood was among his writings. "Elene" is a story
concerning the cross's discovery. The speaker of this devotional poetry is a dreamer who
experiences Christ's crucifixion on the cross-section.

Significant Historical Dates

43-410: Roman Period
43-420: Roman invasion and occupation of Britain
 410: Last Romans leave Britain, recalled to Rome by barbarian
invasions 450-1066: Old English Period
Ca. 450: Anglo Saxons invade and conquer the Britons
597: St. Augustine arrives in Kent, beginning conversion of Anglo-Saxons
to Christianity
871-899: Reign of King Alfred ―the Great II, who quelled Viking invaders,
established power over other kings in England, and promoted books and
learning.

Beowulf: A Summary

The longest and biggest English-Saxon poem survives in Beowulf. In Denmark and
South-West Sweden, the setting for the epic is the sixth century. The poem opens with a short
genealogy from the royal Dynasty of Scyld, who reached the banks of a tribe as a stranded
baby aboard a ship loaded with treasure. The poem was written after a mythical héro. Scyld's
burial is a notable early ritual. However, 12 years later, Grendel, a descendant of Biblical
assassin Cain, an immense, manlike ogre, has threatened the aged Hrothgar, attacked Heorot,
and killed King Tao's gods (warriors). Grendel commands the night-time mead-hall.

Scyldings' help comes to Beowulf, a young Geatland warrior (South West Sweden),
bringing 14 of his finest soldiers with him. In a fierce feud, Beowulf's father was previously
sheltered by Hrothgar, and the powerful Geat intends to return to favor while strengthening his
king, Hygellac. However, a disgusting intoxicated Scylding named Unferth, on a banquet before
the fall of the first day of the visit, taunts Beowulf and says Geat visitors once lost a youth-
contended swim event called Breca, which doesn't equal Grendel's. In place of Unferth, Beowulf
reacts with dignity. In fact, on the fifth evening of the competition, the two swimmers were
separated by a storm, and Beowulf slew nine marine monsters before returning eventually to
the beach.

While the Danes leave for a safer night in Heorot, Beowulf and the Geats are fully aware
that Grendel is going to visit them. He does that. He does. Irritated by the jubilation of the men
in the central hall, the ogre rushed into the geats in fierce fury and kills him, then reaching
Beowulf. Beowulf seizes the ogre's claw with the power of 30 men in his hand-grip. The
struggle which followed almost destroyed the enormous hall, but Beowulf emerged triumphant
when it snatched Grendel's claw from his foot, sending the deadly injured beast to his mere
flight (pool). Under the roof of Heorot, the claw trophy hangs aloft.
The following day the Danes celebrate with an enormous feast with Hrothgar's scop, a
professional bard who goes with him on the harp and

Traditional lay singing and chanting, such as the Danes' win in Finnsburg. It also
improvises a song on the triumph of Beowulf. Queen Wealhtheow, Hrothgar's wife, proved to
be

Beowulf offered a flawless hostess, a gold collar, and her appreciation. Finally, the
entire group retires full of mead, wine, and fabulous food, for the first tranquil night of years
that they hope will be.

However, Grendel's mother — not as powerful but extremely motivated as her son —
goes to Heorot that evening to find her son's claw and kidnap a Scyldingen (Aeschere)
murderously, while Beowulf goes to sleep elsewhere. The following day, in the dark, forbidden
swamp and at the edge of her bare body, Hrothgar, Beowulf, and a retinue of Scyldings and
Geats follow mother traces. On the cliff by the lake, the murdered head of Aeschere hides the
underpass of the ogres. Beowulf takes with him a sword named Hrunting, a gift from the
chastened Unferth to the mother.

Grendel's mother attacks near the lake's bottom and transports the Geat Warrior to its
poorly lighted cave. The gift sword, Hrunting, as strong as she is, cannot penetrate the
monster's lair once in a dry tunnel. Beowulf fights back. The mom moves with her knife to slay
Beowulf, but his armor is protected by his iconic blackmailer Welland. Suddenly Beowulf spots
and uses a gigantic mystical sword to cut the mother's back on the neck and kill her. A blessed
light fills the cavern in an unexplained way, revealing the body of Grendel and many treasures.
Beowulf is beheading the body. It is melting in the magic sword. Beowulf comes back to the
surface of the water with its head and fingers but leaves it.
 Beowulf and his soldiers come back to Geatland after more celebration and a lecture by
Hrothgar warning of the hazards of pride and the mutability of time. He served his king well
before his son died in a quarrel, and Hygelac was murdered during battle. For 50 years,
Beowulf was effectively named king and ruled. But his peace is destroyed in his decreasing
years, just as Hrothgar. A further demon must fight Beowulf.
A flaming dragon is furious because a lone fugitive has unwittingly detected the
dragon's trunk and stolen a precious cup. In the night, the dragon terrorizes the rural areas and
burns several homes, including Beowulf's. Beowulf, led by the fugitive, searches out the
dragon's barrow with 11 of his warriors. Beowulf insists on the dragon alone, but the creature
does not match his own blade, Naegling. One of them, Wiglaf, comes to his help when he sees
his king in distress. The rest run to the forests. The dragon is murdered together, but the
powerful monarch is deadly wounded, Wiglaf and Beowulf. Beowulf dies and leaves Wiglaf's
kingdom, asking for his remains to be burnt into a funeral pyre and buried high on the coastal
cliff, where sailors may see the barrow. With him is buried the treasure-hoard of the dragon.
They are reported to lie unmoving there.
After more celebration and gifts and a sermon by Hrothgar warning of the dangers of
pride and the mutability of time, Beowulf and his men return to Geatland. There he serves his
king well until Hygelac is killed in battle and his son dies in a feud. Beowulf is then named king
and rules successfully for 50 years. Like Hrothgar, however, his peace is shattered in his
declining years. Beowulf must battle one more demon.
A fiery dragon has become enraged because a lone fugitive has inadvertently
discovered the dragon's treasure-trove and stolen a valuable cup. The dragon terrorizes the
countryside at night, burning several homes, including Beowulf's. Led by the fugitive, Beowulf
and eleven of his men seek out the dragon's barrow. Beowulf insists on taking on the dragon
alone, but his own sword, Naegling, is no match for the monster. Seeing his king in trouble,
one thane, Wiglaf, goes to his assistance. The others flee to the woods. Together, Wiglaf and
Beowulf kill the dragon, but the mighty king is mortally wounded. Dying, Beowulf leaves his
kingdom to Wiglaf and requests that his body be cremated in a funeral pyre and buried high
on a seaside cliff where passing sailors might see the barrow. The dragon's treasure-hoard is
buried with him. It is said that they lie there still.

Iliad by Homer
Two great warriors fight a classic battle
[Link]

The Iliad is an epic poem by Homer, covering the disputes and struggles close to the end
of the Trojan War. The story begins in nine years because of the kidnapping of Helen, a Greek
and the King of Mycenae, from Menelaus by Paris, the son of the King, King Priam of Troy.

The story: Iliad opens with the Greek armies, led by Agamemnon, the king of Mycenae,
over ten years into the siege of Troy. The Greek people are struggling whether or not Chryseis,
king Agamemnon's captured Trojan, should return to her dad, Chrysis, Apollo's priest. When
Agamemnon refuses to rescue the daughter from her dad, the outraged Apollo plagues it with a
disease.

The Greeks force Agamemnon to return Chryseis at the request of the military hero
Achilles to satisfy Apollo and stop the plague. However, as Agamemnon slowly agrees to give
her back, he takes Briseis, Achilles' own concubine battle prize, instead. Achilles felt dishonored,
withdraws his men from the Trojan battle wrathfully.

By testing the Greeks' determination, but Odysseus pushes the Greeks to wage war. In the
course of a short ceasefire

Helen is the one fight against hostilities, Paris and Menelaus, while she and the ancient
King Priam of Troy are watching from the town wall, and Menelaus is the winner, despite
Aphrodite's influence on favor Paris over-matched. The deity Athena, who favors the Greeks,
shortly provokes a triumphant Trojan ceasefire, and the war begins again.

Greek hero Diomedes, reinforced by Athena, leads the Trojans ahead of him but strikes
and wounds Aphrodite with his arrogance and hunger for murder. Although he was concerned

The Greek guerrilla-Hero Ajax is called in to fight with his wife, Andromache, a Trojan
hero, Hector, son of King Priam. In the background, despite Zeus' exact orders, other gods and
goddesses (especially Hera, Athena, Apollo, and Poséido) continue to quarrel and influence and
take part in the fight.

Achilles rejects the pleading for the help of Agamemnon, Odysseus, Ajax, Phoenix, and
Nestor, spurning the honors and wealth provided and even Agamemnon's late attempt to bring
Briseis back to him. Sneak into Trojan camp and ravage Diomedes and Odysseus. Sneak up. But
the tide seems to be starting to favor the Trojans, with Achilles and its men out of combat.
During the fight, Agamemnon is injured and heroic despite

From Ajax, Hector successfully breaks the Greek walled camp and, in the process,
wounds Odysseus and Diomedes.

Torn between his loyalty, Achilles commands Patroclus, his friend, and lover, to dress as
armor in Achilles, leading the Myrmidons to assault the Trojans. Unfortunately, Patroclus was
poisoned by his victory and forgot Achilles' alarm, pursuing the Trojans who have fled behind
the walls of Troy and taking the town without Apollo's s action. However, in the excitement of
the battle, Hector finds the Patroclus and kills him, consider injector g him Achilles. Before
Hector can inflict additional damage, Menelaus and the Greeks are able to rescue Patroclus'
corpse.

Achilles, knowing his dreadful fate, reconciles to Agamemnon and drives in anger all the
Trojans before him. Even the gods join the conflict, the ground shakes due to the war of 10
years.

Achilles took revenge on his friend Patroclus by killing him in single combat, in addition
to defiles and desecrates his corpse for several days, in new armor mainly constructed for him by
Hephaestus. At least, now that Achilles regards it as suitable, the funeral of Patroclus can be
celebrated. King Priam, Hector Alfonso's father, encouraged by his grief and supported by
Hermes, is rehabilitating the corpse of Hector from Achilles and the Iliad closes with the burial
in the Hectors' twelve-day Achilles threshold.

Canterbury Tales
Reflections of Everyday Life
[Link]

The Canterbury Tales is a frame narrative, or a story told around another story or
stories. The frame of the story opens with a gathering of people at the Tabard Inn in London
who are preparing for their journey to the shrine of St. Becket in Canterbury.
The Canterbury Tales begins with the introduction of each of the pilgrims making their
journey to Canterbury to the shrine of Thomas a Becket. These pilgrims include a Knight, his
son the Squire, the Knight's Yeoman, a Prioress, a Second Nun, a Monk, a Friar, a Merchant, a
Clerk, a Man of Law, a Franklin, a Weaver, a Dyer, a Carpenter, a Tapestry-Maker, a
Haberdasher, a Cook, a Shipman, a Physician, a Parson, a Miller, a Manciple, a Reeve, a
Summoner, a Pardoner, the Wife of Bath, and Chaucer himself. Congregating at the Tabard
Inn, the pilgrims decide to tell stories to pass their time on the way to Canterbury. The Host of
the Tabard Inn sets the rules for the tales. Each of the pilgrims will tell two stories on the way
to Canterbury, and two stories on the return trip. The Host will decide whose tale is best for
meaningfulness and for fun. They decide to draw lots to see who will tell the first tale, and the
Knight receives the honor.
The Knight's Tale is a tale about two knights, Arcite and Palamon, who are captured in
battle and imprisoned in Athens under the order of King Theseus. While imprisoned in a
tower, both see Emelye, the sister of Queen Hippolyta, and fall instantly in love with her. Both
knights eventually leave prison separately: a friend of Arcite begs Theseus to release him,
while Palamon later escapes. Arcite returns to the Athenian court disguised as a servant, and
when Palamon escapes he suddenly finds Arcite. They fight over Emelye, but their fight is
stopped when Theseus finds them. Theseus sets the rules for a duel between the two knights
for Emelye's affection, and each raise an army for a battle a year from that date. Before the
battle, Arcite prays to Mars for victory in battle, Emelye prays to Diana that she may marry
happily, and Palamon prays to Venus to have Emelye as his wife. All three gods hear their
prayers and argue over whose should get precedence, but Saturn decides to mediate. During
their battle, Arcite indeed is victorious, but as soon as he is crowned victor, he is killed. Before
he dies, he reconciles with Palamon and tells him that he deserves to marry Emelye. Palamon
and Emelye marry.
When the Knight finishes his tale, everybody is pleased with its honorable qualities, but
the drunken Miller insists that he shall tell the next tale. The Miller's Tale, in many ways a
version of the Knight‘s, is a comic table in which Nicholas, a student who lives with John the
carpenter and his much younger wife, Alison, falls in love with Alison. Another man, the courtly
romantic Absolon, also falls in love with Alison. Nicholas contrives to sleep with Alison by telling
John that a flood equal to Noah's flood will come soon, and the only way that he, Nicholas and
Alison will survive is by staying in separate kneading tubs placed on the roof of houses, out of
sight of all. While John remained in this kneading tub, Nicholas and Alison leave to have sex, but
are interrupted by Absolon, singing to Alison at her bedroom window. She told him to close his
eyes and he would receive a kiss. He did so, and she pulled down her pants so that he could
kissher arse. The humiliated Absolon got a hot iron from a blacksmith and returned to Alison.
This time, Nicholas tried the same trick, and Absolon branded his backside. Nicholas shouted
for water, awakening John, who was asleep on the roof. Thinking the flood had come, he cut
the rope and came crashing through the floor of his house, landing in the cellar.
The pilgrims laughed heartily at this tale, but Oswald the Reeve takes offense, thinking
that the Miller meant to disparage carpenters. In response, The Reeve's Tale tells the story of a
dishonest Miller, Symkyn, who repeatedly cheated his clients, which included a Cambridge
college. Two Cambridge students, Aleyn and John, went to the miller to buy meal and corn, but
while they were occupied Symkyn let their horses run free and stole their corn. They were
forced to stay with Symkyn for the night. That night, Aleyn seduced the miller's daughter,
Molly, while John seduced the miller's wife. Thanks to a huge confusion of whose bed is who in
the dark, Aleyn tells Symkyn of his exploits, thinking he is John: and the two fight. The miller's
wife, awaking and thinking the devil had visited her, hit Symkyn over the head with a staff,
knocking him unconscious, and the two students escaped with the corn that Symkyn had
stolen.
The Cook's Tale was intended to follow the Reeve's Tale, but this tale only exists as a
fragment. Following this tale is the Man of Law's Tale, which tells the story of Constance, the
daughter of a Roman emperor who becomes engaged to the Sultan of Syria on the condition
that he converts to Christianity. Angered by his order to convert his country from Islam, the
mother of the Sultan assassinates her son and Constance barely escapes. She is sent on a ship
that lands in Britain, where she is taken in by the warden of a nearby castle and his wife, Dame
Hermengild. Both of them soon convert to Christianity upon meeting her. A young knight fell in
love with Constance, but when she refused him, he murdered Dame Hermengild and attempted
to frame Constance. However, when King Alla made the knight swear on the Bible that
Constance murdered Hermengild, his eyes burst. Constance marries King Alla and they have a
son, Mauritius, who is born when Alla is at war in Scotland. Lady Donegild contrives to have
Constance banished by intercepting the letters between Alla and Constance and replacing them
with false ones.
Constance is thus sent away again, and on her voyage her ship comes across a
Roman ship. A senator returns her to Rome, where nobody realizes that she is the daughter
of the emperor. Eventually, King Alla makes a pilgrimage to Rome, where he meets
Constance once more, and the Roman emperor realizes that Mauritius is his grandson and
names him heir to the throne.
The Wife of Bath begins her tale with a long dissertation on marriage in which she
recounts each of her five husbands. Her first three husbands were old men whom she would
hector into providing for her, using guilt and refusal of sexual favors. However, the final two
husbands were younger men, more difficult to handle. The final husband, Jankin, was a
twenty-year-old, half the Wife of Bath's age. He was more trouble, as he refused to let the Wife
of Bath dominate him and often read literature that proposed that women be submissive. When
she tore a page out of one of his books, Jankin struck her, causing her to be deaf in one ear.
However, he felt so guilty at his actions that from that point in the marriage, he was totally
submissive to her and the two remained happy. The Wife of Bath's Tale is itself a story of
marriage dynamic. It tells the tale of a knight who, as punishment for raping a young woman,
is sentenced to death.
However, he is spared by the queen, who will grant him freedom if he can answer the
question "what do women want?" The knight cannot find a satisfactory answer until he meets
an old crone, who promises to tell him the answer if he marries her. He agrees, and receives
his freedom when he tells the queen that women want sovereignty over their husbands.
However, the knight is dissatisfied that he must marry the old, low-born hag. She therefore
tells him that he can have her as a wife either old and ugly yet submissive, or young and
beautiful yet dominant. He chooses to have her as a young woman, and although she had
authority in marriage the two were completely happy from that point.
 The Friar asks to tell the next tale, and asks for pardon from the Summoner, for he will
tell a tale that exposes the fraud of that profession. The Friar's Tale tells about a wicked
summoner who, while delivering summons for the church court, comes across a traveling
yeoman who eventually reveals himself to be the devil himself. The two share trade secrets,
and the devil tells him that they will meet again in hell if the summoner continues to pursue his
trade. The summoner visits an old woman and issues her a summons, then offers to accept a
bribe as a payment to prevent her excommunication. The old woman believes that she is
without sin and curses the summoner. The devil then appears and casts the summoner into
hell.

The Canterbury Tales is a tale or a story about another story. The story's frame opens
with people who are prepared to visit the Shrine of St. Becket in Canterbury at the Tabard Inn
in London.

The Tales of Canterbury begins with the introduction to the shrine of St. Becket of
Canterbury. Then, a Knight, his son The Squire, a Knight's Jean, a Prioress, a Second Nun, a
Mount, a Merchant, a clerk, a Lawyman, a Weaver, a Carpenter, a Maker of Tapestry, a
Haberdasher, a Craftsman, a Physicist, a Parson, a Miller, a Manciple, a Summoner, a
Pardoner, a Bath Wife, and Chaucer themselves were all pilgrims. Unfortunately, he was also
killed by the Squire. When pilgrims congregate at the Tabard Inn, they journey to Canterbury
to recount stories. The Tabard Inn host determines the rules for the stories. On the route to
Canterbury, every pilgrim tells two stories and two stories on the trip back. The host decides
which story is ideal for significance and pleasure. The Knight is honored; they choose to draw
a great deal to see who will tell the first story.

The Knight's Tale is a story of two Knights, Arcite and Palamon, arrested at the battle
at Athens by King Theseus. While in a tower, they see Emelye, Queen Hippolyta's sister, fall in
love with her instantaneously. Eventually, the two knights flee prison separately; Arcite's buddy
urges Theseus to free him, and Palamon escapes afterward. Arcite returns as a servant to the
Athenian court, and Arcite finds him abruptly as Palamon escapes. They struggle over Emelye,
but when Theseus discovers them, their conflict stops. Theseus lays down the rules for a fight
between the two cavaliers in love with Emelya. Every one year from that date, he raises an
army for war. Emelye prays to Diana, Arcite begs to Mars for the battle, and Palamon prays to
Venus to make Emelye his wife. Emelye prays to the woman for the struggle. All three gods
hear their petitions and dispute about the primacy of which; however, Saturn chooses to
mediate. Arcite is triumphant in their battle, but he's killed as soon as he's pronounced the
winner. He reconciles Palamon before he dies, telling him he deserves to marry Emelye.
Emelye and Palamon are married.

Everyone is glad about his honorable character after the Knight finishes his story, but
Miller insists on telling his next story inebriated. The Miller's Tale, in many respects a Knight's
version, is a comedy table where Nicholas, a student living with the carpenter John, falls in
love with the Alison family and his much younger wife, Alison. Another man also falls in love
with Alison, the courteously passionate Absolon. Nicholas fades away from sleeping with Alison
by saying to John that a deluge equal to that of Noah's flood will shortly come, and only by
remaining in separate kneading tubs placed on the roof of buildings, Nicholas and Alison will
survive. While John was in this kneading bath, Nicholas and Alison let sex go, but Absolon
stops singing to Alison in her bedroom window. She told him his eyes were closed, and he was
going to get a kiss. He did so, and her pants tugged down to kiss her arse. A blacksmith had a
hot iron and returned to Alison. The humiliated Absolon got. Nicholas tried the same method
this time, and Absolon scored his back. Nicholas screamed for water, and John, who had slept
on his roof, was awakened. He cut the cable and crashed in the floors of his house, landing in
a cellar, thinking the water was coming.

The pilgrims laughed with this account, but Oswald the Reeve offends, thinking the
Miller would disappoint craftsmen. In reply, The Tale of Reeve tells the version of Symkyn, a
dishonest miller who frequently defrauded his customers, including a school in Cambridge.
Aleyn and John, two students from Cambridge, went to the thousand to buy meal and maize,
but when Symkyn was employed, her horse was free, and her maize stole. So they had to stay
for the night with Symkyn. That night the thousand's daughter, Molly, was lured by Aleyn,
while the thousand's wife was persuaded by John. Aleyn told Symkyn of his escapades,
thinking he's John: and the two battles thanks to great confusion over whose bed is the
darker. The wife of the thousand pupils who woke up and thought that the devil had visited
her struck Simkyn with an unconscious stick, and the two students escaped with maize stolen
by Symkyn.
The cook's story was meant to follow the story of Reeve, but this story is only part of it.
The story of Constance, daughter of the Roman emperor engaged in the Sultanship of Syria,
provided it converts into Christianity, is the Man of Law Tale story. The story follows. The
Sultan Mother assassinates her son, and Constance just escapes, irritated by his order to
transform his kingdom from Islam. She is dispatched by the guard of a nearby castle and his
wife, Dame Hermengild, on a ship that lands in England. Both convert immediately after
meeting her to Christianity. But as she refused to, Dame Hermengild was slain, and the
Constance was enacted by a young knight. But when King Allah made the Bible swear to the
Knight that Constance was assassinating Hermengild, his eyes burst. Born when Alla is at war
in Scotland, Constance marries King Allah and has a son, Mauritius. By intercepting and
rewriting letters between Alla and Constance with fraudulent letters, Lady Donegild conceives
that Constance has been forbidden.

Therefore, Constance is sent away again; her ship crosses the Roman ship on her
journey. A senator goes back to Rome; nobody knows she is the emperor’s daughter.
Eventually, the Roman emperor realizes that Mauritius is his grandson and names him an heir
to the throne; he goes on a pilgrimage to Rome.

Bath's wife begins her story with her lengthy marriage dissertation in which her five
husbands tell each one. Her first three husbands were old men, whom she would care for and
use shame and rejection. The last two husbands, though they were younger men, harder to
deal with. A 20-year-old, half the age of Wife of Bath, was the finishing husband, Jan. He had
more significant problems, refusing to allow Bath's wife to dominate him and often reading
literature suggesting women's submission. Jankin hit her, hit her, forcing her to be deaf in the
ear when she tore a page of one of his books.
Nevertheless, he felt so bad that he was utterly obedient to her, and both remained
happy from that moment on in his marriage. The Wife of Bath's Tale is a marriage dynamic
story itself. It speaks of a ruler who is condemned to death, a penalty for raping the young
maiden.

The queen spared him, nevertheless. If he can answer the question: "What do women
want?" he will grant him freedom. Until an older crone, which pledges to say to him if he
marries her, will meet a knight cannot find a good response. When he tells the queen that
females demand sovereignty over their husbands, he agrees and gets his freedom. But he is
unhappy to marry the old, baby hag. He's old. So, she tells him she may be old and ugly and
subservient as a woman or young and beautiful but still dominant. He chose to have her as a
young woman, and while she had power in marriage, both were perfectly satisfied.

The friar asks for the next story and asks the Invoker for forgiveness since he is about
to tell a story that exposes the profession's deceit. The Friar's Tale speaks of a wicked
summoner who comes across a wandering yeoman as he summons the church court, who
eventually reveals himself to be the devil. The two discuss trade secrets, and the devil assures
him that they will meet again in hell if the summoner continues his trade. The summoner visits
and appeals to an older woman to pay a bribe to save her from being excommunicated. The
old woman thinks she's sinless and heals the caller. Then the devil appears and throws the
convocator into the inferno.

The Friar's Tale was furious about the Summoner. He relates a short anecdote before
he begins his tale: a friar visited the devil, and he was startled to see that no other friars were
there. The angel then raised Satan's tail, and thousands of frères flocked from his buttocks.
The angel was with him. The Tale of the Invoker is a vicious attack against friars, just as
much. It relates to a friar who stays with his wife and innkeeper and disturbs them not
donating sufficiently to the church and not lately attending. When the innkeeper told him that
he was not in the church recently, as he was ill and his baby daughter died recently, the
brother tried to appease him and begged for money again. The innkeeper Thomas promised a
gift fartâ for the friar and gave him a long fart.

The Clerk, a student of Oxford who has been still all day long, narrates the following
narrative about the Host's orders. The Clerk's Tale tells a story about Walter, an Italian
Marquis. After the people objected to his bachelor status, the latter ultimately chooses to
marry a wife. Walter marries the baby but powerful woman Griselda, whom everyone loves.
Walter decides, however, to test her love. Walter tells her that his first child, his daughter, is
not satisfied and desires the child's death. He takes the infant away, perhaps for killing, but
sends it instead to his sister. With her second baby, a son, he does the same. Finally, Walter
tells Griselda that the pope requires him to divorce her. He sends her away from home.
Griselda takes each of these catastrophes with remarkable patience. Walter resolves to make
modifications shortly and sends his two kids. He tells Griselda he's going to be married again
and introduces him to the alleged wife, whose daughter he then discloses. The family has
gathered again. The Clerk closes by recommending that ladies attempt to be as steadfast as
Griselde even if it is unlikely and may be impossible to face such suffering.

However, the merchant praises Griselda that his wife is far from the good woman of
the Clerk's account. He relates a story about a disbelieving wife instead. A January narrative
describes the Merchant's Tale, an aging blind knight who resolves to marry a young woman
against the concerns of his brother, Placebo. January marries the beautiful young May, who
soon dissatisfies her with his sexual care and decides to entertain a relationship with his
Squire, Damian, who had covertly wooed her with signs and emblems. May slips away to have
sex with Damian when January and May are in her yard. The gods Pluto and Proserpina are
coming on Damian, and May and Pluto are looking back at January to see what his wife is
doing. When January sees what is taking place, May says that his eyes do not believe – they
recover from blindness – and believes that: leading to a joyful conclusion on the surface.

The Squire says the next incomplete story. A mystery Knight arrives at the court of the
Tartary and begins the Squire's tale. This knight gives a mechanical horse to King
Cambyuskan, who can transport him throughout the world and bring him back one day. In
addition, it grants a mirror of honesty and a ring to Canacee, the daughter of Cambyuska,
which gives users the knowledge of the language of animals and the medicinal powers of all
herbs. This ring is used by Canacee to help a loving bird, but the story ends suddenly.

The following Franklin story talks of the marriage of the ruler Arviragus to his bride,
Dorigen. Dorigen mourns his absence and worries that when Arviragus goes on a military trip,
his ship is smashed on rocks off the ship when he returns. A young man, Aurelius, loves her
but refusing to give back her favors. She agreed to have a relationship with Aurelius only if he
found a means to pull the rocks off the coast, a job she thought was impossible. Aurelius
bribes a scholar who creates the illusion that while Arviragus comes back, the stones have
disappeared. Dorigen confidently acknowledges her husband's commitment, and Arviragus
says she must fulfill this promise. He sends her to Aurelius, but he knows the suffering that
Dorigen would be causing and does not fulfill her pledge. Aurelius is then released from debt
by the pupil. The tale concludes with the question: Who of these men was the noblest and
generous?

The following Physicist's Tale speaks of Virginia, a respected Roman ruler who had an
exceptional beauty as his daughter, Virginia. Appius, the magistrate who ruled his city, lusted
and cooperated with Virginia. He claimed that Virginia was his slave, and the Virginius had
stolen her in court. Appius commands the handing over of Virginia to him. Instead, Virginius
chooses between death and shame, knowing that Appius and Claudius raped his daughters.
She picks end and Virginius slices off Appius and Claudius from his daughter's skull. The
people were so astonished that Appius and Claudius became aware of the deception. As
Claudius was banned, Appius was arrested and committed suicide.

In his story, the pardoner makes a complex confession regarding his profession's
disappointment. He explains his business secrets, including the presentation of meaningless
objects as the relics of saints. The Pardoner's Tale is about three rioters who are seeking death
to overcome him. They're finding an elderly man who says they might find an end behind a
neighboring tree, and they only see a considerable fortune under this tree. Two of the rioters
are sending the third town to buy food and drink for the night, and they are about to kill him
while he is gone. The third rioter poisons the drink and intends to seize all the money. The two
rioters stabbed him when he returned and drank the poisoned wine, and died. Thus, death is
in the shape of avarice for all three rioters. The forgiveness closes his story by encouraging
tourists to pay for forgiveness and to abstain, but the Host silences him scatological.

The following story of a thrifty dealer and his wife is The Shipman's Tale. The wife
informs a mother, the close friend of the merchant, that she is not happy in her marriage and
begs whether she may borrow 100 francs from her. She agreed to sleep with him in exchange
for the loan. Then the monk borrows the money from the merchant, sleeps with his wife, and
pays the money from her husband. The moon tells him that the merchant is asking for his
money back and gives it to his wife. When he approaches the merchant with his wife, the wife
tells him that she will reimburse her husband in bed.
 The Prioress' Tale narrates a young Christian youngster living in a nasty Jewish town in
Asia. One child was taught — Alma Redemptoris to speak, a song that praised the Virgin, and
he went home to sing it. The Jews, outraged with his conduct, seized the baby, sliced his
throat, and left him to die in the cesspit. The mother of the kid looked for her son frightfully.
However, he was not yet dead when she found him since the Virgin Mary had put grain on its
tongue so that she might speak until she was taken. The boy went into paradise when this
was taken away. The story ends with a young kid complaint and a curse for the atrocious deed
committed by the Jews.

The Tale of Sir Thopas, fanciful, floral poetry in rhyming few that only serve to upset
the other pilgrims, recounts Chaucer himself the following story. The Host brings Chaucer into
this story momentarily and tells him another. Then Chaucer says The Tale of Melibee, one of
the two prose stories (the other is the Tale of Parson). This story concerns Melibee, a mighty
ruler whose adversaries assault his household. Prudence, his wife, tells him to stay at the
mercy and has a lengthy debate on the best course of action when determining whether to
decry war on his adversaries. Finally, Melibee gives his foes an option: either he or his wife
may condemn them. They are judged by Melibee and aims to disinherit and expel the guilty.
But at last, he offers a plea for mercy to his wife.

The Monk's Tale is not an account of numerous individuals in history and literature who
are falling from grace. Adam, Samson, Hercules, King Pedro, Bernabo Visconti, Nero, Julius
Caesar, and Croesus were among these. These were: The Rabbi stops the monk's story and
finds the Host monotonic and sad his catalog of past catastrophes.

The Tale of the Nun's Priest relates the story of Chauntice's rooster and Pertelote's hen.
One night, Chauntikeler was ill and dreamed of being hunted by a fox. But he was persuaded
by Pertelote, his dream was only a result of his unequaled touches of humor, that he ought to
discover herbs to heal himself, that his dream was prophetic. Chanticleers insisted on
meaningful dreams, but he ended up agreeing with his wife. However, a fox is chased by
Chaunticleer and carried away, but he's saved when he gets the fox to open his jaws so that
Chaunticleer can fly away.

The Second Nun's Tale follows Chaucer. This story is a biography of Saint Cecilia, who,
under the Roman Empire, when Christian convictions were forbidden, transformed her husband
and her brother into Christianity. Her brother and husband are executed for their faith, and
three times during execution, she is cut down with a sword but doesn't die instantly. Instead,
for many days, she lingers while ordering the distribution of her property to the destitute. Pope
Urban proclaimed her a saint after her death.

After her story ends, a Canon and his Yeoman join the group of travelers. The canon
had heard the story and wanted to join him. The Yeoman constantly speaks of the doctrine,
loving him enormously, then retracts his admiration and annoys the principal, who leaves
unexpectedly. Therefore, Yeoman decided to talk about a misleading Canon: not his master, he
says. He speaks. Yeoman's Tale is a canon's work story and how people are defrauded to
believe they can replicate money.

The host orders the cook to say the next story, but he's too inebriated to tell you
consistently. Therefore, the Manciple says a story. The Tale of Manciple is about how Phoebus
was a jealous husband when he took on mortal shape. He attentively observed his wife in fear
of being unfaithful. Phoebus possessed a white crow which was able to speak people's language
and sang lovely. When Phoebus' wife became aware, the white crow pulled him from his
feathers, throwing him out of doors. This explains why crows are black, according to Manciple,
and can only sing in a disgusting tone.

The Parson says the last story. The Tale of Parson, however, is not an account of the
essence of sin but a prolonged sermon and three sections for forgiveness: contrition,
confession, and satisfaction. The statement shows and describes the seven deadly sins and also
details what is needed to be redeemed. Chaucer closes his stories with retrogression and calls
on the people who had been upset by the stories to blame his roughness, his lack of knowledge
for his aims that are not immoral.
 Learning Assessment

After understanding and recognizing a wide variety of literary texts in English from
Anglo-Saxon Period (circa 450–1066) and their corresponding authors answer what is
asked of you.

Encircle the letter of your choice below the questions.

1. During what century did the first Anglo-Saxon settlers migrate to England?
(a) 8th.
(b) 7th.
(c) 6th.
(d) 5th.
2. What is a compressed narrative poem?
(a) A prose.
(b) A kenning.
(c) A lay.
(d) A ceasura.
3. How was the history and legends of the Anglo-Saxons transmitted?
(a) Written anthologies.
(b) Canons.
(c) They were not discovered until late in the 14th century and then written down.
(d) Word of mouth.
4. Who is the first century Roman historian that the author claims is the best source
for "information about Germanic tribes"?
(a) Herodotus.
(b) Aristotle.
(c) Plato.
(e) Tacitus.

5. Analyze Beowulf through a New Historical critical lens. Form a thesis in which you assert a
New Historical viewpoint about a plot, theme, or character and trace that thesis through at least
3 body paragraphs. Use appropriate New Historical terms / ideas. 4-6 paragraphs total. 50
points total: accuracy, detail, organization, language / mechanics. Pass it online on Friday
September 10, 2021.

6. The book opens during what year of the Trojan War?

(a) The first year.
(b) The tenth year.
(c) The eleventh year.
(d) The fifth year.
7. Who is the priest that Achilles calls upon to see what must be done to appease Apollo?
(a) Kalchas.
(b) Agamemnon.
(c) Chryses.
(d) Aias.
8. Who are the two beautiful women that are captured as war prizes?
(a) Olysis and Banalis.
(b) Chryseis and Briseis.
(c) Charmis and Braeisis.
(d) Atheanna and Kristianna.
9. Who calls Agamemnon greedy for profit and shameless?
(a) Achilles.
(b) Aias.
(c) Odysseus.
(d) Nestor.
10. Who stops Achilles from killing Agamemnon?
(a) Aphrodite.
(b) Athena.
(c) Helena.
(d) Hera.
11. Who is Achilles' mother?
(a) Thetis.
(b) Helen.
(c) Thallia.
(d) Hera.
12. What is Thetis?

(a) Goddess.
(b) Mortal.
(c) Demi-goddess.
(d) Sea nymph.
13. How long has the Trojan War been going by the time The Iliad begins?
(a) Nine years
(b) Eight months
(c) One week
(d) The poem begins with beginning of the war.
14. Why does Zeus initially agree to help the Trojans in the war?
(a) Because he thinks Paris deserves Helen more than Menelaus does.
(b) He does so as a favor to Thetis, who asks him on behalf of Achilles.
(c) He does so to spite his nagging wife, Hera.
(d) Because he despises Odysseus for lusting after Hera.
15. Where is Achilles‘ old armor most vulnerable to attack?
(a) At the heel
(b) At the elbow
(c) At the neck
(d) In the eye visor
16. What relevance does the Iliad have in modern times?

[Link] the shield of Achilles and explain the symbolism.

18. Explain the clash of values symbolized in the fight between Achilles and Hektor.
Enrichment Activities

Activity 1

Prepare a map showing the journey home of each of the Greek warriors who survive the
Trojan war. Include an explanation of what eventually happens to each warrior.
Pass your map online this coming Tuesday, September 14, 2021. For those who have
printed modules, just write all your answers and responses to activities in a pad paper and give it
to the module dispatch and retrieval team during their arrival in your area.

Activity 2

Write an essay in which you analyze the importance of one of Beowulf‘s symbols—Herot,
Grendel (especially his claw and head), the lair of Grendel and his mother, or the dragon‘s
hoard.
Pass your essay online this coming Tuesday, September 14, 2021. For those who have
printed modules, just write all your answers and responses to activities in a pad paper and give
it to the module dispatch and retrieval team during their arrival in your area.

Activity 3

Research online and read J. R. R. Tolkien‘s The Hobbit. Write an essay discussing the role
of treasure, magic, and/or the dragon in both Beowulf and The Hobbit.
Pass your map online this coming Tuesday, September 14, 2021. For those who have
printed modules, just write all your answers and responses to activities in a pad paper and give it
to the module dispatch and retrieval team during their arrival in your area.

Activity 4

Prepare a PPT presentation on the evidence for and against the historical likelihood
Tuesday, September 14, 2021the Trojan War.
Pass your PPT presentation online this coming Tuesday, September 14, 2021. For those
who have printed modules, just write all your answers and responses to activities in a pad paper
and give it to the module dispatch and retrieval team during their arrival in your area.
 CREATIVE PROJECT

DIRECTION:

Dramatic Interpretation — Interpret a scene from Beowulf, dressing as the

characters and performing the scene using your mobile phone video. Some suggested scenes
include Grendel‘s first attack, the battle between Beowulf and Grendel, the attack of Grendel‘s
mother, Beowulf‘s battle with Grendel‘s mother, the battle with the dragon, or Beowulf‘s funeral.

Pass your output on our online platform.

For those who are not using the online platform, pass a character analysis on Beowulf
and Achilles, or write an essay comparing and contrasting the two characters.

Write your essay in a pad paper and give it to the module dispatch and retrieval team
during their arrival in your area. All outputs should be put in a long brown envelop with plastic
cover complete with labels – Name, Course, Year Level and Subject with the instructor's
name.

WEBLIOGRAPHY
Baker, Peter S. (2019). ―Readings from Beowulf.‖ Old English at the University of Virginia.
Hear selections from Beowulf in Old English.

Baldwin, Stanley P., and Elaine Strong Skill (2018). CliffsNotes on Beowulf.
[Link]

Baena, Victoria (2020). "Le Morte d‘Arthur Plot Summary." LitCharts. LitCharts LLC.

―Anglo-Saxon England: A Guide to Online Resources.‖ Ed. Brad Bedingfield. The Online
Reference Book for Medieval Studies. Reference page for Anglo-Saxon England, including links for
original essays, electronic texts, bibliographies, resources for teaching, related web sites, and Old
English societies.

Burgess, Adam. "A Brief Overview of British Literary Periods." Thought Co, [Link]/british-
literary-periods-739034. [Link]

English translation by Samuel Butler with popup notes and

commentary (eNotes): [Link]

Greek version with word-by-word translation (Perseus

Project): [Link]

[Link]

Video Clip References

Anglo Saxons Explained in 10 Minutes
[Link]

[Link]
The Canterbury Tales | Prologue Summary & Analysis | Geoffrey Chaucer

[Link]
Beowulf | Summary & Analysis
Who is Beowulf

“Beowulf” is a medieval epic poem composed in Old English by an anonymous

author. The historical period of its creation spans from the 8th to the 10th
century CE. This classic piece of Anglo-Saxon literature has been of interest to
many scholars, and they have written volumes of inquiry and dialogue about
it. The poem chronicles the trials of Beowulf, including his battles with Grendel
and his mother and an unnamed dragon.

SUMMARY

Danish dynasty is detailed in the poem, beginning with the burial of Shield and continued
in the reign of Hrothgar. Hrothgar is liked by his people and is a highly effective military
leader. He creates a sumptuous hall, called Herot (or Heorot), in which to accommodate
his vast army, and once it is complete, the Danish troops hold a celebratory feast within
its roof.

Hrothgar's warriors are raucous, and Hrothgar is further antagonized by the singing and
drinking, leading Grendel, a monstrous figure who resides in a nearby swamp, to attack
the hill in the middle of the night and slaughter thirty of the men. The Danes live in fear
for the next twelve years because of Grendel's potential rage. Nothing can calm the
monster's rage, not even Hrothgar and his advisors.

Geatish prince Beowulf hears of Hrothgar's woes and, though residing in southern
Sweden, gathers fourteen of his bravest warriors to sail north to help his countryman.
Beowulf boasts to the king of his past battles, including his successful slaying of sea
monsters. However, Beowulf's reputation is on the line with the Geats' coming, and
Hrothgar greets them with that in mind. Following Beowulf's arrival, a dinner is held. At
the banquet, Unferth, a Danish soldier, accuses Beowulf of having slaughtered his
brothers, to which Beowulf replies that Unferth had done the same. Hrothgar makes a
pledge to bestow him with many valuables to secure Beowulf's fate should he triumph
over the fiend.

At night, Grendel emerges at Herot, and, as promised, Beowulf battles the monster in a
hand-to-hand fight. Despite tearing off the monster's arm at the shoulder, Grendel slips
away, dying in the marsh, where he and his mother live, due to a snake-infested swamp.
Following their flight from the mead hall, the Danish warriors returned to sing songs and
retell tales of Beowulf's victory in his honor. Beowulf receives generous gifts from
Hrothgar, following which the Geat and Danish soldiers take their leave.

The soldiers were completely unaware, but Grendel's mother was planning to avenge her
son's death. When all the soldiers are sleeping, she appears in the hall and kidnaps
Hrothgar's chief adviser, Esher. Beowulf volunteers to jump into the lake and search for
the creature's lair before destroying it. Following the monster's footprints, Grendel's men
locate Grendel's mother on the cliff overlooking the lake, where they find Esher's bloody
head floating on the surface of the water. Beowulf gets ready for combat and requests
that Hrothgar keep an eye on his troops and deliver his spoils to his uncle, King Higlac,
should he fail to return from the conflict.

Beowulf kills Grendel's mother in a battle with the monster's underwater lair, but he does
so with a sword he discovers on a wall of her lair. Grendel's corpse is also found and his
head removed, after which he is returned to land. The Danes and Geats cheer as Beowulf
has defeated the terrible creatures that plagued Denmark in anticipation of a victory.

Hrothgar and Beowulf enjoy a reconciliation, with the king of the Danes thanking the
hero and warning him of the perils of vanity and the transient nature of renown and
power. Then, in celebration of the monsters' demise, the Danes and Geats arrange a
grand feast. The following day, the Geats rush to their ship, eager to begin the journey
home. After speaking with Hrothgar, Beowulf says goodbye and promises to support the
Danes if they ever need assistance. Finally, Beowulf's father figure, Hrothgar, presents
him with more valuables, and they warmly embrace, like a father and son.

After Beowulf and the Geats sail home, he informs the Geat king Higlac of his recent
battles with Grendel and Grendel's mother, relating the stories of their encounters to
settle their conflict with the Hathobards. Hrothgar will give his daughter Frew to Ingeld,
king of the Hathobards, wed them. Nevertheless, he believes that this union will not last.
Beowulf receives tracts of land, weapons, and dwellings from Hrothgar as a reward for
his courage.

Higlac is deceased, and after fifty years as king of the Geats, Beowulf is well into his
golden years. A cup is stolen from a sleeping dragon, and to get it back, the dragon
swoops into the night and sets fire to houses, including Beowulf's home and throne.
Beowulf goes to the dragon's lair, determined to defeat it. As he ages, his vitality has
diminished, and so has his strength. But it was at its peak when he faced Grendel. After
Beowulf strikes the dragon's side with his sword, the dragonflies into a rage and engulfs
Beowulf in flames, injuring him in the neck.

After everyone else flees, Wiglaf braves the flames to help Beowulf, who is ailing. After
Wiglaf plunges his sword into the dragon, Beowulf strikes the beast with his knife,
finishing it off in a final display of valor.

Though he can tell that he is on his deathbed, Beowulf recognizes that he has one last
battle to fight. He requests that Wiglaf lead him to the dragon's hoard of gems, gold, and
riches, which somewhat restores his confidence in the mission's worth. Wiglaf is ordered
to construct a monument known as "Beowulf's Tower" on the sea cliff.

Wiglaf chides the soldiers for abandoning Beowulf when he fought the dragon, reminding
them that they are a disgrace to Beowulf's teachings of valor, courage, and devotion.
Wiglaf sends a courier to a neighboring Geat encampment with orders to return and
inform him of the battle's result. The messenger forecasts that the Geats' foes will take
advantage of their king's death to attack them.

Beowulf's funeral pyre is under Wiglaf's direction. Beowulf's last request was for his ashes
to be interred with his treasure in the tomb, and the poem concludes with burial as it
began.

Analysis

“Beowulf” is the oldest known epic poem written in English, although its
date is not known with any certainty (the best estimate being 8th Century
CE, and definitely before the early 11th century CE). The author is likewise
unknown, and represents a question that has mystified readers for
centuries. It is generally thought that the poem was performed orally by
memory by the poet or by a “scop” (a travelling entertainer), and was
passed down in this way passed down to readers and listeners, or that it
was finally written down at the request of a king who wanted to hear it
again.
Because of the unified structure of the poem, with its interweaving of
historical information into the flow of the main narrative, the poem was
most likely composed by one person, although there are two distinct parts
to the poem and some scholars believe that the sections which take place
in Denmark and the sections which take place back in Beowulf’s homeland
were written by different authors.

It is written in a dialect known as Old English (also referred to as Anglo-

Saxon), a dialect that had become the language of its time by about the
early part of the 6th Century CE, in the wake of the occupation of the
Romans and the increasing influence of Christianity. Old English is a heavily
accented language, so different from modern English as to appear almost
unrecognizable, and its poetry is known for its emphasis on alliteration and
rhythm. Each line of “Beowulf” is divided into two distinct half-lines (each
containing at least four syllables), separated by a pause and related by the
repetition of sounds. Almost no lines in Old English poetry end in rhymes in
the conventional sense, but the alliterative quality of the verse gives the
poetry its music and rhythm.

The poet also makes use of a stylistic device called “kenning”, a method of
naming a person or thing by using a phrase that signified a quality of that
person or thing (e.g. a warrior might be described as “the helmet-bearing
one”). Another characteristic of the poet’s style is his use of litotes, a form
of understatement, often with negative overtones, which is intended to
create a sense of irony.

Most often the characters just deliver speeches to one another, and there
are no real conversations as such. However, the story is kept moving
quickly by leaping from one event to another. There is some use of
historical digressions, similar to the use of flashbacks in modern movies
and novels, and this interweaving of events of the present and the past is a
major structural device. The poet also sometimes shifts the point of view in
the midst of an action in order to offer multiple perspectives (for example,
to show the reactions of the warriors who are looking on as an audience in
almost every battle).

“Beowulf” is part of the tradition of epic poetry that began with the poems
of Homer and Virgil, and it deals with the affairs and deeds of brave men,
but, like its classical models, it makes no attempt to portray a whole life
chronologically from beginning to end. It also functions as a kind of history,
blending past, present, and future in a unique, all-encompassing way. It is not
just a simple tale about a man who kills monsters and dragons, but rather a
large-scale vision of human history.

As in the earlier classical epic poems of Greece and Rome, the characters
are generally presented in realistic fashion, but also from time to time as the
poet considers they ought to be. Occasionally, the poet breaks his objective
tone to offer a moral judgment on one of his characters, although for the
most part he lets the actions of the characters speak for themselves. As in
the classical tradition of epic poetry, the poem is concerned with human
values and moral choices: the characters are capable of performing acts of
great courage, but conversely they are also capable of suffering intensely for
their deeds.

The poet attempts to some extent to reconcile the “human” and the “heroic”
sides of Beowulf’s personality. Although he is described as greater and
stronger than anyone anywhere in the world, and clearly commands
immediate respect and attention, he is also portrayed as courteous, patient
and diplomatic in his manner, and lacks the brusqueness and coldness of a
superior and hubristic hero. He boasts to Hrothgar of his bravery, but does
so mainly as a practical means of getting what he wants.

Although Beowulf may act selflessly, governed by a code of ethics and an

intuitive understanding of other people, a part of him nevertheless has no
real idea of why he acts the way he does, and this is perhaps the tragic flaw
in his character. Certainly, fame, glory and wealth are also among his
motivations, as well as practical considerations such as a desire to pay his
father’s debt. He seems to have no great desire to become king of the Geats
and, when first offered the throne, he refuses, preferring to play the role of
warrior-son. Likewise, he never appears quite certain whether his success as
a warrior is due to his own strength or to God’s help, indicating some
spiritual conflicts which raise him above the level of a mere stock hero
figure.

The Danish king Hrothgar is perhaps the most human character in the poem,
and the person with whom it may be easiest for us to identify. He appears
wise, but also lacking the courage expected of a great warrior-king, and age
has clearly robbed him of the power to act decisively. After Beowulf has
killed Grendel‘s mother, Hrothgar takes Beowulf to one side in a very
concerned and fatherly manner and advises him to guard against
wickedness and the evils of pride, and to use his powers for the betterment
of other people. When Beowulf is departing from Denmark, Hrothgar shows
that he is not afraid to show his emotions as he embraces and kisses the
young warrior and bursts into tears. The old king’s modest show of vanity in
building the huge hall, Herot, as a permanent monument to his achievments
is perhaps his only real flaw, and it could be argued that this display of pride
or vanity is what attracted Grendel’s attention in the first place and set the
whole tragedy in motion.

The character of Wiglaf in the second part of the poem, although a relatively
minor character, is nevertheless important to the overall structure of the
poem. He represents the young warrior who helps the aging King Beowulf in
his battle against the dragon in the second part of the poem, in much the
same way as the younger Beowulf helped King Hrothgar in the first part. He
is a perfect example of the idea of “comitatus”, the loyalty of the warrior to
his leader, and, while all his fellow warriors flee the dragon in fear, Wiglaf
alone comes to the aid of his king. Like the young Beowulf, he is also a
model of self-control, determined to act in a way that he believes to be right.

The monster Grendel is an extreme example of evil and corruption,

possessing no human feelings except hatred and bitterness toward
mankind. However, unlike human beings, who can contain elements of good
and evil, there seem to be no way that Grendel can ever be converted to
goodness. As much as he stands for a symbol of evil, Grendel also
represents disorder and chaos, a projection of all that was most frightening
to the Anglo-Saxon mind.

The main theme of the poem is the conflict between good and evil, most
obviously exemplified by the physical conflict between Beowulf and Grendel.
However, good and evil are also presented in the poem not as mutually
exclusive opposites, but as dual qualities present in everyone. The poem
also makes clear our need for a code of ethics, which allows members of
society to relate to one another with understanding and trust.

Another theme is that of youth and age. In the first part, we see Beowulf as
the young, daring prince, in contrast with Hrothgar, the wise but aging king.
In the second part, Beowulf, the aging but still heroic warrior, is contrasted
with his young follower, Wiglaf.

In some ways, “Beowulf” represents a link between two traditions, the old

pagan traditions (exemplified by the virtues of courage in war and the
acceptance of feuds between men and countries as a fact of life) and
the new traditions of the Christian religion. The poet, probably himself a
Christian, makes it clear that idol worshipping is a definite threat to
Christianity, although he chooses to make no comment on Beowulf’s pagan
burial rites. The character of Beowulf himself is not particularly concerned
with Christian virtues like meekness and poverty and, although he clearly
wants to help people, in a Christian sort of way, his motivation for doing so is
complicated. Hrothgar is perhaps the character who least fits into the old
pagan tradition, and some readers see him as modelled after an “Old
Testament” biblical king.

Resources

 Original Old English and facing English translation by Benjamin Slade (Beowulf in
Cyberspace): [Link]
 Audio readings of selected sections by Benjamin Slade (Beowulf
Translations): [Link]
 Links to over 100 English translations (Beowulf Translations): [Link]