SOLAR

Group members:

PANELS

The supervision of the project :

Dr. Hala Elhadidy

Fatima Turki Mashail Abd-Alslam

Reema Saleh Shahad Zaben

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Catalogue

INTRODUCTION 3

Who invented solar panels? 4

What are solar panels 8-10

How Do Solar Panels Make Electricity? 11-13

Solar Panels on Spacecraft 14-17

Conclusion 18

References 19-20
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INTRODUCTION
All over the world there is significant increase in usage of solar
energy. Fuel replaced by Solar panel. solar power is now the trend. All
the automobile companies have their project works going in Solar
power to run vehicles in solar energy. Based on the design of solar
panel the entire vehicle is designed because of it being the most
dominating feature. A solar panel is a silicon based layered
semiconductor module that can produce electricity from sun light. This
photovoltaic effect is created by the flow of electrons inside the
module, which can be maximized by the increased hours of exposure
to sunlight. Solar panels have been dominating the renewable energy
market in recent years because of the ability of solar power to reach
grid parity as conventional energy resources and technological
development.
The below shows the details and reasons for choosing the panel and
the circuits

CONCEPT OF SOLAR PANEL

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Who invented solar panels?

Solar energy is actually nothing new. People have used solar power as far back
in history as the 7th century B.C. In its most primitive state, energy from the sun
has been revered and put to use almost as long as man has walked the earth.
The earliest uses of solar power included focusing the sun’s energy
through a magnifying glass to start fires for cooking. By the 3rd
century B.C., Greeks and Romans bounced sunlight off of “burning
mirrors” to light sacred torches for religious ceremonies.
One legend in Greek solar history is of the scientist Archimedes
setting fire to besieging wooden ships from the Roman Empire. The
story goes that he reflected the sun’s light energy off of bronze
shields, concentrating the rays and attacking the enemy before
they made landfall.
Think of it as a kind of ancient solar laser beam. Whether this
actually happened in Archimedes' time or not is unverified. But this experiment
in solar power was tested by the Greek navy in the 1970s. They did set fire to a
wooden test ship 50 meters away using nothing but the legendary bronze shield
and the solar light energy.

Solar power cell technology invented

In 1839, French physicist Edmond Becquerel discovered the
photovoltaic effect while experimenting with a cell made of metal
electrodes in a conducting solution.2 He noted that the cell produced
more electricity when it was exposed to light.
Later in 1873, Willoughby Smith discovered that selenium could
function as a photoconductor.
Just three years later, in 1876 William Grylls Adams and Richard Evans Day
applied the photovoltaic principle discovered by Becquerel to selenium. They
recorded that it could, in fact, generate electricity when exposed to light.
Almost 50 years after the photovoltaic effect’s discovery, in 1883, American
inventor Charles Fritz created the first working selenium solar cell.3 Though we
use silicon in cells for modern solar panels, this solar cell was a major precursor
to the technology used today.
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In a way, many physicists played a part in solar cell invention. Becquerel is

attributed with uncovering the potential of the photovoltaic effect, and Fritz with
actually creating the ancestor to all solar cells.

Other major events in the history of solar energy

 Solar panels in outer space – Some of the earliest uses of solar technology
were actually in outer space where solar was used to power satellites. In
1958, the Vanguard I satellite used a tiny one-watt panel to power its radios.
Later that year the Vanguard II, Explorer III and Sputnik-3 were all launched
with PV technology on board. In 1964, NASA was responsible for launching
the first Nimbus spacecraft, a satellite able to run entirely on a 470-watt solar
array. In 1966, NASA launched the world’s first Orbiting Astronomical
Observatory, powered by a one-kilowatt array.
 First solar residence – In 1973, the University of Delaware was responsible
for constructing the first solar building, named “Solar One.” The system ran
on a hybrid supply of solar thermal and solar PV power. It was also the first
instance of building integrated photovoltaics (BIPV) – the array didn’t use
solar panels but instead had solar integrated into the rooftop, similar to the
design for Tesla’s new roof product.
 Achievements in solar conversion efficiency – Between 1957 and 1960,
Hoffman Electronics made a number of breakthroughs with photovoltaic
efficiency, improving the efficiency record from 8% to 14%. The next major
achievement was in 1985 when the University of South Wales achieved 20%
efficiency for silicon cells. In 1999, the National Renewable Energy
Laboratory collaborated with Spectro Lab Inc. to create a solar cell with
33.3% efficiency. The University of South Wales broke that record again in
2016 when researchers reached 34.5% efficiency.
 Solar-powered airplanes – In 1981, Paul Macready built Solar Challenger,
the first aircraft to run on solar power, and flew it across the English Channel
from France to the U.K. In 1998, the remote-controlled solar
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airplane “Pathfinder” set an altitude record after reaching 80,000 feet. NASA
broke that record in 2001 when they reached 96,000 feet with their non-rocket
aircraft. In 2016, Bertrand Piccard completed the first zero-emissions
flight around the world with Solar Impulse 2, the world’s largest and most
powerful solar-powered airplane today.
 Solar-powered presidencies – In 1979, President Jimmy Carter had solar
panels installed on the White House during his term as president. However,
in 1981, President Ronald Reagan ordered the White House solar panels to
be removed. In 2010, President Barack Obama requested that solar panels
and a solar water heater be installed on the White House. Both were
installed during Obama’s first term.

Solar panel efficiency and price over the years

Solar cell improvements based on Becquerel’s
initial uncovering of the photovoltaic effect brought
early solar panels to about 1 percent efficiency and
around $300 per watt. It cost about $2 – $3 per watt
to generate electricity from coal at the time.
Bell Labs’ 1954 silicon solar cells operated at
around 4 percent efficiency and later achieved 11
percent efficiency. This was a significant increase
that enabled powering an electric device for several hours for the first time in
history.
Then in 1959, Hoffman Electronics achieved 10 percent efficiency. Soon after,
they beat their own record with 14 percent efficiency in 1960.
These efficiency upgrades helped push solar panels into the space program.
The use of solar panels in the space program through the 1960s increased
production and slowly the price reduced to around $100 per watt.
Exxon funded Dr. Elliot Berman’s research in the 1970s, which produced a less
expensive solar cell, and brought solar panel cost down to about $20 per watt.
Currently, solar panels average between 15 and 18 percent efficiency and can
cost as low as $0.50 per watt.
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With the long history of solar technology, it's notable that the real sea change for
solar has been in the past few decades. Since the 1980s, the cost of solar
panels has dropped 10 percent per year on average.
These improvements in solar technology and cost reduction are thanks to
scientists and engineers dedicated to solar as a leading source of clean, low-
cost electricity for everyone.

Present day solar power

Regardless of why solar power is interesting to you, there is a robust and
fascinating history behind Solar’s rise to relevant status. Solar has a long list of
meanings in today’s day and age. It spans various industries and contributes
power to hundreds of different gadgets and technologies.
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What Are The Solar Panels:

Definition: Solar panels are those devices which are used to absorb the sun's rays and
convert them into electricity or heat.

Description: A solar panel is actually a collection of solar (or photovoltaic) cells,

which can be used to generate electricity through photovoltaic effect. These cells are
arranged in a grid-like pattern on the surface of solar panels.
Thus, it may also be described as a set of photovoltaic modules, mounted on a structure
supporting it. A photovoltaic (PV) module is a packaged and connected assembly of
6×10 solar cells.

What are solar panels made of?

Solar photovoltaics are made with a number of parts, the most important of which
are silicon cells. Silicon, atomic number 14 on the periodic table, is a nonmetal with
conductive properties that give it the ability to convert sunlight into electricity. When
light interacts with a silicon cell, it causes electrons to be set into motion, which
initiates a flow of electricity. This is known as the “photovoltaic effect.”

What are The parts of Solar Panels?

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What Are Solar Panels Used For?

We can Use the solar panels in different places and ways here we will provide some of
them:

Electricity Production

We can use solar panels to generate electricity. This process can take place on either a
domestic or industrial scale. A domestic solar power system can help you when
powering your home. On an industrial scale, we can use solar panels to provide
electricity for the masses. In this case, engineers install a large solar array which forms a
solar power station.

Water Heating

Most people know that solar technology can be used to create electricity. But did you
know that you can also use them to heat water? You can do this with the help of a
special type of device known as a ‘hot water solar panel’.

Hot water solar panels are more popular in domestic settings. Homeowners can choose
to install these devices to produce hot water direct from the sun. As hot water can be in
demand in a busy household, backup heaters are often used to complement such
systems. These backup heaters are especially beneficial during the night where there
isn’t enough sun to heat a water supply.
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Battery Charging

Another key use of solar panels is to charge batteries. Engineers can fit home solar
electric systems with a battery backup system. Solar panels can then charge the battery
during the day to provide a source of electricity at night. This is an important process as
solar cells are unable to generate electricity at night when it’s dark.
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How Do Solar Panels Make Electricity?

Have you ever looked at the solar panels on roofs and wondered exactly what
they do, and how?  Well, those hi-tech expanses of shimmering glass are
actually just one component in a complex network that harnesses the sun’s
renewable energy to deliver electricity to the home within.
Let’s take a simple, step-by-step look at how solar power works.

STEP 1:  SUNLIGHT ACTIVATES

THE PANELS.

Each individual panel is constructed of a

layer of silicon cells, a metal frame, a
glass casing surrounded by a special
film, and wiring.  For maximum effect, the
panels are grouped together into “arrays”
(an ordered series) and placed on
rooftops or in large outdoor spaces.  The
solar cells, which are also referred to as
photovoltaic cells, absorb sunlight during
daylight hours.

STEP 2:  THE CELLS PRODUCE ELECTRICAL CURRENT.

Within each solar cell is a thin semiconductor wafer made from two layers of
silicon. One layer is positively charged, and the other negatively charged,
forming an electric field. When light energy from the sun strikes a photovoltaic
solar cell, it energizes the cell and causes electrons to ‘come loose’ from atoms
within the semiconductor wafer. Those loose electrons are set into motion by the
electric field surrounding the wafer, and this motion creates an electrical
current. 
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STEP 3: THE ELECTRICAL ENERGY IS CONVERTED.

You now have solar panels working efficiently to transform sunlight into
electricity, but the electricity generated is called direct current (or DC) electricity,
which is not the type of electricity that powers most homes, which is alternating
current (or AC) electricity. Fortunately, DC electricity can easily be changed into
AC electricity by a gadget called an inverter. In modern solar systems, these
inverters can be configured as one inverter for the entire system or as individual
microinverters attached behind the panels.
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STEP 4:  THE CONVERTED ELECTRICITY POWERS YOUR HOME.

Once the solar energy has been converted from DC to AC electricity, it runs
through your electrical panel and is distributed within the home to power your
appliances. It works exactly the same way as the electrical power generated
through the grid by your electric utility company, so nothing within the home
needs to change. Since you still remain connected to your traditional power
company, you can automatically draw additional electricity to supplement any
solar shortages from the grid.

STEP 5:  A NET METER MEASURES USAGE. A solar inverter. Image

provided by SMA Solar
Technology AG
On cloudy days and overnight, your solar shingles or
panels may not be able to capture enough sunlight to
use for energy; conversely, in the middle of the day when nobody is home, they
may collect surplus energy—more than you need to operate your home. That’s
why a meter is used to measure the electricity flowing in both directions—to and
from your home. Your utility company will often provide credits for any surplus
power you send back to the grid. This is known as net metering.
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Solar Panels on Spacecraft

Spacecraft operating in the inner Solar System usually rely on the use
of photovoltaic solar panels to derive electricity from sunlight. Outside the orbit
of Jupiter, solar radiation is too weak to produce
sufficient power within current solar technology
and spacecraft mass limitations, so radioisotope
thermoelectric generators (RTGs) are instead
used as a power source.

A solar panel array of the 

The first spacecraft to use solar panels was

the Vanguard 1 satellite, launched by the US in
1958. This was largely because of the influence
of Dr. Hans Ziegler, who can be regarded as the
father of spacecraft solar power. The satellite
was powered by silicon solar cells with ≈10%
conversion efficiency.

Vanguard 1 satellite
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Solar panels on spacecraft supply power for two main uses:

 Power to run the sensors, active heating, cooling and telemetry.
 Power for spacecraft propulsion – electric propulsion, sometimes called
solar-electric propulsion.
For both uses, a key figure of merit of the solar panels is the specific power
(watts generated divided by solar array mass), which indicates on a relative
basis how much power one array will generate for a given launch mass relative
to another. Another key metric is stowed packing efficiency (deployed watts
produced divided by stowed volume), which indicates how easily the array will fit
into a launch vehicle. Yet another key metric is cost (dollars
per watt).
To increase the specific power, typical solar panels on
spacecraft use close-packed solar cell rectangles that cover
nearly 100% of the Sun-visible area of the solar panels,
rather than the solar wafer circles which, even though close-
packed, cover about 90% of the Sun-visible area of typical
solar panels on Earth. However, some solar panels on
spacecraft have solar cells that cover only 30% of the Sun- The solar panels on the SMM satellite
visible area. provided electrical power. Here it is being
captured by an astronaut in a mobile space-
suit that runs on chemical battery power.

Implementation
Solar panels need to have a lot of surface area that
can be pointed towards the Sun as the spacecraft
moves. More exposed surface area means more
electricity can be converted from light energy from
the Sun. Since spacecraft have to be small, this limits
the amount of power that can be produced.
All electrical circuits generate waste heat; in addition,
solar arrays act as optical and thermal as well as Diagram of the  on the planned , which is powered by
electrical collectors. Heat must be radiated from their solar panels (coloured green in this 3/4 view). Note
that shorter light purple extensions are radiator
surfaces. High-power spacecraft may have solar shades not solar panels

arrays that compete with the active payload itself for

thermal dissipation. The innermost panel of arrays
may be "blank" to reduce the overlap of views to space. Such spacecraft include
the higher-power communications satellites (e.g., later-generation TDRS)
and Venus Express, not high-powered but closer to the Sun.
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Spacecraft are built so that the solar panels can be pivoted as the spacecraft
moves. Thus, they can always stay in the direct path of the light rays no matter
how the spacecraft is pointed. Spacecraft are usually designed with solar panels
that can always be pointed at the Sun, even as the rest of the body of the
spacecraft moves around, much as a tank turret can be aimed independently of
where the tank is going. A tracking mechanism is often incorporated into the
solar arrays to keep the array pointed towards the sun.
Sometimes, satellite operators purposefully orient the solar panels to "off point,"
or out of direct alignment from the Sun. This happens if the batteries are
completely charged and the amount of electricity needed is lower than the
amount of electricity made; off-pointing is also sometimes used on the
International Space Station for orbital drag reduction

Spacecraft that have used solar power

To date, solar power, other than for propulsion,

has been practical for spacecraft operating no
farther from the Sun than the orbit of Jupiter. For
example, Juno, Magellan, Mars Global Surveyor,
and Mars Observer used solar power as does the
Earth-orbiting, Hubble Space Telescope.
The Rosetta space probe, launched 2 March
2004, used its 64 square metres (690 sq ft) of
solar panels as far as the orbit
of Jupiter (5.25 AU); previously the furthest use
was the Stardust spacecraft at 2 AU. Solar power Solar panels extended out from the Apollo
Telescope Mount, power solar observatory
for propulsion was also used on the European instruments on the Skylab station, which also
had an additional array on the main spacecraft
lunar mission SMART-1 with a Hall effect thruster.
The Juno mission, launched in 2011, is the first
mission to Jupiter (arrived at Jupiter on July 4,
2016) to use solar panels instead of the traditional RTGs that are used by
previous outer Solar System missions, making it the furthest spacecraft to use
solar panels to date. It has 72 square metres (780 sq ft) of panels.
Another spacecraft of interest is Dawn which went into orbit around 4 Vesta in
2011. It used ion thrusters to get to Ceres.
The potential for solar powered spacecraft beyond Jupiter has been studied.
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The International Space Station also uses solar arrays to power everything on
the station. The 262,400 solar cells cover around 27,000 square feet (2,500 m2)
of space. There are four sets of solar arrays that power the station and the
fourth set of arrays were installed in March 2009. 240 kilowatts of electricity can
be generated from these solar arrays. That comes to 120 kilowatts average
system power, including 50% ISS time in Earth's shadow.

Future uses
For future missions, it is desirable to reduce solar array mass, and to increase
the power generated per unit area. This will reduce overall spacecraft mass, and
may make the operation of solar-powered spacecraft feasible at larger distances
from the sun. Solar array mass could be reduced with
thin-film photovoltaic cells, flexible blanket substrates,
and composite support structures. Solar array
efficiency could be improved by using new
photovoltaic cell materials and solar concentrators
that intensify the incident sunlight. Photovoltaic
concentrator solar arrays for primary spacecraft
power are devices which intensify the sunlight on the
photovoltaics. This design uses a flat lens, called
a Fresnel lens, which takes a large area of sunlight Flexible solar arrays are being investigated for use in
space. The  (ROSA) was deployed on the
and concentrates it onto a smaller spot, allowing a International Space Station in July 2017.

smaller area of solar cell to be used.

Solar concentrators put one of these lenses over every solar cell. This focuses
light from the large concentrator area down to the smaller cell area. This allows
the quantity of expensive solar cells to be reduced by the amount of
concentration. Concentrators work best when there is a single source of light
and the concentrator can be pointed right at it. This is ideal in space, where the
Sun is a single light source. Solar cells are the most expensive part of solar
arrays, and arrays are often a very expensive part of the spacecraft. This
technology may allow costs to be cut significantly due to the utilization of less
material.
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In conclusion ..
solar power is an immense source of directly useable energy and ultimately creates other
energy resources: biomass, wind, hydropower and wave energy.
Most of the Earth's surface receives sufficient solar energy to permit low-grade heating of
water and buildings, although there are large variations with latitude and season. At low
latitudes, simple mirror devices can concentrate solar energy sufficiently for cooking and
even for driving steam turbines.
The energy of light shifts electrons in some semiconducting materials. This photovoltaic effect
is capable of large-scale electricity generation. However, the present low efficiency of solar
PV cells demands very large areas to supply electricity demands.
Direct use of solar energy is the only renewable means capable of ultimately supplanting
current global energy supply from non-renewable sources, but at the expense of a land area
of at least half a million km2.
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