EXPERIMENT NAME :
EXPERIMENT NO : 1 REMARK
DATE SIGN
Experiment no: - 1
Experiment Name: - Introduction of Oracle & Basic SQL Statements
Aim: - Performing practical by using Basic SQL Statements.
Resource Required: - Oracle 9i - iSQLplus
Theory: -
• INTRODUCTION TO ORACLE9I:
SQL consists of two models
- Introduction to Oracle9i: SQL Basics
- Oracle9i: Advanced SQL
• Oracle9i Features:
There are two products, Oracle9i Application server (Oracle9iAS – services for all
different server applications) & Oracle9i Database (stores all data). That provide a complete
and simple infrastructure for Internet applications.
• System Development Life Cycle:
- develop database by using system development life cycle
- this is top-down, systematic approach to database development
1. Strategy and Analysis:
- Study and analyze the business requirements.
- Build models of the system.
2. Design:
- Design database based on the model development in the strategy and analysis phase.
3. Build and document
- Build the prototype system, Create table and develop user
documentation.
4. Transition
- Refine the prototype & make any modification required.
5. Production
- Roll out the system to the users.
• Main types of Database (DBMS):
1. Hierarchical
2. Network
3. Relational
4. Object relational
Relational Database Concept:
- It’s basis for the relational database management system (RDBMS).
- The relational model consists of the following:
- Collection of objects or relations
- Set of operators to act on the relations
- Data integrity for accuracy and consistency.
- A relational database is a collection of relations or two-dimensional tables.
That is a relational database uses relations or two-dimensional tables to
store Information.
• Entity Relationship Model:
In a relational database data is divided into entities. An entity relationship (ER) model is
an illustration of various entities.
It is derived from business specification & built during the analysis phase of the system
development life cycle.
Key Components:
Entity: A thing of specificance about which information needs to be known. E.g.
Employee.
Attribute: Something that describes an entity. E.g. for employee entity, the
attributes would be the employee name, number, job title & so on.
Relationship: A named association between entities.
Unique Identifiers (UID): Any combination of attributes or relationship that
serves to distinguish occurrences of an entity.
Relational Database Properties:
- Can be accessed and modified by executing structured query language (SQL)
statements
- Contains a collection of tables with no physical pointers
- Uses a set of operators.
• SQL STATEMENTS:
Basic SELECT Statements:
• - SQL statements aren’t case sensitive.
• - SQL statements can be on one or more lines.
• - Keywords can’t be abbreviated across lines.
• - Clauses are usually placed on separate lines.
• - Indents are used to enhance readability.
SELECT – Retrieves data from the database.
Syntax:-
SELECT *| {[DISTINCT] column | expression [alias] …}
FROM table;
- SELECT identifies what columns
- FROM identifies which table
Example: -
1) SELECT *
FROM departments;
DEPT_ID DEPT_NAME MANAGER_ID LOCATION_ID
10 Administration 200 1700
20 Shipping 201 1800
50 IT 103 1400
Selecting all columns of the table.
2) SELECT dept_id, location_id
FROM departments;
DEPT-ID LOCATION_ID
10 1700
20 1400
Selecting specific columns.
3) Arithmetic Operators & Parentheses
SELECT last_name, salary, 12*(salary+100)
FROM employees;
LAST_NAME SALARY 12*(SALARY+100)
King 24000 269200
Kochhar 17000 205200
Fay 13000 73200
4) Defining column aliases
SELECT last_name AS name, salary*12 as anuual_salary
FROM employees;
NAME ANNUAL_SALARY
King 228800
Kochhar 204000
De Haan 204000
5) Using Concatenation Operator
SELECT last_name || job_id AS “Employees”
FROM employees;
Employees
KingAD_PRES
KochharAD_VP
De HaanAD_VP
HunoldIT_PROG
6) Eliminating Duplicate Rows
SELECT DISTINCT dept_id
FROM employees;
DEPT_ID
10
20
30
7) Displaying Table Structure
DESCRIBE employees
Name Null? Type
EMPLOYEE_ID NOT NULL NUMBER(6)
FIRST_NAME VARCHAR(20)
LAST_NAME NOT NULL VARCHAR(25)
EMAIL NOT NULL VARCHAR(25)
PHONE_NUMBER VARCHAR(20)
HIRE_DATE NOT NULL DATE
Conclusion:
The Oracle9i Server is the database for Internet computing & based on the object
relational database management system.
You should have learned how to write & execute SELECT statements.
EXPERIMENT NAME :
EXPERIMENT NO : 2 REMARK
DATE SIGN
Experiment no: - 2
Experiment Name: - Ret rival Commands-I
Aim: - Performing practical by using restricting, sorting conditions and single-row functions.
Resource required: - Oracle 9i - iSQLplus
Theory: -
• RESTRICTING AND SORTING DATA:
Limiting the Rows Selected:
Syntax:-
SELECT *| {[DISTINCT] column / expression [alias],….}
FROM table
[WHERE condition(s)];
-Restrict the rows returned by using the WHERE clause
Example:
SELECT employee_id, last_name, job_id, department_id
FROM employees
WHERE depertment_id = 90;
EMPLOYEE_ID LAST_NAME JOB_ID DEPARTMENT_ID
100 King AD_PRES 90
101 Kochhar AD_VP 90
102 De Haan AD_VP 90
- Comparison Conditions
1) SELECT last_name, salary
FROM employees
WHERE salary<= 3000;
LAST_NAME SALARY
Matos 2600
Vargas 2500
2) BETWEEN Condition: display row based on a range of values
SELECT last_name, salary
FROM employees
WHERE salary BETWEEN 2500 AND 3500;
LAST_NAME SALARY
Rajs 3600
Devies 3200
Matos 2600
3) IN Condition: test for values in a list
SELECT employee_id, last_name, salary, manager_id
FROM employees
WHERE manager_id IN (100,101,201);
EMPLOYEE_ID LAST_NAME SALARY MANAGER_ID
202 Fay 6000 201
200 Whalen 4400 101
205 Higgins 120000 100
4) LIKE Condition: Combine pattern-matching character
SELECT last_name
FROM employees
WHERE last_name LIKE ‘_o%’;
LAST_NAME
Kochhars
Mourgas
- Logical Conditions
5) AND & OR operator:
SELECT employee_id, last_name, job_id, salary
FROM employees
WHERE (job_id = ‘SA_REP’
OR job_id = ‘AD_PRES’)
AND salary> 15000;
LAST_NAME JOB_ID SALARY
King AD_PRES 2400
6) NOT operator:
SELECT last_name, job_id
FROM employees
WHERE job_id
NOT IN (‘IT_PROG’, ‘ST_CLERK’, ‘SA_REP’);
LAST_NAME JOB_ID
King AD_PRES
Kichhar AD_VP
Morgus AD_VP
Ziofkey ST_MAN
- ORDER BY Clause: Sort rows
SELECT employee_id, last_name, salary*12 annsal
FROM employees
ORDER BY annsal;
EMPLOYEE_ID LAST_NAME ANNSAL
144 Vargas 30000
143 Matos 31200
141 Davies 37200
107 Rajas 50400
• SINGLE-ROW FUNCTION:
1. Character Function
2. Number Function
3. Date Function
4. Conversion Function
5. General Function
Character-Manipulation Functions
SELECT employee_id, CONCAT (first_name, last_name) NAME,
Job_id, LENGTH (last_name),
INSTR (last_name, ‘a’) “Contains ‘a’?”
FROM employees
WHERE SUBSTR (job_id, 4) = ‘REP’;\
EMPLOYEE_ID NAME JOB_ID LENGTH(LAST_NAME_ Contains’a?
174 EllenAbel SA_REP 4 0
176 JonathonTaylor SA_REP 6 2
178 PatFay MK_REP 5 3
Number Functions
- ROUND: rounds value to specified decimal
SELECT ROUND (45.923, 2), ROUND (45.923, 0) ,
ROUND (45.923, -1)
FROM DUAL;
ROUND(45.923,2) ROUND (45.923, 0) ROUND (45.923, -1)
45.92 46 50
DUAL is a dummy table
- TRUNC: truncates value to specified decimal
SELECT TRUNC (45.923, 2), TRUNC (45.923),
TRUNC (45.923, -2)
FROM DUAL;
TRUNC(45.923 , 2) TRUNC (45.923) TRUNC(45.923,-2)
45.92 45 0
- MOD: returns remainder of division
SELECT last-name, salary, MOD (salary, 5000)
FROM employees
WHERE job_id = ‘SA_REP’;
LAST_NAME SALARY MOD(SLARY, 5000)
Abel 1100 1000
Taylor 6600 3600
Grant 7000 2000
Date Functions
- MONTHS_BETWEEN: Number of months between two dates
MONTHS_BETWEEN (‘01-SEM-95’, ’11-JAN-94’)
ANS: 19.6774194
- ADD_MONTHS: Add calendar months to date
ADD_MONTHS (’11-JAN-94’, 6)
ANS: ’11-Jul-94’
- NEXT_DAY: Next day of month
NEXT_DAY (‘01-SEP-95’, ‘FRIDAY’)
ANS: ’08-SEP-95’
- LAST_DAY: Last day of the month
LAST_DAY (’01-FEB-95’)
ANS: ’28-FEB-95’
- ROUND: Round date
Assume SYSDATE= ’25-JUL-95’:
ROUND (SYSDATE, ‘MONTH’)
ANS: 01-AUG-95
- TRUNC: Truncate date
TRUNC (SYSDATE, ‘YEAR’)
ANS: 01-JAN-95
Conversion Functions
Data type conversion
- from number to character
TO_CHAR (number, ‘format_model’)
- from character to number
TO_NUMBER (char [, ‘format_model’])
- from character to date
TO_DATE (char, ‘format_model’])
- from date to character
TO_CHAR (date, ‘format_model’)
e.g.: SELECT last_name, TO_CHAR (hire date, ‘DD-Mon-YYYY’)
FROM employees
WHERE hire_date < TO_DATE (’01-Jan-90’, ‘DD-Mon-RR’);
LAST_NAME TO_CHAR(HIR
King 17-Jan-1987
Kochhar 21-Sep-1989
Whalen 17-Sep-1987
General Functions
These functions work with any data type and pertain to using nulls.
- NVL (expr1, expr2)
- NVL2 (expr1, expr2, expr3)
- NULLIF (expr1, expr2)
- COALESCE ( expr1, expr2, …., exprn)
Others are Conditional Expressions:
- Use of IF-THEN-ELSE logic within a SQL statement
- Use two methods: CASE expression and DECODE function
Conclusion:
This practical covers topics:
- Selecting, restricting, and sorting data.
- Perform calculations on data using various functions.
