THEORIES

Cognitive learning theory looks at the way people think. Mental processes are an

important part in understanding how we learn. The cognitive theory understands

that learners can be influenced by both internal and external elements.

Plato and Descartes are two of the first philosophers that focused on cognition

and how we as human beings think. Many other researchers looked deeper into

the idea of how we think, spurring more research. Jean Piaget is a highly

important figure in the field of cognitive psychology, and his work focuses on

environments and internal structures and how they impact learning.

Cognitive theory has developed over time, breaking off into sub-theories that

focus on unique elements of learning and understanding. At the most basic level,

the cognitive theory suggests that internal thoughts and external forces are both

an important part of the cognitive process. And as students understand how their

thinking impacts their learning and behavior, they are able to have more control

over it.

Cognitive learning theory impacts students because their understanding of their

thought process can help them learn. Teachers can give students opportunities

to ask questions, to fail, and think out loud. These strategies can help students

understand how their thought process works, and utilize this knowledge to

construct better learning opportunities.

Behaviorism Learning Theory

their interaction with their environment. It suggests that behaviors are influenced

and learned from external forces rather than internal forces.

Psychologists have been developing the idea of behaviorism since the 19th

century. Behavioral learning theory is the basis for psychology that can be

observed and quantified. Positive reinforcement is a popular element of

behaviorism—classical conditioning observed in Pavlov’s dog experiments

suggests that behaviors are directly motivated by the reward that can be

obtained.

Teachers in a classroom can utilize positive reinforcement to help students better

learn a concept. Students who receive positive reinforcement are more likely to

retain information moving forward, a direct result of the behaviorism theory.

Constructivism Learning Theory

Constructivism learning theory is based on the idea that students actually create

their own learning based on their previous experiences. Students take what

they’re being taught and add it to their previous knowledge and experiences,

creating a reality that’s unique to them. This learning theory focuses on learning

as an active process, which is personal and individual for each student.

Teachers can utilize constructivism to help understand that each student will

bring their own past to the classroom every day. Teachers in constructivist

classrooms act as more of a guide to helping students create their own learning
and understanding. They help them create their own process and reality based on

their own past. This is crucial to helping many kinds of students take their own

experiences and include them in their learning.

Humanism Learning Theory

Humanism is very closely related to constructivism. Humanism directly focuses

on the idea of self-actualization. Everyone functions under a hierarchy of needs.

Self-actualization is at the top of the hierarchy of needs—it’s the brief moments

where a person feels all of their needs are met and that they’re the best possible

version of themselves. Everyone is striving for this, and learning environments

can either move toward meeting needs or away from meeting needs.

Teachers can create classroom environments that help students get closer to

their self-actualization. Educators can help fulfill students’ emotional and

physical needs, giving them a safe and comfortable place to learn, plenty of food,

and the support they need to succeed. This kind of environment is the most

conducive to helping students learn.

Connectivism Learning Theory

Connectivism is one of the newest educational learning theories. It focuses on

the idea that people learn and grow when they form connections. This can be

connections with each other or connections with their roles and obligations in

their lives. Hobbies, goals, and people can all be connections that influence

learning.
Teachers can utilize connectivism in their classrooms to help students make

connections to things that excite them, helping them learn. Teachers can use

digital media to make good, positive connections to learning. They can help

create connections and relationships with their students and with their peer

groups to help students feel motivated about learning..

Transformative Learning Theory

Transformative learning theory is a great approach for adult education and young

adult learning. Also referred to as transformation learning, transformative

learning theory focuses on the idea that learners can adjust their thinking based

on new information.

This learning theory was founded by Jack Mezirow, who discovered it after doing

studies on adult women who went back to school. His initial research found that

adults don’t apply their old understanding to new situations and that having a

new perspective helped them gain a new understanding of things as they change.

Mezirow also believed that students had important teaching and learning

opportunities connected to their past experiences and that critical reflection and

review could lead to a transformation of their understanding.

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LEARNING ACHIEVEMENT

Research has shown that there are positive effects of students' implicit theories of

intelligence on their academic outcomes (Dweck, 2006; Burnette et al., 2013). Actually,

research exploring the different response patterns of students' incremental and entity
theories found that a more malleable or dynamic theory of intelligence tends to be

associated with higher levels of academic engagement (Martin et al., 2013), learning goals

in a growth oriented perspective (Dweck, 1999), mastery-oriented strategies (Burnette et

al., 2013), overcoming domain-specific deficits (Alesi et al., 2016), academic achievement

(Burnette et al., 2013) and fewer self-handicapping behaviors (Martin et al., 2001).

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Collective Efficacy is the shared perceptions of teachers in a school that efforts of the

faculty as a whole will have a positive effect on students (Hoy & Miskel, 2013). Collective

Faculty Trust in Students and Parents is the willingness of the faculty as a whole to

risk vulnerability to a parents and colleagues with confidence that both groups can be

relied upon, i.e., are benevolent, competent, and open.

Academic Emphasis is the school’s press for academic achievement; a school with high

academic emphasis has high achievement standards, faculty belief that all students can

achieve, and an environment in which students work hard and respect those who achieve.

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Related Review of Literature

Educational inequality occurs in multiple forms. Van de Wefhorst and Mijs

(2010) discussed its existence through the inequality of educational opportunity

in terms of the influence of social background on students’ test scores, as well as

in learning, as expressed by the performance distribution in test scores.

different in that an educational system may have equality in terms of dispersion

(or variance) in educational achievement but inequality in terms of opportunities;

yet, in general, societies that are equal in terms of dispersion are also more equal

in terms of opportunities.

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The American Psychological Association (APA) defines socioeconomic

status as “the social standing or class of an individual or group” (APA 2018). SES

has been commonly used as a latent construct for measuring family background

(Bofah and Hannula 2017). However, among empirical studies, there is no

consensus on how to best operationalize the concept. In many studies, the

measurement of SES does not receive much attention, with very limited

discussion over why certain indicators were used rather than others (Bornstein

and Bradley 2014).

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