LECTURES 1 - 10

INTRODUCTION TO
CLASSICAL MECHANICS
Prof. N. Harnew
University of Oxford
MT 2016

1
 OUTLINE : INTRODUCTION TO MECHANICS
LECTURES 1-10
1.1 Outline of lectures
1.2 Book list
1.3 What is Classical Mechanics?
1.4 Vectors in mechanics
1.4.1 Vector components in 3D
1.4.2 Unit vectors
1.4.3 Vector algebra
2.1 Scalar and vector products
2.1.1 The scalar (dot) product
2.1.2 The vector (cross) product
2.1.3 Examples of scalar & vector products in mechanics
2.2 Differentiation of vectors
2.2.1 Vector velocity
2.2.2 Vector acceleration
3.1 Dimensional analysis
2 3.1.1 The period of a pendulum
 3.1.2 Kepler’s third law
3.1.3 The range of a cannon ball
3.1.4 Example of limitations of the method
3.2 Newton’s Laws of motion
3.3 Frames of reference
3.4 The Principle of Equivalence
4.1 Newton’s Second Law
4.2 Newton’s Third Law
4.3 Energy conservation in one dimension
5.1 Conservative forces
Examples
5.2 Potential with turning points
5.2.1 Oscillation about stable equilibrium
5.2.2 Bounded and unbounded potentials
6.1 Lab & CM frames of reference
6.2 Internal forces and reduced mass
6.3 The Centre of Mass
6.3.1 CM of a continuous volume
3 6.3.2 Velocity in the Centre of Mass frame
 6.3.3 Momentum in the CM frame
6.3.4 Motion of CM under external forces
6.4 Kinetic energy and the CM
7.1 Two-body collisions - general concepts
7.1.1 Momentum exchange and impulse
7.1.2 An off-axis collision in 2D
7.2 Elastic collisions in the Lab frame
7.2.1 Elastic collisions in 1D in the Lab frame
7.2.2 Special case in 1D where target particle is at rest
7.2.3 Collision in 2D : equal masses, target at rest
8.1 Elastic collisions in the CM frame
8.2 Lab to CM : 2-body 1D elastic collision
8.2.1 Collision in 1D : numerical example
8.3 Relationship between speeds in CM in 2D
8.4 Lab to CM : 2-body 2D elastic collision
9.1 Examples of 2D elastic collisions
9.1.1 Example 1: Equal masses, target at rest
9.1.2 Example 2: Elastic collision, m2 = 2m1 , θ1 = 30◦
9.2
4 Inelastic collisions in the Lab frame in 1D (u2 = 0)
 9.2.1 Coefficient of restitution

9.3 Inelastic collisions viewed in the CM frame

9.3.1 Kinetic energy in the CM : alternative treatment
9.3.2 Coefficient of restitution in the CM
9.3.3 Example of inelastic process

10.1 Resisted motion and limiting speed

10.2 Air resistance

10.3 Example 1 : Resistive force, FR ∝ v

10.4 Example 2: Resistive force, FR ∝ v 2

10.4.1 Work done on the body by the force for FR ∝ v 2

5
 1.1 Outline of lectures

Two groups of lectures

I 10 in MT - mostly 1D & 2D linear motion.
I 19 in HT - 3D full vector treatment of Newtonian
mechanics, rotational dynamics, orbits, introduction to
Lagrangian dynamics

Info on the course is on the web:

[Link]
I Synopsis and suggested reading list
I Problem sets
I Lecture slides

6
 1.2 Book list
I Introduction to Classical Mechanics A P French & M G
Ebison (Chapman & Hall)
I Introduction to Classical Mechanics D. Morin (CUP) (good
for Lagrangian Dynamics and many examples).
I Classical Mechanics : a Modern Introduction, M W McCall
(Wiley 2001)
I Mechanics Berkeley Physics Course Vol I C Kittel et al.
(McGraw Hill)
I Fundamentals of Physics Halliday, Resnick & Walker
(Wiley)
I Analytical Mechanics 6th ed, Fowles & Cassidy (Harcourt)
I Physics for Scientists & Engineers, (Chapters on
Mechanics) P.A Tipler & G. Mosca (W H Freeman)
I Classical Mechanics T W B Kibble & F H H Berkshire
(Imperial College Press)
7
 1.3 What is Classical Mechanics?
Classical mechanics is the study of the motion of bodies in accordance with the
general principles first enunciated by Sir Isaac Newton in his Philosophiae Naturalis
Principia Mathematica (1687). Classical mechanics is the foundation upon which all
other branches of Physics are built. It has many important applications in many areas
of science:
I Astronomy (motion of stars and planets)
I Molecular and nuclear physics (collisions of atomic
and subatomic particles)
I Geology (e.g., the propagation of seismic waves)
I Engineering (eg structures of bridges and buildings)

Classical Mechanics covers:

I The case in which bodies remain at rest
I Translational motion– by which a body shifts from one point in space to another
I Oscillatory motion– e.g., the motion of a pendulum or spring
I Circular motion–motion by which a body executes a circular orbit about another
fixed body [e.g., the (approximate) motion of the earth about the sun]
I More general rotational motion–orbits of planets or bodies that are spinning
I Particle collisions (elastic and inelastic)
8
 Forces in mechanics

Relative magnitude of forces:

I Strong force - nuclear : ∼ 1
1
I Electromagnetism - charged particles : 137
I Weak force - β decay : ∼ 10−5
I Gravitational - important for masses, relative strength :
∼ 10−39

9
 Not too fast!

Classical Mechanics valid on

scales which are:
I Not too fast
I eg. high energy particle
tracks from CERN
I v << c [speed of light in
vacuo]
I If too fast, time is no longer
absolute - need special
relativity.

10
 Not too small!
Classical Mechanics valid on
scales which are:
I Not too small!
I Images of atom planes in a
lattice by scanning
tunneling electron
microscope
I Particles actually have
wave-like properties :
λ = ph (h = 6.6 × 10−34 Js)
I Hence for scales >> λ,
wave properties can be
ignored

11
 Not too large!

Classical Mechanics valid on

scales which are:
I Not too large!
I Gravitational lens
produced by a cluster of
galaxies
I Space is “flat” in classical
mechanics - curvature of
space is ignored
I Also in Newtonian
mechanics, time is
absolute

12
 1.4 Vectors in mechanics
The use of vectors is essential in the formalization of classical
mechanics.
I A scalar is characterised by magnitude only: energy,
temperature.
I A vector is a quantity characterised by magnitude and
direction: eg. Force, momentum, velocity.
Notation:
I Vector: a (bold); in components
a = (ax , ay , az )
I Magnitude of a is |a| or simply a.

I Two vectors are equal if they have the same magnitude

and direction (i.e. parallel)
a = b gives ax = bx , ay = by , az = bz
13
 1.4.1 Vector components in 3D

Projecting the components:

p = (px , py , pz )

I x-component
px = |p| sin(θ) cos(φ)
I y-component
py = |p| sin(θ) sin(φ)
I z-component
pz = |p| cos(θ)
√
I Magnitude |p| = (px2 + py2 + pz2 )
I Direction tan(φ) = (py /px )
cos(θ) = (pz /|p|)

14
 1.4.2 Unit vectors
I A unit vector is a vector with
magnitude equal to one.
I e.g. Three unit vectors defined by z
orthogonal components of the
Cartesian coordinate system: k
I i = (1,0,0), obviously |i| = 1
I j = (0,1,0), |j| = 1
I k = (0,0,1), |k| = 1 O y
I A unit vector in the direction of j
general vector a is written i
â = a/|a| x
I a is written in terms of unit
vectors a = ax i + ay j + az k

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 1.4.3 Vector algebra

Sum of two vectors

I To calculate the sum of two vectors
c=a+b
Triangle rule: Put the second vector
nose to tail with the first and the
resultant is the vector sum.
I c = a + b : in (x, y, z) components
(cx , cy , cz ) = (ax +bx , ay +by , az +bz )
I Alternatively c = a + b
cx i + cy j + cz k =
(ax + bx )i + (ay + by )j + (az + bz )k

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Vector algebra laws

I a + b = b + a : commutative law
I a + (b + c) = (a + b) + c:
associative law
I Can treat vector equations in same
way as ordinary algebra
a+b=c ⇒ a=c−b
I Note that vector −b is equal in
magnitude to b but in the opposite
direction.
so a − b = a + (−b)

17
Multiplication of a vector by a scalar

I This gives a vector in the same direction as the original but

of proportional magnitude.
I For any scalars α and β and vectors a and b
I (αβ) a = α(β a ) = β(α a ) = a (αβ) : associative &
commutative
I (α + β)a = αa + βa : distributive
I α(a + b) = αa + αb

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 2.1.1 The scalar (dot) product

Scalar (or dot) product definition:

a.b = |a|.|b| cos θ ≡ ab cos θ
(write shorthand |a| = a ).

I Scalar product is the magnitude of a

multiplied by the projection of b onto a.

I Obviously if a is perpendicular to b then

a.b = 0

I Also a.a = |a|2 (since θ =0◦ )

√
Hence a = (a.a)

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 Properties of scalar product

(i) i.i = j.j = k.k = 1 and i.j = j.k = k.i = 0

(ii) This leads to a.b = (ax i + ay j + az k).(bx i + by j + bz k)

= ax bx + ay by + az bz

iii) a.b = b.a : commutative

a.(b + c) = a.b + a.c : distributive

(iv) Parentheses are important

Note (u.v) w 6= u (v.w) because one is a vector along ŵ,
the other is along û.

20
 2.1.2 The vector (cross) product
Vector (or cross) product of two vectors,
definition:
a × b = |a||b| sinθ n̂

where n̂ is a unit vector in a direction perpendicular to both a and b.

To get direction of a × b use right hand rule:
I i) Make a set of directions with your right
hand→ thumb & first index finger, and with
middle finger positioned perpendicular to plane
of both
I ii) Point your thumb along the first vector a a

I iii) Point your 1st index finger along b, making

the smallest possible angle to a
I iv) The direction of the middle finger gives the b

direction of a × b . c=axb

21
 Properties of vector product

I i×j=k ; j×k=i ; k×i=j ; i × i = 0 etc.

I (a + b) × c = (a × c) + (b × c) : distributive

I a × b = −b × a : NON-commutative

I (a × b) × c 6= a × (b × c) : NON-associative

I If m is a scalar,
m(a × b) = (ma) × b = a × (mb) = (a × b)m

I a × b = 0 if vectors are parallel (0o )

i.e a × a = 0

22
 Vector product in components

Cross product written out in components:

I a × b = (ax , ay , az ) × (bx , by , bz )
= (ax i + ay j + az k) × (bx i + by j + bz k)
I Since i × i = j × j = k × k = 0 and i × j = k etc.
I a × b = (ay bz − az by )i − (ax bz − az bx )j + (ax by − ay bx )k

This is much easier when we write in determinant form:

 
 i j k 
 
a × b =  ax ay az 
 (1)
 bx by bz 

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2.1.3 Examples of scalar & vector products in mechanics

I a) Scalar product
Work done on a body by a force through
distance dr from position 1 to 2
R2
W12 = 1 [Link]
Only the component of force parallel to
the line of displacement does work.

I b) Vector product
A torque about O due to a force F
acting at B :
τ =r×F
Torque is a vector with direction
perpendicular to both r and F,
magnitude of |r||F| sin θ.

24
 2.2 Differentiation of vectors
Notation: a dot above the function indicates derivative wrt time.
A “dash” indicates derivative wrt a spatial coordinate.

dy dy
ẏ ≡ y0 ≡
dt dx
a(t + ∆t) − a(t) ∆a
ȧ = lim = lim
∆t→0 ∆t ∆t→0 ∆t

a(t) = ax (t)i + ay (t)j + az (t)k

 
ax (t + ∆t) − ax (t)
ȧ = lim i + ...
∆t→0 ∆t

Hence ȧ = ȧx i + ȧy j + ȧz k

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 2.2.1 Vector velocity

I ∆r = r2 − r1

∆r
v = lim
∆t→0 ∆t

I Velocity at any point is

tangent to the path at that
point
dr
I v= dt = ṙ

In one dimension:
dx
Abandon vector notation and simply write v = dt = ẋ,
(+v in +x direction, −v in −x direction).
26
 Example - 1D motion
A body has velocity v0 = −15 ms−1 at position x0 = 20m and
has a time-dependent acceleration a(t) = 6t − 4 [ms−2 ]. Find
the value of x for which the body instantaneously comes to rest.

I a(t) = 6t − 4 [ms−2 ] ; x0 = 20 m ; v0 = −15 ms−1

v̇ = 6t − 4 → v = a(t)dt = 3t 2 − 4t + c
R
I

I At t = 0, v = −15 ms−1 → c = −15 ms−1

I v = 3t 2 − 4t − 15
I v = 0 for 3t 2 − 4t − 15 = 3(t − 3)(t + 35 ) = 0
→ t = 3s (also − 53 s)
v (t)dt = t 3 − 2t 2 − 15t + c 0 → x = 20 m at t = 0, c 0 = 20 m
R
I x=
I x(t) = 27 − 18 − 45 + 20 = −16 m
27
 2.2.2 Vector acceleration

I ∆v = v2 − v1

∆v
a = lim = v̇ = r̈
∆t→0 ∆t

In one dimension:
dv
Abandon vector notation and simply write a = dt = v̇ = ẍ,
(+a in +x direction, −a in −x direction).

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Example: constant acceleration - projectile motion in 2D
dv
I a= dt = constant
I r = 0 at t = 0
Rv Rt
v0 dv = 0 adt
I

dr
→ v = v0 + at → v = dt
Rr Rt
0 dr = 0 (v0 + at)dt
I

→ r = v0 t + 21 at 2

Under gravity: a = −g ŷ → ax = 0; ay = −g

I vx = v0 cos θ I x = (v0 cos θ)t

I vy = v0 sin θ − gt I y = (v0 sin θ)t − 12 gt 2

g
Trajectory: y = (tan θ)x − 2v02
(sec2 θ)x 2

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 The monkey and the hunter

30
 3.1 Dimensional analysis
I A useful method for determining the units of a variable in
an equation
I Useful for checking the correctness of an equation which
you have derived after some algebraic manipulation.
Dimensions need to be correct !
I Determining the form of an equation itself
Most physical quantities can be expressed in terms of
combinations of basic dimensions. These are certainly not
unique :
I mass (M)
I length (L)
I time (T)
I electric charge (Q)
I temperature (θ)
31
Note: The term "dimension" is not quite the same as "unit", but
obviously closely related.

Quantity Unit Dimension

Frequency Hertz (Hz) = (cycles) s−1 T −1

Force Newton (N) = kg m s−2 MLT −2
Energy Joule (J) = N m = kg m2 s−2 ML2 T −2
Power Watt (W) = J s−1 = kg m2 s−3 ML2 T −3
Current Ampere (A) = Cs−1 QT−1
EMF Volt (V) = Nm C−1 = kg m2 s−2 C −1 ML2 T−2 Q−1

Dimensional analysis is best illustrated with examples.

32
 3.1.1 The period of a pendulum
How does the period of a pendulum depend on its length?
I Variables: period P, mass m, length l,
acceleration due to gravity g
I Guess the form: let P = k m a ` b g c
(k is a dimensionless constant)
I T 1 = M a Lb (LT −2 )c = M a Lb+c T −2c
I Compare terms:
a = 0, b + c = 0, −2c = 1
→ c = −1/2, b = 1/2
q
`
P=k g
q
`
We know that P = 2π g : we obtained this form using dimensions
and without using equation of motion: IMPRESSIVE !
33
 3.1.2 Kepler’s third law
How does the period of an orbiting mass depend on its radius?
I Variables: period P, central mass M0 , orbit
radius r , Gravitational constant G
I Guess the form: let P = k M0a r b G c
(k is a dimensionless constant)
I Dimensions of G → (MLT −2 ).L2 M −2
I T 1 = M a Lb (M −1 L3 T −2 )c
= M (a−c) Lb+3c T −2c
GmM0 mv 2
I
r2
= r
I Compare terms:
2πr
a − c = 0, b + 3c = 0, −2c = 1 I v= P
4π 2 3
→ a = −1/2, c = −1/2, b = 3/2 I P2 = GM0 r
−1/2 3/2 k2 3 → k 2 = 4π 2
P = k M0 r G−1/2 → P2 = GM0
r
34
 3.1.3 The range of a cannon ball
A cannon ball is fired with Vy upwards and Vx horizontally, assume no air resistance.
I Variables: Vx , Vy , distance travelled along
x (range) R, acceleration due to gravity g
I First with no use of directed length dimensions
I Let R = kVxa Vyb g c .
(k is a dimensionless constant)
I Dimensionally L = (L/T )a+b (L/T 2 )c
I Compare terms:
a + b + c = 1 and a + b + 2c = 0, which leaves one
exponent undetermined.
I x = vx t
I Now use directed length dimensions , then Vx will be
dimensioned as Lx /T , Vy as Ly /T , R as Lx and g as I y = vy t − 21 gt 2
Ly /T 2
=0
I The dimensional equation becomes:
Lx = (Lx /T )a (Ly /T )b (Ly /T 2 )c 2vy
→t = g
→ a = 1, b = 1 and c = −1.
2vx vy
I x= g
vx vy
R=k g
35
 3.1.4 Example of limitations of the method

I Let y = f (x1 , x2 , . . . xn ) where x1 , x2 , . . . xn have

independent dimensions
I However in general y = (x1a x2b . . . x n ) φ(u1 , . . . uk ) where ui
are dimensionless variables

Extend to how the period of a rigid

pendulum depends on length pivot to CM.
I In actual fact P ≡ P(g, `, m, I) where I
is the moment of inertia
I [I] = ML2 → can define u = I
m`2
q
`
T = g
φ(u) q
I
T = 2π mg`
i.e. Equation is not reproduced
36
 3.2 Newton’s Laws of motion

I NI: Every body continues in a state of rest or in uniform

motion (constant velocity in straight line) unless acted upon
by an external force.
I NII: The rate of change of momentum is equal to the
applied force; where the momentum is defined as the
product of mass and velocity (p = mv). [i.e. the applied
force F on a body is equal to its mass m multiplied by its
acceleration a.]
I NIII: When one body exerts a force on a second body, the
second body simultaneously exerts a force equal in
magnitude and opposite in direction on the first body [i.e.
action and reaction forces are equal in magnitude and
opposite in direction.]

37
 3.3 Frames of reference

I A frame of reference is an environment which is used to

observe an event or the motion of a particle.
I A coordinate system is associated with the frame to
observe the event (eg the body’s location over time).
I The observer is equipped with measuring tools (eg rulers
and clocks) to measure the positions and times of events.
I In classical mechanics, time intervals between events is
the same in all reference frames (time is absolute).
I In relativity, we will need to use space-time frames.
I A reference frame in which NI is satisfied is called an
inertial reference frame.
38
 Inertial reference frames
A frame in which Newton’s first law is satisfied:
I Deep space
I The Earth? [Only in circumstances where we can ignore gravity
& the spin of the Earth.]
Principle of Relativity : The laws of Physics are the same in all
inertial frames of reference.

At t = 0, x = 0, x 0 = 0 and S and S 0 are coincident.

Galilean Transformation of coordinates:

I x 0 = x − v0 t, y 0 = y , z 0 = z, t 0 = t

I Velocity of a body v in S; velocity measured in S 0 v 0 = v − v0

I Acceleration measured in S 0 a0 = a
I Hence F 0 = F (consistent with the principle of relativity)
39
 3.4 The Principle of Equivalence

I The Principle of Equivalence dictates that m = m∗ .

I Inertial mass = Gravitational mass
I This may seem obvious, but it was not an original postulate
of Newton

40
 4.1 Newton’s Second Law

The rate of change of momentum of a body is equal to the

applied force on the body.
dp
I F= dt = ma where p = mv
I In components: (Fx , Fy , Fz ) = m(ax , ay , az )
I Assuming constant mass, we can define the equation of
d(mv ) 2
motion in 1D : F = dt = m ddt 2x
I We require two initial conditions for a unique solution: e.g.
v = v0 at t = 0 and x = x0 at t = 0

We shall later solve the EOM for three examples:

(i) F = constant, (ii) F ∝ −v , (iii) F ∝ −x

41
 4.2 Newton’s Third Law

Action and reaction forces are equal in magnitude and opposite

in direction.

Compressed spring

Electrostatic interaction

F12 = −F21

42
 Conservation of momentum

Compressed spring

dP1 dP2
I F12 = m1 a1 = dt and F21 = m2 a2 = dt
d
I F12 + F21 = dt (P1 + P2 ) = 0 (Newton III)
I Therefore (P1 + P2 ) = constant
In an isolated system, the total momentum is conserved.

43
 Newton II : Example 1. E.O.M. under constant force
How fast should we accelerate the triangular wedge to keep the
block m stationary on the wedge?

Forces on wedge: Forces on block:

I Horizontal: Fex − Fi sin θ = MAx I Horizontal: Fi sin θ = max
I Vertical: R − Fi cos θ − Mg = 0 I Vertical: Fi cos θ − mg = may

For block to remain at the same place Ax = ax and ay = 0

mg
I Fi = cos θ and ax = g tan θ = Ax
I Hence Fex = Mg tan θ + mg tan θ = (m + M)g tan θ
44
 Example constant force, continued

What is the internal force that the blocks apply on each other
and the reaction force by the ground on M?

From before:

mg
I Fi = cos θ

I R − Fi cos θ − Mg = 0

I Hence: R = Fi cos θ + Mg = (m + M)g

45
 Example 2. Force proportional to velocity
Solve the equation of motion for the case F = −βv (β > 0)
with x = x0 and v = v0 at t = 0

I m dv
dt = −βv
dv β
dt = −αv where α = m
I

R v dv Rt −αt
v0 v = −α 0 dt → v = v0 e
I

Rx Rt Rt
I v = dxdt → x0 dx = 0 vdt = 0 v0 e
−αt dt

I x − x0 = − vα0 e−αt + vα0

I x = x0 + vα0 (1 − e−αt )
I When t → ∞, x → x0 + vα0
46
 Example 3. Force proportional to position: simple
harmonic oscillator
2
Solving the equation of motion for the case F = m ddt 2x = −kx

2
I m ddt 2x + k
mx = 0 ; trial solution x = A cos ωt + B sin ωt
→ ẋ = −Aω sin ωt + Bω cos ωt ; ẍ = −Aω 2 cos ωt − Bω 2 sin ωt
k
I ẍ = −ω 2 x → ω 2 = m
I Alternatively x = x0 cos(ωt + φ) (or x = x0 Re[ei(αt+φ) ] )
I Expand : x = x0 (cos(ωt) cos φ − sin(ωt) sin φ)
A = x0 cos φ ; B = −x0 sin φ → x02 = A2 + B 2 ; tan φ = −B/A
2π
I x0 = amplitude, φ = phase, ω = angular frequency (T = ω )
47
 I x = x0 cos(ωt + φ)
q
k
I ω= m
I φ = ω∆t
48
 4.3 Energy conservation in one dimension
Work done on a body by a force F
R x2 R x2 dv
I W = F m
x1 (x)dx = x1 dt dx
I We can write: dv dx
dt dx = dt dv = vdv
R x2 R v2
hence x1 F (x)dx = m v1 vdv = 21 m(v22 − v12 ) = T2 − T1
I Now introduce an arbitrary reference point x0
R x2 R x2 R x1
x1 Fdx = x0 Fdx − x0 Fdx defines a conservative force
Rx Rx
hence T2 + [− x02 Fdx] = T1 + [− x01 Fdx]
I We define the potential energy U(x) at a point x :
Rx
U(x) − U(x0 ) = − x0 Fdx and hence
T2 + U2 = T1 + U1 (total energy PE + KE conserved)
I Note the minus sign. The potential energy (relative to a
reference point) is always the negative of the work done by
the force → F (x) = − dUdx
49
 5.1 Conservative forces
Z b
Wab = F . dr = U(a) − U(b)
a
For a conservative field of force, the work done depends only
on the initial and final positions of the particle independent of
the path.
The conditions for a conservative force (all equivalent) are:
I The force is derived from a (scalar) potential function:
F(r) = −∇U → F (x) = − dU dx etc.
I There is zero net work by the force
H when moving a particle
around any closed path: W = c F . dr = 0
I In equivalent vector notation ∇ × F = 0

For any force: Wab = 12 mvb2 − 21 mva2

Only for a conservative force: Wab = U(a) − U(b)

50
Conservative force: example 1. Constant acceleration
Consider a particle moving under constant force (in 1-D).

I F = ma. Say at t = 0 → x = x0 and v = v0

I T2 + U2 = T1 + U1 (the total energy is conserved)
1 2 1 2
2 mv − (ma)x = 2 mv0 − (ma)x0 = constant
I

I v 2 = v02 + 2a(x − x0 )

I Gravitational potential energy

Ry
I U(∆y) = − y12 F (y )dy
Ry
I U(∆y) = − y12 (−mg)dy = mg(y2 − y1 )

51
 Example 2. Simple harmonic oscillator
2
Equation of motion: F = m ddt 2x = −kx

kx 2
Rx Rx
I Potential energy: U(x) = − 0 Fdx = − 0 (−kx)dx = 2
kx 2
I Total energy: E = T (x) + U(x) = 12 mẋ 2 + 2
I Check conservation of energy:
EOM : mẍ + kx = 0 → [multiply by ẋ] mẍ ẋ + kx ẋ = 0
1 d
→ 2
2 m dt (ẋ ) + 12 k dt
d
(x 2 ) = 0
I Integrate wrt t: 12 mẋ 2 + 12 kx 2 = constant → i.e. energy
conserved.
52
 SHM potential energy curve

I E = U(x) + 12 mv 2
I The particle can only reach locations x that satisfy U < E
53
 Example 3. Minimum approach of a charge
A particle of mass m and
charge +Q1 starts from
x = +∞ with velocity v0 . It
approaches a fixed charge +Q.
Calculate its minimum distance
of approach xmin .

QQ1
I Force on charge +Q1 : F (x) = + 4π x2
(+ve direction)
0

Rx QQ1
I Potential energy at point x: U(x) = − ∞ F (x)dx = + 4π0x
(where PE = 0 at x = ∞)
1
I Conservation of energy : 2
2 mv0 + 0 = 12 mv 2 + U(x)
1 2 QQ1 QQ1
I Min. dist. when v = 0: 2 mv0 = 4π0 xmin → xmin = 2πm0 v02

54
 5.2 Potential with turning points

I U is a maximum: unstable equilibrium

I U is a minimum: stable equilibrium
55
 5.2.1 Oscillation about stable equilibrium

I For SHM : U(x) = 12 k (x − x0 )2

I Taylor expansion
 about
 x0 :  2 
dU 1 d U
U(x) = U(x0 )+ (x −x0 )+ 2! (x −x0 )2 +. . .
dx x=x0 dx 2 x=x0
| {z } | {z }
=0 =k
56
 Example: The Lennard-Jones potential
The Lennard-Jones potential
describes the potential energy
between two atoms in a molecule:
U(x) = [(x0 /x)12 − 2(x0 /x)6 ]
( and x0 are constants and x is
the distance between the atoms).
Show that the motion for small displacements about the minimum is
simple harmonic and find its frequency. h i
I U(x) = U(x ) + dU 1 d 2U
(x − x0 )2 + . . .
 
0 dx x=x (x − x 0 ) + 2! dx 2
0 x=x0
12
I U(x0 ) = [(x0 /x) − 2(x0 /x)6 ]x=x0 = −
dU(x)
I
dx |x=x0 = 12[− x10 (x0 /x)13 + 1 7
x0 (x0 /x) ]x=x0 = 0 as expected.
2
d U(x) 12 72
I |
dx 2 x=x0
= x02
[13(x0 /x)14 − 7(x0 /x)8 ]x=x0 = x02
72
I Hence U(x) ≈ − + 2!x02
(x − x0 )2
I F (x) = − dU 1 72
dx ≈ − 2 × 2( x 2 )(x − x0 ) = −k (x − x0 ) SHM about x0
0
k 72
I Angular frequency of small oscillations : ω 2 = m = mx02
57
 5.2.2 Bounded and unbounded potentials

I Bounded motion : E = E1 : x constrained x1 < x < x2

I Unbounded motion : E = E2 : x unconstrained at high x
x0 < x < ∞
58
 6.1 Lab & CM frames of reference

From hereon we will deal with 2 inertial frames:

I The Laboratory frame: this is the frame
where measurements are actually made
I The centre of mass frame: this is the frame
where the centre of mass of the system is at
rest and where the total momentum of the
system is zero

59
 6.2 Internal forces and reduced mass

I Internal forces only:

F12 = m1 r¨1 ; F21 = m2 r¨2
F21 F12
Then r¨2 − r¨1 = m2 − m1
NIII : F21 = −F12 = Fint

I Define r = r2 − r1 → ṙ = ṙ2 − ṙ1

 
1 1
I Fint m1 + m2 = r̈
1 1 1
I Define µ = m1 + m2 → Fint = µr̈
m1 m2
µ= m1 +m2 is the reduced mass of the system

This defines the equation of motion of the relative motion of the

particles under internal forces, with position vector r & mass µ
60
 6.3 The Centre of Mass

The centre of mass (CM) is the point where the mass-weighted

position vectors (moments) relative to the point sum to zero ;
the CM is the mean location of a distribution of mass in space.

I Take a system of n particles,

each with mass mi located
at positions ri , the position
vector of the CM is defined
by:
Pn
i=1 mi (ri − rcm ) = 0
I Solve for P
rcm :
rcm = M1 ni=1 mi ri
where M = ni=1 mi
P

61
 Example : SHM of two connected masses in 1D
SHM between two masses m1 and m2 connected by a spring
I x = x2 − x1 ; Natural length L
I Fint = −k (x − L) = µ ẍ
m1 m2
(µ = m1 +m2 = reduced mass)
I ẍ + µk (x − L) = 0
Solution: x = x0 cos(ωt + φ) + L
q
where ω = µk
With respect to the CM:
m1 x1 +m2 x2
I xCM = M where M = m1 + m2
Mx1 −m1 x1 −m2 x2
I x10 = x1 − xcm = M = − mM2 x
Mx2 −m1 x1 −m2 x2 m1 x
I x20 = x2 − xcm = M = M
q
2k
Eg. take m1 = m2 = m → ω = m ; x10 = − 21 x, x20 = 12 x
62
 6.3.1 CM of a continuous volume

If the mass distribution is continuous with density ρ(r) inside a

volume V , then:
Pn
i=1 mi (ri − rcm ) = 0
I

becomes
R
V ρ(r)(r − rcm )dV = 0
where dm = ρ(r)dV
I Solve for rcm
rcm = M1 V ρ(r) r dV
R

where M is the total mass in

the volume

63
 Example: the CM of Mount Ranier
Mount Ranier has approximately the shape of a cone (assume
uniform density) and its height is 4400 m. At what height is the centre
of mass?

We have cylindrical symmetry - just need to consider the y direction.

Integrate from top (y = 0) to bottom (y = h)
Rh Rh
ydm ydm
I ycm = 0
M = R0 h
0 dm
dm = ρ(πr 2 )dy = ρ(πy 2 tan2 θ)dy
Rh
yρ(πy 2 tan2 θ)dy
I ycm = R0 h
2 2
0 ρ(πy tan θ)dy
Rh
y 3 dy 3h4 3h
ycm = R0h = 4h3
= 4
0 y 2 dy
(measured from the top)

I h = 4400m → ycm = 1100m

above the base
64
 6.3.2 Velocity in the Centre of Mass frame
I The position of the centre of
mass is given
P by:
rcm = M1 ni=1 mi ri
where M = ni=1 mi
P

I The velocity of the CM:

vcm = ṙcm = M1 ni=1 mi ṙi
P

I In the Lab frame, total momentum ptot :

ptot = ni=1 mi ṙi = Mvcm
P

Hence the total momentum of a system in the Lab frame

is equivalent to that of a single particle having a mass M
and moving at a velocity vcm

65
 6.3.3 Momentum in the CM frame
Pn Pn
m ṙ m v
I Velocity of the CM: vcm = ṙcm = P i i
i=1
= P i i
i=1
i mi i mi

I Velocity of a body in the CM relative to Lab v0i = vi − vcm

I The total momentum of the system of particles in the CM:

p0i = i mi v0i = i mi (vi − vcm )
P P P
I
i
P
mv
= i mi vi − i mi Pj mj j j = i mi vi − j mj vj = 0
P P P P
j

Hence the total momentum of a system of particles in the

CM frame is equal to zero

I In addition, the total energy of the system is a minimum

compared to all other inertial reference frames.
66
 6.3.4 Motion of CM under external forces
I Force on particle i: mi r̈i = Fi ext + Fi int
Xn Xn Xn
ext
Fi int = ni Fi ext
P
I mi r̈i = Fi +
| i {z } | i {z } | i {z }
all masses external forces internal forces = zero

P mi ri
I rCM = i M
P
where M = i mi
P m r̈
I r̈CM = i Mi i
→ M r̈CM = i Fi ext
P

The motion of the system is equivalent to that of a single

particle having a mass M acted on by the sum of external forces

(The CM moves at constant velocity if no external forces)

67
 6.4 Kinetic energy and the CM
1
mi v2i ; v0i = vi − vCM
P
I Lab kinetic energy : TLab = 2
where v0i is velocity of particle i in the CM
1 1
mi v02 mi v0i · vCM + mi v2CM
P P P
I TLab = 2 i + 2

mi v0i
P
mi v0i
P
I But · vCM = · M vCM = 0
| M
{z }
=0

→ TLab = TCM + 12 Mvcm

2

The kinetic energy in the Lab

frame is equal to the kinetic
energy in CM + the kinetic
energy of the CM

68
 7.1 Two-body collisions - general concepts

No external forces. Collision via massless springs or other force type.

I ti : collision starts. All
energy is kinetic.
Ti = 21 m1 u12 + 12 m2 u22
I t : collision peaks. Some
kinetic is converted into
potential (of the spring).
E = 21 m1 x˙1 2 + 21 m2 x˙2 2 +Eint
I tf : collision ends. All
energy is kinetic again.
Tf = 12 m1 v12 + 12 m2 v22 ;
Ti = Tf + ∆E (← inelastic)
69
 7.1.1 Momentum exchange and impulse
dp
During collision: internal force causes change of momentum F = dt

I At ti : total momentum
p = p1 + p2 = m1 u1 + m2 u2
I At t : m1 → dp1 = F12 dt
m2 → dp2 = F21 dt
I At tf : m1 → v1 and m2 → v2
Rt
I Impulse ∆p1 = I1 = ti f F12 dt
Rt
∆p2 = I2 = ti f F21 dt
I Since F12 + F21 = 0
∆p1 + ∆p2 = 0
I Momentum conserved.

70
 7.1.2 An off-axis collision in 2D

I Impulse is along line of

centres
Rt
∆p1 = ti f F12 dt
Rt
∆p2 = ti f F21 dt
Rt
I v1 = m11 ti f F12 dt + u1
Rt
I v2 = − m12 ti f F12 dt
71
 7.2 Elastic collisions in the Lab frame

Before After

Conservation of momentum: m1 u1 + m2 u2 = m1 v1 + m2 v2

1
Conservation of energy: 2
2 m1 u1 + 12 m2 u22 = 12 m1 v21 + 12 m2 v22

[Note that the motion is in a plane, and the 2D representation

can be trivially extended into 3D by rotation of the plane].

72
 7.2.1 Elastic collisions in 1D in the Lab frame

I Momentum : m1 u1 + m2 u2 = m1 v1 + m2 v2 (1)
→ m1 (v1 − u1 ) = m2 (u2 − v2 ) (2)
1 1 1
I Energy : 2
2 m1 u1 + 2
2 m2 u2 = 2
2 m1 v1 + 12 m2 v22
→ m1 (v1 − u1 )(v1 + u1 ) = m2 (u2 − v2 )(u2 + v2 ) (3)
I Divide (2) & (3) :
→ (v1 + u1 ) = (u2 + v2 ) → (u1 − u2 ) = (v2 − v1 ) (4)
→ Relative speed before collision = Relative speed after
73
7.2.2 Special case in 1D where target particle is at rest
I u2 = 0 ; From (1) & (4) :
m1 u1 = m1 v1 + m2 (u1 + v1 )
(m1 −m2 )u1
I v1 = m1 +m2
I Similarly :
m1 u1 = m1 (v2 − u1 ) + m2 v2
2m1 u1
I v2 = m1 +m2

m1 −m2 2m1
v1 = m1 +m2 u1 and v2 = m1 +m2 u1

Special cases:
I m1 = m2 : → v1 = 0, v2 = u1
(complete transfer of momentum)
I m1 >> m2 : Gives the limits v1 → u1 , v2 → 2u1
(m2 has double u1 velocity)
I m1 << m2 : Gives the limits v1 → −u1 , v2 → 0
(“brick wall” collision)
74
 Example: Newton’s cradle
Consider here just 3 balls

I If the balls are touching, the most general case is:

Momentum after collision : mu = mv1 + mv2 + mv3
1
Energy after collision : 2 mu
2 = 21 mv12 + 12 mv22 + 12 mv32
2 equations, 3 unknowns
I The obvious solution: v1 = v2 = 0, v3 = u
I But other solution(s) possible:
Momentum : mu = − 31 mu + 32 mu + 23 mu
1 2 1 2 4 2 4 2
Energy : 2 mu = 18 mu + 18 mu + 18 mu
I So why does the simple solution always prevail?
75
 7.2.3 Collision in 2D : equal masses, target at rest
m1 = m2 = m , u2 = 0

I Momentum: mu1 = mv1 + mv2 → u1 = v1 + v2

Squaring → u21 = v21 + v22 + 2v1 .v2
1
I Energy: 2
2 mu1 = 21 mv21 + 21 mv22 → u21 = v21 + v22
I Hence 2v1 .v2 = 0
π
→ EITHER v1 = 0 & v2 = u1 OR (θ1 + θ2 ) = 2
I Either a head-on collision or opening angle is 90◦
76
 Relationship between speeds and angles
m1 = m2 = m , u2 = 0

I From cons. mom. (v2 )2 = (u1 − v1 )2

→ v22 = v12 + u12 − 2u1 v1 cos θ1
I Energy: u12 = v12 + v22 → v22 = u12 − v12
I Equate : 2v12 = 2u1 v1 cos θ1
v1 v2
cos θ1 = u1 and by symmetry cos θ2 = u1

I Note we can also do this via components of momentum :

→ u1 = v1 cos θ1 + v2 cos θ2 and v1 sin θ1 = v2 sin θ2
→ (u1 − v1 cos θ1 )2 = v22 cos2 θ2 and v12 sin2 θ1 = v22 sin2 θ2
→ Add : v22 = v12 sin2 θ1 + u12 − 2u1 v1 cos θ1 + v12 cos2 θ1
→ Gives : v22 = v12 + u12 − 2u1 v1 cos θ1
77
 8.1 Elastic collisions in the CM frame
Lab frame:

Centre of mass frame (zero momentum frame)

I Conservation of momentum in CM:

m1 u0 1 + m2 u0 2 = 0 ; m1 v0 1 + m2 v0 2 = 0
I Conservation of energy in CM:
1 02 1 02 1 02 1 02
2 m1 u 1 + 2 m2 u 2 = 2 m1 v 1 + 2 m2 v 2
78
 8.2 Lab to CM : 2-body 1D elastic collision
(m1 u1 +m2 u2 )
I vcm = (m1 +m2 )
I Before in CM :
m1 u10 + m2 u20 = 0
I After in CM :
m1 v10 + m2 v20 = 0
I From last lecture
u10 − u20 = v20 − v10
I Sub for u20 , v20 :
u10 (1 + m1 /m2 ) =
−v10 (1 + m1 /m2 )
I v10 = −u10
v20 = −u20

79
 8.2.1 Collision in 1D : numerical example

1) Find CM velocity relative to laboratory frame :

vcm = m1mu11 +m2 u2
+m2 = 6×3+0.5×4
10 = 2 ms−1
2) Transform initial velocities into CM : u 0 = u − vcm
u10 = 3 − 2 = 1 ms−1 ; u20 = 0.5 − 2 = −1.5 ms−1

3) Conservation of energy : v10 = −u10 : v20 = −u20

v10 = −1 ms−1 ; v20 = 1.5 ms−1 after collision
4) Transform final velocities back to Laboratory frame :
v = v 0 + vcm
v1 = −1 + 2 = 1 ms−1 ; v2 = 1.5 + 2 = 3.5 ms−1
80
 8.3 Relationship between speeds in CM in 2D

I Momentum : m1 u01 + m2 u02 = 0 ; m1 v01 + m2 v02 = 0 (1)

I Dot products : m1 u102 = −m2 u01 · u02 ; m2 u202 = −m1 u01 · u02
m1 v102 = −m2 v01 · v02 ; m2 v202 = −m1 v01 · v02
Energy : 1 02 1 02 1 02 1 02
2 m1 u1 + 2 m2 u 2 = 2 m1 v 1 + 2 m2 v 2
I

Hence −(m1 + m2 )u01 · u02 = −(m1 + m2 )v01 · v02

I u01 · u02 = v01 · v02 : magnitudes u10 u20 = v10 v20 → back-to-back
I From (1), magnitudes u20 = − m 1 0 0 m1 0
m2 u1 ; v2 = − m2 v1
I Hence u10 (− m1 0 0 m1 0 02 02 02 02
m2 u1 ) = v1 (− m2 v1 ) → u1 = v1 ; u2 = v2
Speeds before = speeds after
I |v10 | = |u10 | ; |v20 | = |u20 | → Back-to-back in direction as
shown in diagrams.
81
 8.4 Lab to CM : 2-body 2D elastic collision

1) Find centre of mass velocity vCM

I (u1 − vCM )m1 + (u2 − vCM )m2 = 0
m1 u1 +m2 u2
I → vCM = m1 +m2

2) Transform initial Lab velocities to CM

I u01 = u1 − vCM , u02 = u2 − vCM
3) Get final CM velocities
I |v01 | = |u01 | ; |v02 | = |u02 |
82
4) Transform vectors back to the Lab frame
I v1 = v01 + vCM ; v2 = v2 0 + vCM

5) Can then use trigonometry to solve

83
 9.1.1 Example 1: Equal masses, target at rest

Before

Magnitude of velocities: After

m1 u1 +m2 u2 u0
I vCM = m1 +m2 = 2
I u10 = u0 − vCM = u20
I u20 = −vCM = − u20
I |v10 | = |u10 | = u20
I |v20 | = |u20 | = u20

84
 Relationships between angles and speeds
Angles:
I Cosine rule:
( u20 )2 = ( u20 )2 + v12 − 2v1 u20 cos θ1
I v1 u0 cos θ1 = v12
v1
I cos θ1 = u0 as before
v2
I cos θ2 = u0
Opening angle:
I Cosine rule:
u02 = v12 + v22 − 2v1 v2 cos(θ1 + θ2 )
I But u02 = v12 + v22 (conservation of
energy)
π
I cos(θ1 + θ2 ) = 0 → θ1 + θ2 = 2

NB: Lines joining opposite corners of rhombus cross at 90◦

85
9.1.2 Example 2: Elastic collision, m2 = 2m1 , θ1 = 30◦
Find the velocities v1 and v2 and the angle θ2

Magnitude of velocities:
m1 u1 +m2 u2 u0
I vCM = m1 +m2 = 3
2u0
I u10 = u0 − vCM = 3
I u20 = −vCM = − u30
2u0
I |v10 | = |u10 | = 3
u0
I |v20 | = |u20 | = 3
86
 Relationships between angles and speeds

I Sine rule:
(sin 30/ 2u30 ) = (sin α/ u30 )
1
→ sin α = 4 → α = 14.5◦
I β = 30 + α = 44.5◦
I sin 30/ 2u30 = sin(180 − 44.5)/v1
→ v1 = 0.93u0
I Cosine rule:
v22 = ( u30 )2 + ( u30 )2 − 2( u30 )2 cos β
→ v2 = 0.25u0
I Sine rule:
(sin 44.5/v2 ) = (sin θ2 / u30 )
→ θ2 = 68.0◦
87
 9.2 Inelastic collisions in the Lab frame in 1D (u2 = 0)
An inelastic collision is where
energy is lost (or there is
internal excitation).

I Take m2 at rest & in 1D. Momentum : m1 u1 = m1 v1 + m2 v2 (1)

1
I Energy : 2
2 m1 u1 = 12 m1 v12 + 21 m2 v22 + ∆E (2)
I Square Equ.(1) and subtract 2m1 × Equ.(2)
→ m2 (m2 − m1 )v22 + 2m1 m2 v1 v2 − 2m1 ∆E = 0
I Substitute for m1 v1 from Equ.1 to get quadratic in v2
→ m2 (m2 + m1 )v22 − 2m1 m2 u1 v2 + 2m1 ∆E = 0
I Solve, taking consistent solutions with elastic case (∆E = 0)
√
2m m u + 4m12 m22 u12 −8m1 m2 (m1 +m2 )∆E
→ v2 = 1 2 1 2m2 (m1 +m2 ) (3)
√
2m2 u − 4m12 m22 u12 −8m1 m2 (m1 +m2 )∆E
→ v1 = 1 1 2m1 (m1 +m2 ) (4)
88
1D inelastic collisions viewed in the Lab frame (u2 = 0)

I We see from Equ. (3) & (4) there is a limiting case:

4m12 m22 u12 − 8m1 m2 (m1 + m2 )∆E ≥ 0
m1 m2 u12
I i.e. ∆E ≤ 2(m1 +m2 )

I This corresponds to the two bodies sticking together in a

single object of mass (m1 + m2 ) → v1 = v2
I From momentum cons. m1 u1 = m1 v1 + m2 v2
m1 u1
if v1 = v2 = v , then v = (m1 +m2 ) (the CM velocity)

 q 
u1 4∆E
For equal mass m1 = m2 v2 , v1 = 2 1± 1− mu12

89
 9.2.1 Coefficient of restitution
|v2 −v1 | Speed of relative separation
General definition : e= |u1 −u2 |
= Speed of relative approach

I From Equ.(3) & (4) previously

√
2m m u + 4m12 m22 u12 −8m1 m2 (m1 +m2 )∆E
v2 − v1 = 1 2 1 2m (m +m )
2
√ 2 22 2 1 2
2m u − 4m1 m2 u1 −8m1 m2 (m1 +m2 )∆E
− 1 1 2m1 (m1 +m2 )
I Factorizing, then simplifying, then dividing by u1 gives
r q
e = 1 − 2(mm1 +m 2 )∆E
m u2
= 1 − ∆ET0
1 2 1

1 m1 m2
where T0 = 2
2 µu1 with µ = m1 +m2 (the reduced mass)
I We see later that T0
is the initial energy in the CM frame,
hence e is related to the fractional energy loss in this frame
I e = 1 completely elastic; e = 0 perfectly inelastic,
in general 0 < e < 1
90
 9.3 Inelastic collisions viewed in the CM frame
Case of perfectly inelastic collision (e = 0)

After collision, total mass (m1 + m2 ) is at rest in CM:

I KE in CM: TCM = TLAB − 12 (m1 + m2 )vCM 2

I Differentiate: Loss in KE ∆TCM = ∆TLAB (obvious)

I Max. energy that can be lost = TCM =
= 12 m1 u12 + 21 m2 u22 − 12 (m1 + m2 )vCM
2
91
 9.3.1 Kinetic energy in the CM : alternative treatment
Revisit kinetic energy in the CM frame: TLab = TCM + 12 MvCM
2

I TCM = 12 m1 u102 + 12 m2 u202

I x10 = − m1m+m
2
2
x = − mM2 x , x20 = m1
M x

I u10 = − mM2 ẋ , u20 = m1

M ẋ

1
m1 (− mM2 )2 + m2 ( mM1 )2 ẋ 2


I TCM = 2

1 m1 m2 1 m1 m2 2
I TCM = 2 M2 (m2 + m1 ) ẋ 2 = 2 M ẋ
I Also ẋ = ẋ2 − ẋ1 = u20 − u10

1 m1 m2 2 1 2 1 0 0 2 1 2
TCM = 2 M ẋ = 2 µẋ = 2 µ(u1 −u2 ) = 2 µ(u1 −u2 )

These expressions give the CM kinetic energy in terms of the

relative velocities in the CM & Lab and the reduced mass µ
92
 9.3.2 Coefficient of restitution in the CM
I i
Initial KE in the CM : TCM = 21 µ(u10 − u20 )2
I f
Final KE in the CM : TCM = 12 µ(v10 − v20 )2
I i
Conservation of energy : TCM f
= TCM + ∆E
1
→ 0
2 µ(u1 − u20 )2 = 21 µ(v10 − v20 )2 + ∆E
 0 0 2
v1 −v2
→ u10 −u20
= 1 − T∆E i
CM
 0 0
v1 −v2
q
→ u 0 −u 0
= ± 1 − T∆E i
1 2 CM

Same expression as before with T 0 = TCM

i

Coefficient of restitution
|v02 −v01 |
q
|v −v | ∆E
e= = |u2 −u1 |
|u01 −u02 | CM
= 1− i
TCM
1 2 LAB

ONLY in CM frame can ALL the KE be used to create ∆E

→
93
For e = 0 the two particles coalesce and are at rest in CM
 9.3.3 Example of inelastic process
A calcium nucleus (A=20), mass m, travels with velocity u0 in the Lab.
It decays into a sulphur nucleus (A=16), mass 45 m, and an α-particle
(A=4), mass 15 m. Energy ∆T is released as KE in the calcium rest
frame (CM). A counter in the Lab detects the sulphur nucleus at 90◦
to the line of travel. What is the speed and angle of the α-particle in
the Lab?

94
I Energy ∆T is released as
KE in the CM. vCM = u0
I Momentum in CM:
4 0 1 0
5 mv1 − 5 mv2 = 0
→ v20 = 4v10
I Energy: ∆T = 12 ( 45 m)v10 2 +
1 1 02 02
2 ( 5 m)16v1 = 2mv1
1
→ v10 = [ ∆T
2m ]
2

1
→ v20 = [ 8∆T
m ]
2

I Transform to Lab by
boosting by vCM (= u0 )
u0 2mu02 1
I cos α = v10
=[ ∆T ]
2

I Cosine rule: v22 = v20 2 + u0 2 + 2v20 u0 cos α Solve for

I Sine rule: sinv 0θ2 = sinv2
α v2 , θ2
2
95
 10.1 Resisted motion and limiting speed

I Newton II: m dv
dt
= Fext + FR where Fext is the
external force and FR is a resistive force

I If Fext = 0 and FR ∝ velocity, then v ∝ exp(−αt)

(see Lecture 4)

I If Fext 6= 0 and e.g. FR ∝ −v n then there exists a

dv
limiting speed corresponding to dt
= 0 that satisfies
FR = −Fext

96
 10.2 Air resistance

FR = av
|{z} + bv 2
|{z}
Laminar flow Turbulent flow

I Laminer flow : Stoke’s Law

F = 6πηrv
r is the radius of the sphere
v is the velocity of the sphere
η is the viscosity of the fluid
I Turbulent flow : S F = 21 πρCd r 2 v 2
ρ is the density of the fluid
Cd is the drag coefficient (e.g. for a
smooth sphere Cd ∼ 0.47

97
 10.3 Example 1 : Resistive force, FR ∝ v
I Body fired vertically upwards under
gravity → air resistance ∝ velocity
→ v = v0 & x = 0 at t = 0
I Equation of motion: m dv dt
= −mg − βv
R v dv Rt
I
v0 g+αv
= − 0 dt where α = mβ
1 v
I
α
loge (g + αv ) v0
= [−t ] t0
   
(g+αv ) αv αv0
I log
e (g+αv0 ) = −αt → 1+ g
= 1+ g
exp(−αt)

h i
g αv0
v= α
(1 + g
) exp(−αt) −1

I Terminal (limiting) velocity: t → ∞ , vT → − αg

I Can show by expansion, as α → 0 , v → v0 − gt
98
 Maximum height and distance travelled for FR ∝ v
h i
g αv0
I v= α (1 + g ) exp(−αt) −1
I At maximum height → v = 0, t = tmax
→ exp(−αtmax ) = (1 + αvg 0 )−1
 
tmax = α1 loge 1 + αvg 0

Can expand log to show :

tmax → vg0 when α → 0

I Distance htravelled : i
Rt
I x = 0 αg (1 + αvg 0 ) exp(−αt) − 1 dt
h it
= αg − α1 (1 + αvg 0 ) exp(−αt) − t Can show by
0 expansion
1 2
h  i x → v0 t − 2 gt
g 1 αv0
x= α α (1 + g )(1 − exp(−αt) − t when α → 0
99
 10.4 Example 2: Resistive force, FR ∝ v 2
I Body falls vertically downwards under gravity with
air resistance ∝ [velocity]2 , v = 0, x = 0 at t = 0
I Equation of motion: m dv
dt = mg − βv
2

q
dv mg
I Terminal velocity when dt = 0 : vT = β

Equation of motion becomes dv 2 2

dt = g 1 − v /vT
I

Rv dv
Rt
I Integrate 0 g (1−v 2 /v 2 )
= 0 dt
T
R 1  
I Standard integral : 1−z 2
dz = 12 loge 1−z1+z

h  iv
vT 1+v /vT 1+v /vT vT
I
2g loge 1−v /vT = t → 1−v /vT = exp(t/τ ) , where τ = 2g
0
v v
→ (1 − vT ) = (1 + vT ) exp(− τt )
Velocity as a function of time:
h i
1−exp(−t/τ )
v = vT 1+exp(−t/τ )
100
 Velocity as a function of distance for FR ∝ v 2

dv
= g 1 − v 2 /vT2


I Equation of motion: dt

dv dv dx
I Write dt = dx dt = v dv
dx

Rv v dv
Rx
I
0 g (1−v 2 /v 2 ) = 0 dx
T

h 2
v
iv
I − 2gT loge 1 − v 2 /vT2 =x
0

vT2
1 − v 2 /vT2 = exp (−x/xT )


→ , where xT = 2g

v 2 = vT2 [1 − exp (−x/xT )]

Rt Rx dx
To get x vs. t integrate again : → 0 dt = 0 v
101
10.4.1 Work done on the body by the force for FR ∝ v 2
I Equation of motion: m dv
dt = mg − βv
2

I Work done:
Z x Z x
βv 2 dx
R
Fdx = mg dx −
o 0
| {z } | {z }
Conservative Dissipative

I Conservative term : Work done = mgx

I Dissipative
Rx term : Work
R x done
= − 0 βv dx = − 0 βvT2 [1 − exp(−x/xT )] dx
2
vT2 = mg
β
= −βvT2 [x + xT (exp(−x/xT ) − 1)] xT =
vT2
| {z } 2g
=−xT v 2 /vT2

= −βvT2 (x − v 2 /2g) = −mg[x − v 2 /2g]

Energy dissipated = 21 mv 2 − mgx As expected.

102