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3
 CONTENT DEVELOPEMENT TEAM
[Link] NAME OF THE NAME OF THE NAME OF THE
CHAPTER/ TOPIC TEACHER KV
Electromagnetic Waves Mr. Binoj Bose KV Pattom Shift 1
1
Ms. Padmaja M G KV Pattom Shift 2
Ray Optics and Optical Mr. Sukesh G KV Pangode
2 Instruments Ms. Chitra G
Mr. Naresh Banoth KV Kavaratti
Wave Optics Mrs. Susmitha Mary Robbins KV Kalpetta
3 KV Malappuram
Ms. P C Radha
Dual Nature of Radiation Mrs Jayasree V R KV Port Trust
4 and Matter Mrs Roja Rani KV Port Trust
Atoms Ms. Gayathri S V KV SAP
5
Ms. Lekshmi Devi S Peroorkada
Nuclei Ms. R Amudha KV Port Trust
6
Mr. Francis Paul KV No 2 Kochi
Semiconductor Electronics: Mr Prasanth Kumar M. KV Payyannur
7 Materials, Devices and
Ms. Sindhu R Menon KV Kannur
Simple circuits
SAMPLE QUESTION PAPER PREPARATION
Ms Sachu S R KV Akkulam
1 Sample Question Paper 1 KV CRPF
Ms. Preetha R
Pallipuram
Ms. A Jyothi KV Thrissur
2 Sample Question Paper 2
Mr. Haridasan M K
Ms. Bindu R KV Ernakulam
3 Sample Question Paper 3
Ms. Mini Panicker
Ms. Beena Kumari KV Ottapalam
4 Sample Question Paper 4
Ms. Meera V
Mr. Vilesh V L KV No. 1 Kasargod
5 Sample Question Paper 5
Ms. Maya G KV No. 2 Kasargod
REVIEW COMMITTEE
1 Ms. K V Sudha KV No 1 Calicut
2 Mr. Ramachandran M KV Thrissur
3 [Link] P KV Palakkad
4 Mr. K Sivadas KV Kanjikode
5 Mr. Prasanth Kumar M KV Payyannur
6 Mr. Sreekanth S KV No 2 Calicut

4
 INDEX
[Link] Content Page No
1 Syllabus (Term-II) 7-8
2 Chapter-8; Electromagnetic Waves 9 - 20
3 Chapter-9; Ray Optics and Optical Instruments 21 - 47
4 Chapter-10; Wave Optics 48 - 93
5 Chapter-11; Dual Nature of Radiation and Matter 94 - 114
6 Chapter-12; Atoms 115 - 140
7 Chapter-13; Nuclei 141 - 159
Chapter-14; Semiconductor Electronics:
8 160 - 180
Materials, Devices and Simple circuits
9 CBSE sample Question paper with answer key 181 - 191
10 Sample Question paper 1 193 - 197
11 Sample Question paper 2 198 - 201

12 Sample Question paper 3 202 - 205

13 Sample Question paper 4 206 - 209
14 Sample Question paper 5 210 - 213
15 Answer Key ( Sample Question Papers) 214 - 223

❖ Every Chapter Contains:

✓ Gist of Lesson
✓ Important formulas used
✓ Mind map
✓ MCQ Questions
✓ Reason Assertion Questions
✓ Case Study Based Questions
✓ 1 Marks, 2 Marks, 3 Marks & 5 Marks Questions with Answer

5
CLASS-XII Syllabus assigned for Term II (Theory)
Sub: PHYSICS Session 2021-22
Time: 2 Hours Max Marks: 35

Unit Chapter Mar

ks
Unit–V Electromagnetic Waves
Chapter–8: Electromagnetic Waves

Unit– Optics 17
VI
Chapter–9: Ray Optics and Optical Instruments

Chapter–10: Wave Optics

Unit– Dual Nature of Radiation and Matter
VII Chapter–11: Dual Nature of Radiation and
Matter
11
Unit– Atoms and Nuclei
VIII
Chapter–12: Atoms

Chapter–13: Nuclei
Unit– Electronic Devices
IX Chapter–14: Semiconductor -Electronics:
Materials, Devices and Simple Circuits 7

Total 35

6
 Detailed syllabus
Unit V: Electromagnetic waves
Chapter–8: Electromagnetic Waves
Electromagnetic waves, their characteristics, their Transverse nature (qualitative ideas
only).Electromagnetic spectrum (radio waves, microwaves, infrared, visible,
ultraviolet, X-rays, gamma rays) including elementary facts about their uses.

Unit VI: Optics

Chapter–9: Ray Optics and Optical Instruments
Ray Optics:
Refraction of light, total internal reflection and its applications, optical fibers, refraction
at spherical surfaces, lenses, thin lens formula, lensmaker's formula, magnification, power
of a lens, combination of thin lenses in contact, refraction of light through a prism.
Optical instruments: Microscopes and astronomical telescopes (reflecting and
refracting) and their magnifying powers.
Chapter–10: Wave Optics
Wave optics:
Wave front and Huygen's principle, reflection and refraction of plane wave at a plane
surface using wave fronts. Proof of laws of reflection and refraction using Huygen's
principle. Interference, Young's double slit experiment and expression for fringe
width, coherent sources and
sustained interference of light, diffraction due to a single slit, width of central maximum

Unit II: Dual Nature of Radiation and Matter

Chapter11: Dual Nature of Radiation and Matter
Dual nature of radiation, Photoelectric effect, Hertz and Lenard's
observations; Einstein's
Photoelectric equation-particle nature of light. Experimental study of photoelectric
effect
Matter waves-wave nature of particles, de-Broglie relation

Unit VIII: Atoms and Nuclei

Chapter–12: Atoms
Alpha-particle scattering experiment; Rutherford's model of atom; Bohr model,
energy levels, hydrogen spectrum.

7
Chapter–13: Nuclei
Composition and size of nucleus Nuclear force Mass-energy relation, mass defect,
nuclear fission, nuclear fusion.

Unit IX: Electronic Devices

Chapter–14: Semiconductor Electronics: Materials, Devices and
Simple Circuits
Energy bands in conductors, semiconductors and insulators (qualitative ideas only)
Semiconductor diode - I-V characteristics in forward and reverse bias, diode as a
rectifier; Special purpose p-n junction diodes: LED, photodiode, solar cell.

8
 ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES
Electromagnetic waves are produced by accelerated charges.

An electromagnetic wave travelling along the z axis can be represented by

E = EX (t) = E0 sin (kz – ωt)
B = By (t) = B0 sin (kz – ωt)

Characteristics of electromagnetic waves

[Link] waves consists of mutually perpendicular electric and magnetic
fields and both are perpendicular to the direction of propagation of waves
[Link] do not require a medium for their propagation
[Link] travel with a speed of 3 × 108 m/s in vacuum.
1
[Link] speed of electromagnetic waves in vacuum is
√𝜇0𝜀0
1
[Link] speed of electromagnetic waves in a medium is
√𝜇𝜀

[Link] obey the principle of superposition of waves

7. They carry energy as they propagate and is equally divided between electric field
and magnetic field
𝐸0
[Link] free space c=
𝐵0

9. Electric field is mainly responsible for the optical effects of electromagnetic

waves.
𝑈
[Link] momentum of electromagnetic waves is given by p=
𝐶

9
ELECTROMAGNETIC SPECTRUM

RADIO WAVES
Radio waves are produced by the accelerated motion of charges in conducting
wires. They are used in radio and television communication systems. They are
generally in the frequency range from 500 kHz to about 1000 MHz. The AM
(amplitude modulated) band is from 530 kHz to 1710 kHz. Higher frequencies up to
54 MHz are used for short wave bands. TV waves range from 54 MHz to 890 MHz.
The FM (frequency modulated) radio band extends from 88 MHz to 108 MHz.
Cellular phones use radio waves to transmit voice communication in the ultrahigh
frequency (UHF) band.
MICROWAVES
Microwaves (short-wavelength radio waves), with frequencies 1010 Hz to 1012
Hz range, are produced by special vacuum tubes (called klystrons, magnetrons and
Gunn diodes). Due to their short wavelengths, they are suitable for the radar systems
used in aircraft navigation. They are used in Microwave ovens

10
INFRARED WAVES
Infrared waves are produced by hot bodies and molecules. Infrared waves are
known as heat waves. Frequency range is from1012 Hz to 1014 Hz .Infrared lamps are
used in physical therapy. Infrared radiation plays an important role in maintaining the
earth’s warmth or average temperature through the greenhouse effect Infrared
detectors are used in Earth satellites, infrared is widely used in the remote switches of
household electronic systems such as TV sets, video recorders and hi-fi systems

VISIBLE LIGHT
It is the part of the spectrum that is detected by the human eye. It runs from
about 4 × 1014 Hz to about 7 × 1014 Hz or a wavelength range of about 700 – 400 nm.
This is the narrow region of electromagnetic spectrum

ULTRAVIOLET RAYS
It covers wavelengths ranging from about 4 × 10–7 m (400 nm) down to 6 × 10–
10
m (0.6 nm). Ultraviolet (UV) radiation is produced by special lamps and very hot
bodies. Due to its shorter wavelengths, UV radiations can be focussed into very
narrow beams for high precision applications such as LASIK (Laser assisted in situ
keratomileusis) eye surgery. UV lamps are used to kill germs in water purifiers.
Ozone layer in the atmosphere plays a protective role, and hence its depletion by
chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) gas (such as freon) is a matter of international concern.

X RAYS
X-rays Beyond the UV region of the electromagnetic spectrum lies the X-ray
region. It covers wavelengths from about 10–8 m (10 nm) down to 10–13 m (10–4 nm).
It is generated by bombarding a metal target by high energy electrons. X-rays are
used as a diagnostic tool in medicine and as a treatment for certain forms of cancer.
GAMMA RAYS
They are high frequency electromagnetic waves with wavelengths from about
10–10m to less than 10–14m. This high frequency radiation is produced in nuclear
reactions and also emitted by radioactive nuclei. They are used in medicine to destroy
cancer cells.

11
 MCQ

1. In a plane em wave, the electric field oscillates sinusoidally at a frequency of 2.5x

10 10Hz and amplitude 480 V/[Link] amplitude of the oscillating magnetic field will
be
A. 1.5x 10 -8 Wb/m2 C. 1.6x10-6 Wb/m2
B. 1.52x 10-7 Wb/m2 D 1.6x10 -7 Wb/m2

[Link] of the following is the infrared wavelength?

A.10 -4 cm. C. 10 -6 cm
B. 10 -5 cm. D. 10 -7 cm

3. There are three wave lengths 10 7 m,10 -10 m,10 -7 m. Find their respective names.
A. Radio waves, X- rays,visible rays. C. Visible rays,gamma rays, X - rays
B. X - rays,gamma rays,visible light.
D. X -rays,gamma rays,visible rays

4. Velocity of electromagnetic wave is parallel to

A. BXE. B. EXB.
C. E. D. B

12
[Link] frequencies of X - rays, gamma rays and U V rays are respectively a,band
c,then
A. a<b, b>c.
B. a>b, b>c.
C . a>b, b<c.
D. a<b , b<c.

6. The sun delivers 10 3 W/m 2 of electromagnetic flux to the earth’s surface. The
total power that is incident on a roof dimensions 8 m x 20 m will be
A. 2.56 X 10 4W
B. 6.4X 10 5 W
C .4 X 10 5 W
D. 1.6 X 10 5 W

7. Which of the following is not true for em waves?

A. They transport energy.
B. They travel at different speeds in air depending on their frequency.
C. They have momentum
D. They travel at different speeds in medium.

8. The magnetic field in a plane em wave is given by

By =2 x 10 -7 sin (0.5 x10 3 z + 1.5 x 10 11 t) T. The expression for electric field is
A. Ey =2 x 10 -7 sin (0.5 x10 3 z + 1.5 x 10 11 t) V/m.
B. Ex = 2 x 10 -7 sin (0.5 x10 3 z + 1.5 x 10 11 t) V/m.
C. Ey = 60 sin (0.5 x10 3 z + 1.5 x 10 11 t) V/m.
D . Ex = 60 sin (0.5 x10 3 z + 1.5 x 10 11 t) V/m.
9. Fundamental particle in an em wave is
A. photon.
B. electron.
C. proton.
[Link].
10. The magnetic field in a plane em wave is By = 2x 10 -7 sin ( 0.5x 103 x+1.5x 1011
t) .This em wave is
A. visible light.
B. infrared wave.
C. microwave.
D. radiowave

13
 ANSWERS AND EXPLANATIONS MCQ
1 .C B0 =E0/c=480/(3x 108)=1.6x 10-6Wb/m2
2. A
3. A
4. B
5. A
6. D (Power=103x8x20=1.6x 105 W)
7. B ( The em waves of all frequencies travel with the same speed in air )
8. D (Since the wave is propagating in z direction and magnetic field is along y
direction, the electric field will be along x direction.
9. A
10. C ( frequency= ω/2π=2.39x 1010 Hz)

ASSERTION(A) REASON(R) QUESTIONS

Given below are two statements labeled as Assertion(A) and Reason(R).

Select the most appropriate answer from the options given below.
(i) Both A and R are true, and R is the correct explanation of A.
(ii) Both A and R are true, and R is not the correct explanation of A.
(iii) A is true but R is false
(iv) A is false and R is also false.
1.A. The frequencies of incident, reflected and refracted b beam of monochromatic light
incident from one medium to another are same.
R. The incident, reflected and refracted rays are coplanar.
2. A. The earth without its atmosphere will be inhospitably cold.
R. All heat would escape in the absence of atmosphere.
3. A. Microwaves are better carrier of signal than optical wave.
R. Microwaves move faster than optical waves.
4. A. Gamma rays are more energetic than x rays.
R. Gamma rays are of nuclear origin but x rays are produced due to sudden
deceleration of high energy electrons while falling in the metal of high atomic
number.
5. A. Electromagnetic waves are transverse in nature.
R. The electric and magnetic fields are perpendicular to each other and perpendicular
to the direction of propagation.

14
ANSWERS
1. Both A and R are true and R is not the correct explanation of A
2. Both A and R are true and R is the correct explanation of A.
3. Both A and R are wrong.
4. A and R are true and R is not correct explanation of A
5. Both A and R are true and R is the correct explanation of A

CASE STUDY
The electromagnetic waves carry energy and momentum. The linear momentum carried
by the portion of the wave having energy U is given by P=U/c. Thus if the wave
incident on a surface is completely absorbed, it delivers energy U and momentum p
=U/c to the surface. If the wave is totally reflected, the momentum delivered is 2xU/c it
follows that em waves incident on a surface exerts a force on the surface.
1. A plane em wave is incident on a surface. The wave delivers energy E and
momentum p. Which is the correct option (a) p=0, E≠0 (b)p≠0 E=0 (c)p≠0 E≠0 (d) p=0
and E=0
2. Which statement is correct for a linearly polarized em wave. (a) Electric and
magnetic fields have equal average values (b) electric and magnetic field energy have
equal average values.
a. both the statements are true
b. both the statements are false
c. (a) is false and (b) is true
d. (b) is false and (a) is true
3. What is the order of energy of x-rays(Ex), radio waves(Er) and micro waves
(a) Ex<Er<Em (b)Ex>Em>Er (c)Em>Er>Ex (d) Em<Er<Ex
Radio waves are produced by the accelerated motion of charges in conducting wires.

Microwaves are produced by special vacuum tubes. Infrared waves are produced by hot

bodies and molecules also known as heat waves. UV rays are produced by special lamps

and very hot bodies like Sun.

15
(1) Earth's atmosphere is richest in

(a) ultraviolet (b) infrared (c) X-rays (d) microwaves

(2) What is the cause of greenhouse effect?

(a) Infrared rays (b) Ultraviolet rays (c) X-rays (d) Radio waves

(3) Biological importance of ozone layer is

(a) it stops ultraviolet rays (b) It layer reduces greenhouse effect

(c) it reflects radio waves (d) none of these

(4) Ozone is found in

(a) stratosphere (b) ionosphere (c) mesosphere (d) troposphere

Case Study 1
1. c
2. a
3. b
Case Study 2
1. b 3. a
2. a 4. a

16
 1 MARK QUESTIONS

1. How are microwaves produced?

2. Name the part of em spectrum of wavelength 10 -2 m. Mention its one application.
3. Write the following radiations in ascending order in respect of their frequencies.
X rays, microwaves, uv rays, radio waves, gamma rays.
4. Name the em waves used in Radar.
5. Write two applications of ultra violet radiations.

ANSWERS AND EXPLANATIONS ( 1 MARK QUESTIONS)

[Link] are produced in special vacuum tubes called klystrons due to
oscillating current.
[Link],microwave ovens,radar system
[Link],microwaves,u v rays,x rays,gamma rays.
[Link].
5. To preserve food stuff,to sterilize surgical instruments.

2 MARKS QUESTIONS

1. Write any four properties of em waves.

Ans : Reference, short note
2. Give one use of each of the following.
a. infrared rays. b. gamma rays. c. microwaves. d. u v radiations.
Ans : Ref. short note
3. Identify the part of em spectrum which is
a. suitable for radar system in aircraft navigation.
b. adjacent to the low frequency end of the em spectrum.
c. produced in nuclear reaction.
d. produced by bombarding a metal target by high speed electron.
Ans : a. microwaves . b. radio waves [Link] rays d.x rays
4. Which of the following, if any, can act as a source of em waves? Give reason.
a. a charge moving with a constant velocity. b.a charge at rest. c.a charge moving in a
circular orbit.
Ans: C. Circular motion is an accelerated motion and accelerated charge produces em
waves.

17
5. Draw a diagram showing the propagation of em waves along x direction, indicating
clearly the directions of electric and magnetic fields associated with it.
Ans:Ref diagram ncert page number 275
6. Find the wavelength of em waves of frequency 4x 109 Hz in free space. Give its two
applications.
Ans: λ=c/ν= 0.075 m. This belongs to microwave region. Used in radar, microwave
oven.
7. Identify the part of em spectrum to which frequency 10 20 Hz belong. Give its one
use.
Ans: gamma rays. used in treatment of tumers
8. Let the wavelengths of em waves used for a. killing germs in household water
purifiers b. remote sensing and c. treatment of cancer are labeled as λ1,λ2 and λ3
.Identify the waves and arrange them in increasing order of wavelength.
Ans: λ1=uv rays,λ2=microwaves,λ3=gamma rays, λ3,λ1,λ2
9. In a plane em wave, the electric field oscillates sinusoidally at a frequency of 2 x 10
10
Hzand amplitude 48 V/m. What is the wavelength of the wave? What is the amplitude
of the oscillating magnetic field?
Ans: λ=c/ν=1.5x 10-2 m B0=E0/c=48/3x 108=1.6x 10-7 T
10. Given below are some famous numbers associated with em radiations in different
contexts in physics. State the part of the em spectrum to which each belong ?
a. 5890 A0 to 5896 A0(double lines of sodium)
b. 2.7 K (temperature associated with the isotropic radiations filling all space)
Ans: a. visible region (yellow)
b. T=2.7 K. λm.T=0.29 cm K .λm=0.29/T=0.11 cm

18
 3 MARKS QUESTIONS

1. Write two applications each of a. microwaves b. infrared waves [Link] waves.

2. Write the order of frequency range and one use each of the following em waves.
a. microwaves. b. uv rays and c. gamma rays.
3. a. Name the em waves which are produced during radioactive decay of a nucleus.
Write their frequency range .
Ans: a. Gamma rays,109to 1023 Hz
* Glass goggles protect the eyes from uv radiations produced by welding arcs.
* water molecules present in the material readily absorb the IR rays and gets heated up.
Q. welders wear special glass goggles while working .Why?
Q. Why are infrared waves often called as heat waves? Give their one application?
[Link] the part of em spectrum which is
a. suitable for radar system used in aircraft navigation .
b. used to treat muscular strain.
c. used as diagnostic tool in medicine.
Write in brief how these waves can be produced.
5. Describe an activity to illustrate that em waves carry energy and momentum.
Ans: NCERT P.277
6. The electric field part of an em wave in vacuum is
E= 3.1 N/C cos[ (1.8rad/m) y +( 5.4 x 106 rad/s) t] î.
a. What is the direction of propagation of the wave?
b. What is the wavelength and frequency of the wave?
c. What is the amplitude of the magnetic field part?
d. Write the expression for the magnetic field part.
Ans: 1. - 𝑗̂, 2. 3.5 m, 3. 86MHz,
4. 100 nT, 5. 100 nT cos[ (1.8 rad/m y+5.4x106 rad/s) ]k
7. Which physical quantity is same for x-rays of wavelength 10-10 m, red light of
wavelength 6800 A0 and radio waves of wavelength 500 m?
b. Show that for em waves, the average energy density of electric field equals the
average energy density of magnetic field.

19
Ans: a. speed in vacuum,
1 1
[Link]= ϵ0 E2, UB= B2 ,
2 2𝜇0

using E=c xB and c=1/√μ0ϵ0,

UE=UB
8. The electric field part of an em wave is
Ey =30 sin (2x1011 t + 300πx) V/m.
a. Find the wavelength of the wave. b. Amplitude of magnetic field.
c. Write the epression for the electric field part.
Ans: λ=6.67x10-3m. B0=E0/c =1x10-7T B=1x10-7sin(2x1011t+300πx)T
[Link] wavelength range of some constituents of em spectrum is given below
[Link] Wavelength range
1 1mm to 700nm
2 400nm to 1nm
3 1mm to 10-3nm
4 <10-3nm
Select the wavelength range and name the waves that are
a. used in remote switches of household electronic devices.
b. produced in nuclear reaction.
Ans: 1. 1mm to 700nm(IR rays), 2. <10-3nm(ϒrays)
10.a. Write the expression for velocity of em waves in a medium of permeability μ
and permittivity ϵ
b. The peak value of oscillating electric field in an em wave is 14 V/m. Calculate the
intensity of the wave and rms value of electric field.
1
Ans: 10. 𝜖0 𝐸0 2 =0.26Wm2 , Erms=E0/√2=9.9V/m
2

20
 RAY OPTICS AND OPTICAL INSTRUMENTS
𝑛1
Snell’s Law
𝑛2

Refractive
Index

𝑛1
Apparent depth
𝑛2

Refraction Lateral shift

through
parallel glass
slab

Total Internal
Reflection
𝐶 is the
critical angle

Refraction
through a
spherical
surface

Lens Maker’s
Formula

Thin Lens
Formula

21
Power of a Lens

Combinations
of Lenses
)in contact(

Refraction
through Prism

:Image formed at LDDV

Simple
Microscope
:Normal Adjustment

:Image formed at LDDV

Compound
microscope
Compound
microscope :Normal Adjustment

22
 :Image formed at LDDV

Astronomical
Telescope

:Normal Adjustment

Cassegrain
type telescope

23
24
 MCQs: Ray Optics and Optical Instruments

1. A lens of refractive index 1.5 is dipped in to a medium of refractive index 1.5. Then

the new refractive index of lens

a) 1.5 b) 1.5x1.5 c) 1 d) 1.8

2. A convex lens has focal length f. It is cut in to two equal parts perpendicular to its

principal axis. The focal length of each part is

a) f/2 b)f c)3/2 f d) 2f

3. The brilliance of diamond is due to

a) Reflection b) Refraction c) TIR d) Scattering

4. The refractive index is greater for

a) light of low frequency b) light of shorter wavelength

c) lighter of greater wavelength d) All the above

5. A ray of light travels from vacuum to a medium of refractive index n. If the angle of

incidence is found to be twice angle of refraction, then angle of incidence is

a) cos-1 (n/2) b) 2 cos-1 (n/2) c) sin-1 (n/2) d) 2 sin-1 (n/2)

6. A convex lens is used to form a real inverted image of an illuminated object. If the
top half of the lens is covered with a black paper then the
a) bottom half of the image will vanish b) top half of the image will vanish
c) brightness of the image will decrease d) magnification of image will decrease
7. When a ray of light incident normally on one refracting surface of an equilateral
prism of refractive index 1.5 then
a) emergent ray is deviated by 300
b) emergent ray is deviated by 450
c) emergent ray just grazes the second refracting surface
d) the ray undergoes TIR at the second refracting surface

25
 8. When a ray is refracted ,which of the following does not change

a) frequency b) wavelength c) velocity d) amplitude

9. The focal length of an equiconvex lens in air is equal to either of its radii of

curvature. The refractive index of the material of the lens is

a) 4/3 b) 2.5 c) 1.25 d) 1.5

10. If the critical angle for a material to air is 300 , then the refractive index of the

material will be

a) 1 b) 1.5 c) 2 d) 2.5

11. The angle of the prism is 300 .The rays incident at 600 at one refracting face suffer a

deviation of 300. The angle of emergence is

a) 0 b) 30 c) 60 d) 90

12. Light travelling from a transparent medium to air undergoes TIR at an angle of

incidence 450. Then the refractive index of the medium may be

a) 1.5 b) 1.4 c) 1.1 d) 1/√2

13. A convex lens is made of three different materials as shown in figure. For a point

object on the principal axis, the number of images formed are

a) 5 b) 1 c) 3 d) 4

26
14. A compound microscope has two lenses. The magnifying power of one is 5 and the

combined magnifying power is 100. The magnifying power of the other lens is

a) 10 b) 20 c) 50 d) 25

15. A convex lens of focal length 20 cm produces a real image twice the size of the

object. Then the distance of the object from the lens is

a) 10 cm b) 20 cm c) 30 cm d)60 cm

16. An astronomical telescope has two lenses of powers 0.5 D and 20 D. Then its

magnifying power will be

a) 8 b) 20 c) 30 d)40

17. In a compound microscope the intermediate image is

a) virtual, inverted and magnified b) real, inverted and diminished

c) virtual erect and magnified d) real , inverted and magnified

18. An endoscope is employed by a physician to view the internal parts of a body organ.

It is based on the principle of

a) Refraction b) Reflection c) TIR d) Dispersion

19. A prism of refractive index √2 has a refracting angle of 600. At what angle a ray must

be incident on it so that it suffers a minimum deviation

a) 45 b) 60 c) 90 d) 180

20. A lens acts as converging in air and diverging when immersed in water. The

refractive index of lens is ( nw=1.33 )

a) 1 b) below 1.33 c) greater than 1.33 d) less than uni

27
 Answers and Key points
1. c
2. d
3. c
4. b
5. b
by snell’s law, sin i/sin r=n
i=2r
n=sin2r/sinr=[Link]/sin r= 2cos r
r=cos-1 n/2 , then i= 2 cos-1 n/2
6. c
7. d
8. a
9. d
1/f= (n-1)( 1/R1-1/R2) , For equi convex lens R1=R and R2= -R
1/R= (n-1)2/R
10. c
11. a
d= i1+i2-A
12. b
sin ic= i/n
13. c
14. b
MC= MO* ME
15. c
F=20 cm
v/u =-2, v=-2u
1/f= 1/v -1/u
Sub, u= -30 cm
16. d
M= fo/fe=Pe/Po
17. d
18. c
19. a
at minimum deviation D, 2r=A
r= A/2 =30
n=sin i/sin r
sub, i=45
20. b

28
Assertion Reason type Question: Ray Optics & Optical Instruments

Option A: Both Assertion and reason are right and reason is the correct
explanation of assertion.
Option B: Both Assertion and reason are right and reason is not correct
explanation of assertion.
Option C : Assertion is right but reason is wrong
Option D: Both Assertion and reason are false

1. Assertion: Power of a lens is inversely proportional to its focal length

Reason: focal length is measured in metres whereas power of a lens in diopter
2. Assertion: focal length of lens varies when it is immersed in liquids
Reason: focal length of lens depends on refractive index of medium in which it
is placed
3. Assertion: A glass slab is placed over different colored dots ( violet to red) and
viewed through it, then violet dot appeared to be raised more compared to red
dot.
Reason: Red has least deviation than violet color
4. Assertion: Magnifying power of a telescope depends on its focal lengths of
objective and eyepiece
Reason: In telescope focal length of eyepiece is greater than that of
objective
5. Assertion: A convex can act as divergent lens
Reason: when a convex lens placed in medium of higher refractive index, it
behaves like concave lens

Answers
1. B
2. A
3. A
4. C
5. A

29
 CASE BASED QUESTION

1. Optical fibres are used extensively to transmit

a) Optical Signal b) current
c) Sound waves d) None of the above
2. Which of the following statement is not true.
a) Optical fibres is based on the principle of total internal reflection.
b) The refractive index of the material of the core is less than that of the cladding.
c) An optical fibre can be used to act as an optical pipe.
d) There is no appreciable loss in the intensity of the light signal while propagating
through an optical fibre
3. In which of the following the principle of total internal reflection is not used.
a) Endoscope b) Mirage c) Total reflection prism d) Difference
between apparent and real depth of a pond
4. The basic reason for the extraordinary sparkle of suitably cut diamond is that
(a) It has low refractive index (b) It has high transparency
(c)It has high refractive index (d) It is very hard
5. A substance has critical angle 45° for yellow light. What is its refractive index?
a) √2 b) 1/√2 c) 2 d) ½
ANSWERS
1. A) optical signal 4. C)
2. B) 5. A)
3. D)

30
VSA QUESTIONS: Ray Optics & Optical Instruments(1 mark)
1. When a converging and diverging lens of equal focal length are combined what is
the power of the combination?
Ans: P=0, P=1/f1+1/f2
2 How does the angle of minimum deviation of a glass prism vary if the incident
violet light is replaced by red light?
Ans: Decreases. dR<dV
3 For the same angle of incidence, the angle of refraction in two media A and B are
25° and 35° respectively. In which one of the two media is the speed of light
lesser?
Ans: VA<VB
n=sini/sinr=v1/v2, nA/nB=sinrB/sinrA=VB/VA rA<rB , VA<VB
4 The focal length of an equiconvex lens is equal to the radius of curvature of either
face. What is the value of refractive index of the material of the lens?
1 2
Ans: n=1.5 = (𝑛 − 1) , f=R, (n-1)=1/2
𝑓 𝑅

5 A concave lens of refractive index 1.5 is immersed in a medium of refractive index

1.65. What is the nature of the lens?
Ans: Convex lens
1 𝑛𝑔 −2
=( − 1)( ), nm>ng, so fm =+ve
𝑓𝑚 𝑛𝑚 𝑅

6 A short pulse of white light is incident from air to a glass slab at normal incidence.
After travelling through the slab which colour will emerge out first from it?
Ans: Red
7 Does the magnifying power of a microscope depend on the colour of the light
used? Justify your answer.
𝐿 𝐷
Ans: Yes. M= x(1+ ), fαλ
𝑓𝑜 𝑓𝑒

8 An unsymmetrical double convex thin lens forms the image of a point object on its
axis. Will the position of the image change if the lens is reversed?
Ans: No change. Principle of reversibility of light
9 State the condition under which a large magnification can be achieved in an
astronomical telescope.
Ans: focal length of objective must be greater than focal length of eyepiece. M=fo/fe
10 A lens of power of –4.0 D what is its focal length? Identify the nature of the lens.
Ans: f=-25cm, concave

31
 SA QUESTIONS ( 2 MARK): Ray optics & Optical instruments

1. Focal length of a convex lens of refractive index 1.5 is 2 cm. What will be the Focal
length of lens, when immersed in a liquid of refractive index of 1.25?
1 2
Ans: =(n-1) ,1/2=(1.5-1)*2/R, R=2cm
𝑓 𝑅
1
=(1.5/1.25-1)*2/R, f=5cm
𝑓

2. A ray of light passes through an equilateral glass prism such that the angle of
incidence is equal to angle of emergence and each of these angles is equal to 3/4 of
angle of prism. What is the value of angle of deviation?
Ans: In prism i + e = A + D = and i= e=3/4A
A+D=3/4A+3/4A, D=A/2=30
3. A spherical convex surface of radius of curvature 20 cm, made of glass (n = 1.5) is
placed in air. Find the position of the image formed, if a point object is placed at 30
cm in front of the convex surface on the principal axis.
𝑛2 𝑛1 𝑛2−𝑛1
Ans: - = 𝑉 = −180𝑐𝑚
𝑣 𝑢 𝑅

4. Calculate the radius of curvature of an equi-concave lens of refractive index 1.5,

when it is kept in a medium of refractive index 1.4, to have a power of –5D
1 2
Ans: =(n-1) , R=2.86cm
𝑓 𝑅

5. An astronomical telescope has an angular magnification of magnitude 5 for distant

objects. The separation between the objective and an eye piece is 36 cm and the
final image is formed at infinity. Calculate the focal length of the objective and the
focal length of the eye piece?
Ans: Magnification m = f0 / fe = 5 f0 = 5 fe
length of the tube, L = f0 +fe=36cm fe=6cm & fo=30cm
6. The refractive index of a material of a concave lens is n1. It is immersed in a
medium of refractive index n2. A parallel beam of light is incident on the lens. Trace
the path of emergent rays when (i) n2 = n1 (ii) n2>n1 (iii) n2< n1.
Ans:

32
7. The radii of curvature of both the surfaces of a lens are equal. If one of the surfaces
is made plane by grinding, then will the focal length of lens change? Will the power
change?
1 2
Ans: =(n-1) , f=R/2(n-1) 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑒 𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝑅 = 𝛼
𝑓 𝑅

F’=R/(n-1)=2f, f is doubled
P=1/f , p’=p/2, power is halved
8. Give two reasons to explain why a reflecting telescope is preferred over a refracting
telescope.
Ans: Reflecting telescope is preferred over refracting telescope because
(a) No chromatic aberration, because mirror is used.
(b) Spherical aberration can be removed by using a parabolic mirror.
(c) Image is bright because no loss of energy due to reflection.
(d) Large mirror can provide easier mechanical support.
9. Calculate the speed of light in a medium whose critical angle is 45°. Does critical
angle for a given pair of media depend on wave length of incident light? Give
reason.
Ans: n=1/sinic=1/sin 45=√2
Yes, critical angle for a pair of media depends on wavelength, because n=a+ b/λ2
where a and b are constants of the media.
10. An equilateral glass prism has a refractive index 1.6 in air. Calculate the
angle of minimum deviation of the prism, when kept in a medium of refractive
index 4√2 /5.
𝐴+𝑑𝑚) 60+𝑑𝑚)
sin ( 𝑛2 1.6𝑥5 sin (
2 2
Ans: n= 𝐴 = = = 60
𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑛1 4√2 𝑠𝑖𝑛
2 2

Dm=30

33
 Ray Optics and Optical Instruments 3 MARKS

1. A lens forms a real image of an object. The distance of the object. From the lens is
U cm and the distance of the image from the lens is cm. The given graph shows
the variation of V and U (3m)
(a) What is the nature of the lens?
(b) Using the graph find the focal
length of the lens?

Answer :
(a) convex lens

b)

, , V= f

In the given graph f = 10 cm.

2. Below given figures A and B show refraction of a ray in air incident at 60° with the
normal to a glass-air and water-air interface, respectively. Predict the angle of
refraction in glass when the angle of incidence in water is 45° with the normal to a
water-glass interface figure C. (3m)

From the figure A 𝜇𝑤a = sin 60° /sin 47°

𝜇𝑎 sin 60° = 𝜇𝑔 sin 35° 𝜇𝑤A = 1.18
𝜇𝑔a = sin 60°/ sin 35° 𝜇𝑔w = 1.51/ 1.18 = 1.27
𝜇𝑔a = 1.51 From figure C
From figure B 𝜇w sin 45° = 𝜇𝑔 sin 𝜃
𝜇𝑎 sin 60° = 𝜇𝑤 sin 47° sin 45° = 𝜇𝑔w sin 𝜃 so 𝜃 ≃ 34°
𝜇𝑤a = sin 60° /sin 47°

34
 3. An object of size 3.0 cm is placed 14 cm in front of a concave lens of focal length

21 cm. Describe the image produced by the lens. What happens if the object is

moved further away from the lens? (3M)

ANSWER :

Given, Object distance 𝑢 = −14 cm

Focal length 𝑓 = −21 cm
From the thin lens formula,
1 /𝑣 − 1 /𝑢 = 1 /𝑓

𝑣 = 𝑢f/ 𝑢 + 𝑓
= (−14) × (−21) /−14 − 21 = −8.4 cm
Magnification 𝑚 = 𝑣/𝑢 = −8.4 /−14 = 0.6
size of the image = 0.6 × 3.0 = 1.8 cm
Image is formed at a distance 8.4 cm left to the lens. The image formed is virtual,

erect, diminished to the size 1.8 cm.

As the object moves away from the lens, the image moves towards the focal point

(𝑢 → ∞ ⇒ 𝑣 → 𝑓) and the magnification approaches zero (𝑚 → 0)

4. A point object is placed at 20 cm from a thin plano-convex lens of focal length 15 cm

whose plane surface is silvered. Locate the position and nature of the final image.
Given: u = -20 cm ; fl =15 cm ; v = ?

Solution:

The power P of the silvered lens is P = 2Pi + Pm

35
 The mirror equation is

1/v + 1/u = 1/f

(1/v) + (1/-20) = −2/15

1/v = (1/20) – (2/15)

∴ v = −12 cm

The negative sign indicates that the image is formed to the left of the Plano
convex mirror.

5. Light travels from air in to glass slab of thickness 50 cm and refractive index 1.5.
(i) What is the speed of light in glass?

(ii) What is the time taken by the light to travel through the glass slab?

(iii) What is the optical path of the glass slab? (3M)

Solution

Given, thickness of glass slab, d = 50 cm = 0.5 m, refractive index, n = 1.5

refractive index, n = c/v

i)speed of light in glass is,

ii)Time taken by light to travel through glass slab is,

iii)Optical path,

d′ = nd = 1.5×0.5 = 0.75 m = 75 cm

Light would have travelled 25 cm more (75 cm – 50 cm) in vacuum by the same
time had there not been a glass slab

36
 6. What is total internal reflection? Under what conditions does it occur? Find a relation
between critical angle and refractive index and name one phenomenon which is based on
total internal reflection. (3m)

Answer:
When the ray of light travels from denser to rarer medium and if the angle of incidence is greater
than the critical angle,,the ray of light is totally reflected back to the denser medium [Link]
phenomenon is called total internal reflection.
Conditions (i) Light should travel from denser to rarer medium (ii)Angle of incidence should be
greater than critical angle.

Sin C = 1/n
Optical fiber works on total internal reflection
7. A ray of light incident on face AB of an equilateral glass prism shows a minimum
deviation of 30°. Calculate the speed of light through the prism also find the angle
of incidence at face AB so that the emergent ray grazes along with the face AC
(3m)

Answer:

37
8. Find the radius of curvature of the convex surface of a plane convex lens, whose
focal length is 0.3m and the refractive index of the material of the lens is 1.5? (3m)
Ans.

For plane convex lens

R = 0.15 m

9. Show that the limiting value of the angle of prism is twice its critical angle? Hence
define critical angle? (3 m )

Ans. Angle of the prism means

For limiting But when =C

(Maximum)
Amax = 2C
Value of angle of prism for
The angle of incidence for which angle of refraction is 90o is called critical angle.

10. Drive the expression for the angle of deviation for a ray of light passing through an
equilateral prism of refracting angle A? (3m)
Ans. At the surface AB

At the surface AC

—-(1)
In quadrilateral AQOR

From (2) and (3)

—-(2) —-(4)

Now in Substituting equation (4) in equation (1)

=i+e–A Or A+ =i+e
Or —-(3)

38
 11. What is total infernal reflection of light? Hence write two advantages of total
reflecting prisms over a plane mirror? (3m)
Ans. The phenomenon of reflection of light when a ray of light traveling from a
denser medium is sent back to the same denser medium provided the angle of
incidence is greater than the angle is called total internal reflection.

Advantages
1. It does not require silvering
2. Multiple reflections do not take place in a reflecting prism hence only one image is
formed, which is very bright.

Ray Optics and Optical Instruments 5 MARKS

1. A convex lens of focal length 20 cm and a concave lens of focal length 15 cm are
kept 30 cm apart with their principal axes coincident. When an object is placed 30 cm
in front of the convex lens, calculate the position of the final image formed by the
combination. Would this result change if the object were placed 30 cm In front of the
concave tens? Give reason.
Answer:
The image of an object can be obtained at two different positions of a convex lens
for a fixed value of the distance between the object and the screen if values of u
and v are interchanged in these two positions. This situation is as shown below.

39
 f1 = + 20 cm, u = – 30 cm

Here x + 20 + x = 90 cm or x = 35cm
Therefore, u = -35 cm, v = + 55 cm, f = ? Therefore, u for concave Lens = 60
– 30 = + 30 cm and f2 = – 15 cm

Now for concave lens

Or

For image formed by a convex Lens

No, the result will not change as per the principle of reversibility.

2. Draw a labelled diagram of telescope when the image is formed at the least
distance of distinct vision? Hence derive the expression for its magnifying power?

Ans.

magnifying power =

(since angles are very small)

40
 —-(i)
For eye piece

Multiply by D

Substituting in e.g. (i)

3. Derive the relation

Where are focal lengths of two thin lenses and F is the focal length of
the combination in contact. (5m)

Ans. Consider two thin lenses in contact which forms the final image I
having focal length For the first
lens
Adding equation (1) & (2)

For the second lens acts as an object

41
 Using lens formula

For n no. of thin lenses is contact

4. A beam of light converges at a point P. Now a lens is placed in the path of the
convergent beam 12 cm from P. At what point does the beam converge if the lens is (a)
a convex lens of focal length 20 cm, and (b) a concave lens of focal length 16 cm?

[Link] the given situation, the

object is virtual and the image
Hence, the image is formed 7.5 cm
formed is real.
away from the lens, toward its right.
Object distance, u = +12 cm
(b) Focal length of the concave
(a) Focal length of the convex
lens, f= –16 cm
lens, f= 20 cm
Image distance = v
Image distance = v
According to the lens formula, we
According to the lens formula, we
have the relation:
have the relation:

Hence, the image is formed 48 cm away from the lens, toward its right.

5. A ray of light Is an Incident on one face of a glass prism and emerges out from the
other face. Trace the path of the ray and derive an expression for the refractive
index of the glass prism. Also, plot a graph between the Angle of incidence and
angle of deviation

42
Answer: The graph is as shown

Consider a cross-section XYZ of a prism as shown in the figure. Let A be the angle of the
prism. A ray PQ of monochromatic light is incident on face XY of the prism at an angle i.
The ray is called the incident ray and the angle is called the angle of incidence. This ray
is refracted towards the normal NQE and travels in the prism along QR. This ray is called
the refracted ray at the face XY.

Let r1 be the angle of refraction at this surface. The refracted ray QR is incident at an
angle r2 on the surface XZ. The ray QR again suffers refraction and emerges out of face
XZ at an angle e along with RS. The ray is called the emergent ray and the angle e is
called the angle of emergence. When the ray SR is extended backwards it meets the
extended ray PQ at point D such that δ is the angle of deviation of the ray.

As seen from figure we have in triangle QDR that ∠DQR = i – r1 and

∠DRQ = e – r2. Therefore from triangle QDR we have
δ = ∠DQR + ∠DRQ = (i – r1) + (e – r2)
or
δ = (i + e) – (r1 + r2) …(1)

43
Now from the quadrilateral XQER, we have
A + E = 180° …(2)
In triangle QER we have r1 + r2 + e – 180° …(3)
From equations (2) and (3) we have
A = r1 + r2 …(4)
Substituting in equation (1) we have
δ=i+e–A or
i + e = A + δ … (5)
The deviation produced by a prism depends upon (i) the angle of incidence (ii) the
angle of prism and (Hi) the refractive index of the material of the prism. It is found
that as the angle of incidence changes, the angle of deviation also changes.

A graph between the angle of incidence and the angle of deviation is shown in the
figure above. As the angle of incidence increases, the angle of deviation first
decreases becomes a minimum for a particular angle of incidence and then
increases. The minimum value of the angle of deviation is called the angle of
minimum deviation. It is denoted by δm. In this position the ray of light passes
symmetrically through the prism, i.e. the refracted ray QR is parallel to the base of
the prism. In this position, the angle of incidence is equal to the angle of
emergence, i.e. i = e. Also in this position, the angle of refraction at the faces of the
prism are equal, i.e. r1 = r2. Substituting these values in equations (4) and (5) we
have
A = r1 + r2 = r + r = 2r
or
r = A/2 …(6)
and i + i = A + δm
or
2i = A + δm

n =sin((A+δm )/ 2) / sin(A/2). Thus, above is the prism formula.

44
6. A) Below given figure shows a cross-section of a ‘light pipe’ made of a glass
fibre of refractive index 1.68.

The outer covering of the pipe is made of a material of refractive index 1.44. What
is the range of the angles of the incident rays with the axis of the pipe for which
total reflections inside the pipe take place, as shown in the figure.
B) What is the answer if there is no outer covering of the pipe?

Ans.(a) Refractive index of the glass fibre,

Refractive index of the outer covering of the pip

e, = 1.44
Angle of incidence = i
Angle of refraction = r
Angle of incidence at the interface = i‘

The refractive index of the inner core – outer core interface is given as:

For the critical angle, total internal reflection (TIR) takes place only when ,
i.e.,

Maximum angle of reflection,

Let, be the maximum angle of incidence.

45
 The refractive index at the air – glass interface,
We have the relation for the maximum angles of incidence and reflection as:

Thus, all the rays incident at angles lying in the range will suffer total
internal reflection.
(b) If the outer covering of the pipe is not present, then:

Refractive index of the outer pipe, = Refractive index of air =1

For the angle of incidence , we can write Snell’s law at the air – pipe
interface as:

Since > r, All incident rays will suffer total internal reflection

7. Derive the lens maker formula. (5M)

Answer :

46
The following assumptions are taken for the derivation of lens maker
formula. Let us consider the thin lens shown in the image above with 2 refracting
surfaces having the radii of curvatures R1 and R2, respectively.

Let the refractive indices of the surrounding medium and the lens material be n1
and n2, respectively.

The complete derivation of lens maker formula is described below. Using the
formula for refraction at a single spherical surface we can say that,

For the first surface, For the second surface,

Now adding equation (1) and (2),

When u = ∞ and v = f

Therefore, we can say that,

But also,

Where μ is the refractive index of the material. This is the lens maker formula
derivation.

*********************************************

47
 WAVE OPTICS
GIST OF THE CHAPTER SHORT NOTES AND FORMULAE
Light has wave as well as particle nature. A wavefront is the locus of points
which are in the same state or phase of vibration. Huygens principle states the
method of propagation of wavefront. The wavefronts are imaginary surfaces. The
light ray cuts the wavefront at right angle at every point
Types of wavefronts

Huygens Principle-“Every point on a wavefront is in itself the source of spherical

wavelets which spread out in the forward direction at the speed of light. The sum of
these spherical wavelets forms the wavefront”

Light propagating as a wavefront. Point source produces spherical

wavefront and source at infinity produces plane wavefront. Linear sources
produces cylindrical wavefront.

48
 LAWS OF REFLECTION USING HUYGENS PRINCIPLE

These incident wavefront is carrying two points, point A and point B, so we can say that
from point B to point C light is travelling a distance. If ‘ v ‘ represents the speed of the
wave in the medium and if ‘ t ‘ represents the time taken by the wavefront from the point
B to C then the distance
BC = vt
In order the construct the reflected wavefront we draw a sphere of radius v t from the
point A. Let CE represent the tangent plane drawn from the point C to this sphere. So,
AE = BC = vt
If we now consider the triangles EAC and BAC we will find that they are congruent and
therefore, the angles ‘ i ‘ and ‘r ‘ would be equal. This is the law of reflection
.
We know that when a light travels from one transparent medium to another transparent
medium its path changes. So the laws of refraction state that the angle of incidence is the
angle between the incident ray and the normal and the angle of refraction is the angle
between the refracted ray and the normal.
The incident ray, reflected ray and the normal, to the interface of any two given mediums
all lie in the same plane. We also know that the ratio of the sine of the angle of incidence
and sine of the angle of refraction is constant.

We can see a ray of light is incident on this surface and another ray which is parallel to this
ray is also incident on this surface. As these rays are incident from the surface, so we call it
incident ray.

49
Let PP’ represent the medium 1 and medium 2. The speed of the light in this medium is
represented by v1 and v2. If we draw a perpendicular from point ‘A’ to this ray of light, Point
A, and point B will have a line joining them and this is called as wavefront and this
wavefront is incident on the surface.
If ‘ τ‘ represents the time taken by the wavefront from the point B to C, then the distance,
BC=v1 τ
So, to determine the shape of the refracted wavefront, we draw a sphere of radius v2 τ from
the point A in the second medium. Let CE represent a tangent plane drawn from the point C
on to the sphere.
Then, AE = v2 τ, and CE would represent the refracted wavefront. If we now consider the
triangles ABC and AEC, we obtain
sin i = BC/AC = v1 τ /AC sin r = AE/AC= v2 τ /AC
where’ i ‘ and ‘ r ‘ are the angles of incidence and refraction, respectively. Substituting the
values of v1 and v2 in terms of we get the Snell’s Law,
n1 sin i = n2 sin r (Snell’s law)

REFRACTION FROM DENSER TO RARER MEDIUM (HERE V2>V1)

BEHAVIOUR OF A PRISM,CONVEX LENS AND A CONCAVE MIRROR WHEN

A PLANE WAVEFRONT IS INCIDENT ON IT

50
PRINCIPLE OF SUPERPOSITION OF WAVES
What is Superposition of Waves?
According to the principle of superposition. The resultant displacement of a number of
waves in a medium at a particular point is the vector sum of the individual displacements
produced by each of the waves at that point.
y=y1+y2+y3+y4+…..

INTERFERENCE
The phenomenon in which two or more waves(travelling in the same direction) superpose
to form a resultant wave of greater, lower or the same amplitude. “This results in re-
distribution of energy.

Constructive interference-Results in max. intensity of resultant wave. Crest falls over crest
or trough falls over trough
Destructive interference-Results in min. intensity of resultant wave. Crest falls over
trough of the other wave.
▪ THEORY OF INTERFERENCE
Let us consider two Simple Harmonic waves travelling in the same direction having
amplitudes a and b respectively and of same frequency interfere.
At any instant at a certain position in space let the resultant displacement at the point be
represented by equations
y1=a sinωt and y2=b sin(ωt+φ) ,where φ be the phase difference between the waves.
Then, from the Principle of superposition of waves the resultant displacement y at the
point is represented by the equation y=y1+y2
i.e y= a sinωt +b sin(ωt+φ)
Simplifying and applying certain boundary conditions ,
Rcos ϴ =(a+bcos φ ) Rsin ϴ=(bsin φ) ,here a,b, φ,R and ϴ are constants.
we get, y=R sin(ωt+ϴ) ,where “R “is the resultant amplitude and “ϴ” is the resultant
wave’s phase difference.
R = √a2 + b2 + 2ab cos φ
From wave theory ,Intensity of a wave is I α (amplitude)2 or I=k(amplitude)2
Hence, Intensity of resultant wave is
∴ I = a2 + b2 + 2ab cos φ
or I== I1 + I2 + 2 √I1 I2 cos φ where I1 and I2 are the intensities of the individual waves.

51
If the waves have the same amplitude ‘a’ then the resultant intensity at a point is
I=4I0cos2(φ/2) ,where I0 is the intensity of the individual waves,4I0 is the intensity of
Central maximum
For Constructive Interference, cos φ=+1
∴Phase difference, φ =2nπ
Path difference, Δx = nλ where, n = 0, 1, 2, 3,…
Resultant amplitude is max Rmax = (a + b), I(max)=k(a+b)2

For Destructive Interference cos φ = -1

Phase difference, φ = (2n – 1)
Path difference, Δx = (2n – 1)λ / 2 where, n = 1, 2, 3, …
Resultant amplitude is min Rmin = (a – b) , I(min)=k(a-b)2
If the waves have equal amplitude i.e a= b , then I(MAX)=K4a2 I(min) =0
NOTE:
Path difference for unit phase difference is (λ/2π)
Hence, for a phase difference of ‘φ’, the corresponding path difference is
p= (λ/2π)×φ
RATIO OF INTENSITIES , I1/I2 = a2/b2 =w1/w2
Where w1 and w2 are width of slits.
Imax =(a+b)2
Imin = (a-b)2

YOUNG’S DOUBLE SLIT EXPERIMENT

When monochromatic light passing through two narrow slits illuminates a distant screen,
a characteristic pattern of bright and dark fringes is observed. This interference pattern is
caused by the superposition of overlapping light waves originating from the two slits.
Regions of constructive interference, corresponding to bright fringes, are produced when
the path difference from the two slits to the fringe is an integral number of wavelengths
of the light. Destructive interference and dark fringes are produced when the path
difference is a half-integral number of wavelengths.

The light passing through the two slits is observed on a distant screen. When the widths
of the slits are significantly greater than the wavelength of the light, the rules of
geometrical optics hold—the light casts two shadows, and there are two illuminated
regions on the screen.

The superposition principle determines the resulting intensity pattern on the illuminated
screen. Constructive interference occurs whenever the difference in paths from the two
52
slits to a point on the screen equals an integral number of wavelengths (0, λ, 2λ,…). This
path difference guarantees that crests from the two waves arrive simultaneously.
Destructive interference arises from path differences that equal a half-integral number of
wavelengths (λ/2, 3λ/2,…). Young used geometrical arguments to show that the
superposition of the two waves results in a series of equally spaced bands, or fringes, of
high intensity, corresponding to regions of constructive interference, separated by dark
regions of complete destructive interference.

Young's double-slit experimental set up

EXPRESSION FOR LINEAR FRINGE WIDTH ‘β’

The interference between two coherent waves is studied in Young's double-slit

experiment. When two coherent waves interfere, they will produce a pattern of alternate
bright and dark fringes. In Young's double-slit experiment we have two slits separated by
a distance that acts as a coherent source. The pattern is obtained using a screen placed at a
distance.
In the figure, S1 and S2 represent the two slits through which the light passes. The slit
separation is ‘d’. A screen is placed at a distance D. When monochromatic light passes
through the slits, the spherical wavefronts will interfere. As a result, we will get a pattern
on the screen.
We know that there is a difference in the paths travelled by the two rays of light S1P and
S2P. The Path difference is S2P-S1P = S2A = Δx
Δx =dsinϴ
53
For small values of θ we can write sinθ≈tanθ , From the figure we can write tanϴ=y/D
Therefore Δx =d sinϴ= d tanϴ = d y /D
We assume that ‘y’ is the distance between the centre of the screen and the point where
the fringe is formed. Then,
y = ΔxD /d (1)

The separation between two consecutive dark fringes or bright fringes is called the fringe
width.
For constructive Interference, path difference Δx =nλ Therefore, from equation (1),
y= nλ D/d (n=0,1,2….) ............ Position of ‘nth’ bright fringe from Centre of screen.
For n=0, we get the central bright fringe called central maximum.
Separation between two consecutive bright fringes is
y(n+1)-y(n)= β=λD/d =linear width of a dark fringe between them Fringe width of dark
fringe= β=λD/d
Similarly, for destructive interference, path difference, Δx =(2n-1) λ/2 Therefore from
equation (1)
y = (2n-1) λD/d (n=1,2,3….) … ........... Position of ‘nth’ dark fringe from Centre of
screen.

Separation between two consecutive dark fringes is

y(n+1)-y(n)= β=λD/d=linear width of a bright fringe between them. Fringe width of bright
fringe= β=λD/d
Fringe width is a constant and. β α λ (‘λ’ wavelength of light used) β α D (‘D’ distance
between the slits and the screen)
β α 1/d (‘d’ is distance between the slits)

Linear Width of central maximum β0 =2y1= λD/d, here, y1= λD/2d

Fringe width in YDSE when the entire apparatus is immersed in water
β(water)= βair/n = λD/n d where ‘n’ is Refractive index of water
Angular width (ϴ)
Angular width ϴ =β/D= λ/d (independent of ’D’)

54
INTENSITY PATTERN

Coherent sources of light

Coherent source of light are those sources which emit a light wave having the same
frequency, wavelength and in the same phase or they have a constant phase difference.
Coherent sources are sources of light that emit waves which have zero or constant phase
difference and same frequency A coherent source forms sustained interference patterns
when superimposition of waves occur and the positions of maxima and minima are fixed.
Example –
Laser light is an example of coherent source of light. The light emitted by the laser light has
the same frequency and phase.
Obtaining the two sources of light from the same monochromatic source of light by using
Double slits.
Non-coherent sources of light
Incoherent sources are sources of light that emit waves which have random frequencies and
phase differences.
Why are two independent sources not coherent?
Coherent sources are defined as the sources in the which initial phase difference remains
constant. In the case of two independent sources, the initial phase difference cannot remain
constant because light is emitted due to millions of atoms and their number goes on
changing in a quite random manner. The phase difference between the two waves will not
be constant.
Essential conditions to obtain sustained interference
[Link] two sources must be coherent emitting light waves of same frequency
/Wavelength and monochromatic.
[Link] should preferably have the same amplitude.
[Link] should be very close to each other.
[Link] should be point sources of light.
[Link] should emit light waves continuously.

55
What would be the effect on the interference fringes if source of white light is used?
Coloured secondary fringes of varying width are obtained of varying widths and positions.
The central bright fringe is white (no phase difference/path difference). The colour closest
to the central fringe is red and the farthest is blue. After a few fringes the colour faded
away.
Colours in thin films
A thin oil film on a water surface appears coloured because of thin-film interference which
involves the interference of light waves reflecting off the top surface of a film with the waves
reflecting from the bottom surface.

If the point source S is shifted upwards then the path difference between the rays p=(S2P-
S1P) +(SS2-SS1)
Here (S2P-S1P)=yd/D and (SS2-SS1)=∆(small value)
For constructive interference=nλ,n=0,1,2…… Hence,yd/D+∆=nλ
Or y=D/d(nλ-Δ) For the central maximum n=0,therefore .we get,
y=-D Δ/d,the negative sign shows the C.M shifts downwards from the ‘zero’ level
DIFFRACTION OF LIGHT
Diffraction is the slight bending of light as it passes around the edge of an object. The
amount of bending depends on the relative size of the wavelength of light to the size of the
opening. If the opening is much larger than the light's wavelength, the bending will be
almost unnoticeable. However, if the two are closer in size or equal, the amount of bending
is considerable, and easily seen with the naked eye.

56
 SINGLE SLIT DIFFRACTION

If ‘a’ is the size of the single slit AB , then when a plane wavefront falls
on the slit, the wavelets from different parts of the incident wavefront superimpose
on each other such that the central fringe is a brightest and broadest (path difference
between all the interfering waves is zero)
For a point P on the screen, the path difference between the extreme rays, i.e
BE= p=asinϴ

Condition for dark fringe at point “P”(minimum intensity) or for destructive

interference of the waves:
Path difference ,p=asinϴ=nλ (n=1,2,3,….)
Condition for bright fringe at point “P”(maximum intensity) or for constructive
interference of the waves :
Secondary bright fringes
Path difference. p=asinϴ=(2n+1)λ /2 (n=1,2,3,….)
For small angles, sinϴ~𝜃 (angular position of the fringe)

For a bright fringe at position ‘P’, 𝜽=(2n+1) λ/2a , n=1,2,3… For a dark fringe
at position ‘P’, 𝜽′=nλ/a ,n=1,2,3…..
Linear position of bright fringe at point ‘P’ on the screen yn =ϴ

57
 ×D=(2n+1)Dλ/2a ,n=1,2,3….

Linear position of dark fringe at point ‘P’ on the screen yn’=ϴ’×D=nλD/a

,n=1,2,3….
Width of the secondary bright and dark fringes β= λD/a i.e y(n+1)-y(n)

Width of the central bright fringe or maximum βo=2y1’=2 λD/a

Angular width(secondary maximum an minimum)

Angular width ϴ=linear width(β)/D=λ/a (independent of ‘D’)

Angular width of central maximum

Angular width ϴ0=linear width (βo)/D= 2λ/a (independent of ‘D’)

Single slit diffraction pattern

Differences between interference and diffraction

[Link] Interference Diffraction

Interference is due to
superposition of two distinct Diffraction is due to superposition of
waves coming from two coherent the secondary wavelets coming from
1. sources. different parts of the same
wavefront.
Interference fringes may or may Diffraction fringes are not to be of the
2. not be of the same width. same width.
The intensity of minima is
3. generally zero. The intensity of minima is never zero.

All bright fringes are of uniform All bright fringes are not of uniform
4. intensity. intensity.

58
Write the distinguishing features between a diffraction pattern due to a single
slit and the interference fringes produced in Young’s double slit experiment?
Single slit pattern overlapping double slit pattern

To get the double slit pattern

The no. of fringes within the envelope n=size of slit /distance between the slits
n=a/d, In the event of d≈ 0,n → ∞
Double slit pattern(intensity distribution)

FRESNEL DISTANCE ZF(limiting case of Ray Optics)

Fresnel distance is defined as the minimum distance that is travelled by a ray of
light along the linear path before diffraction

Consider a slit with a width of a and a distance of screen from the slit of ZF

59
The Distance of the screen from the slit, so that the spreading of light due to
diffraction from the centre of the screen is just equal to the size of the slit is
called Fresnel distance ZF
The angular spread θ of the central maxima (due to diffraction effect) obtained
on the screen is given by,

θ=λ/a (1)
Therefore,the linear spread of the light on the screen is y= θD = λD/a (2)
Where ‘λ’ is the wavelength and ‘a’is the slit width.

At D=ZF,y=a (from definition)

So,from equation(2)we write, λZF/a =a or ZF=a2/λ-------(3) (Fresnel Distance)
For a given size of the aperture, if distance of screen , D≤ZF ,then ,Ray Optics
is valid
i.e light travels in a straight line without significant bending.. For this condition
from eqn (3) we get,
D≤a2/λ (4) Or a≥ √𝜆𝐷

Where √𝜆𝐷 is the size of Fresnel zone ‘aF’

aF =√𝝀𝑫-------(5) (size of Fresnel zone)
For a given distance of the screen from the plane of the slit ,if size of the
aperture , a≥ aF ,them, Ray optics is valid i.e light travels in a straight line
without significant bending.

60
 LIST OF IMPORTANT TERMS and FORMULAE
S.N TERM DESCRIPTION
O
1. Wavefront Wave front is defined as locus of all points having
same phase at a given instant of time. The shape of
wavefront depends on the shape of the source of
disturbance. A wavefront is always normal to the light
rays. A wavefront does not propagate in the backward
direction. (Amplitude of the secondary wavelets in the
backward direction cancels out)
2. Huygen’s Principle Every point on a wavefront is in itself the source of
spherical wavelets which spread out in the forward
direction at the speed of light. The sum of these
spherical wavelets forms the wavefront.
• Secondary sources start making their own
wavelets, these waves are similar to of primary
source.
• At any instant of time, a common tangent on the
wavelets in the forward direction gives the new
wavefront.
• The sum of spherical wavelets forms the
wavefront.
3. Interference of waves • Interference of Light Waves is defined as the
modification in the distribution of light energy
when two or more waves superimpose each
other.
• For Interference the waves emitted by sources
should be with zero phase difference or no
phase difference (coherent sources)
• These sources should emit continuous waves of
same wave length and same time period. These
sources should be very close to each other.
• The sources which emit light waves should be
coherent sources. If the waves are coherent, the
interference pattern is observable and is stable.
If the waves are incoherent, the pattern is not
visible.
3. CONSTRUCTIVE • Phase difference, φ = 2nπ
INTERFERENCE • Path difference, Δx = nλ
(Condition for maximum where, n = 0, 1, 2, 3,…
intensity in interference
pattern)

61
4. DISTRUCTIVE • Phase difference, φ = (2n – 1)π
INTERFERENCE • Path difference, Δx = (2n – 1)λ / 2
(Condition for minimum • where, n = 1, 2, 3, …
intensity in interference
pattern)
5. Ratio of maximum and 𝑰𝒎𝒂𝒙 (𝒂+𝒃)𝟐
• =(𝒂−𝒃)𝟐
minimum intensity 𝑰𝒎𝒊𝒏
𝑰𝒎𝒂𝒙 𝒓+𝟏 𝟐
• =( ) here, r=a/b
𝑰𝒎𝒊𝒏 𝒓−𝟏
• I1 / I2 = a2 / b2 = ω1 / ω2
• Where ω1 and ω2 are width of slits.
6. Resultant wave • R = √a2 + b2 + 2ab cos φ
amplitude
7. Resultant wave intensity • I = a2 + b2 + 2ab cos φ
• or I== I1 + I2 + 2 √I1 I2 cos φ where I1 and I2 are
the intensities of the individual waves.
• If a=b then,
Resultant intensity
I=4a2cos2(φ/2) = I0cos2(φ/2),where I0=4a2 is
Intensity of Central maximum
𝒏𝝀𝑫
8. Distance of nth • yn= (n=0,1,2……….)
maximum (bright 𝒅

fringe)from central
maximum(YDSE)
𝑦 𝑛𝜆
9. Angular position of nth • 𝜽𝒏 = 𝑛= (n=0,1,2……….)
𝐷 𝐷
bright fringe (YDSE)
(𝟐𝐧−𝟏)𝛌𝐃
10. Distance of nth minimum • yn’= (n=1,2,3…….)
𝟐𝐝
(dark fringe)from central
maximum(YDSE)
11. Angular position of nth 𝒚′ (𝟐𝐧−𝟏)𝛌
• 𝜽𝒏 = 𝒏= (n=1,2,3…….)
𝑫 𝟐𝐝
dark fringe (YDSE)
12. Fringe width secondary • β=λD/d
maxima, minima and
Central
maximum(YDSE)
𝜷 𝝀
13. Angular fringe width • 𝜽= =
𝑫 𝒅
secondary maxima,
minima and Central
maximum(YDSE)

62
14. Diffraction Diffraction is the slight bending of light as it passes
around the edge of an object. The amount of bending
depends on the relative size of the wavelength of light
to the size of the opening. If the opening is much
larger than the light's wavelength, the bending will be
almost unnoticeable. However, if the two are closer in
size or equal, the amount of bending is considerable,
and easily seen with the naked eye.

15. Single slit diffraction Condition for nth maximum

Path difference. p=asinϴ=(2n+1)λ /2 (n=1,2,3,….)
𝐴𝑛𝑔𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑛𝑡ℎ 𝑏𝑟𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑓𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑒
2𝑛+1
𝜃=( )𝜆( n=1,2,3,….)
2𝑎
Condition for nth minimum
p=asinϴ=nλ (n=1,2,3,….)
Angular position of nth dark fringe
θ'=nλ/a ,n=1,2,3…..
16. • β=λD/a
Fringe width of
secondary maxima and
minima)(single slit
diffraction)
𝜷 𝝀
17. • 𝜽= =
Angular fringe width of 𝑫 𝒂
secondary maxima and
minima (diffraction)
18. Fringe width of central • β0=2λD/a
maximum(diffraction)
𝜷𝟎 𝟐𝝀
19. Angular width of Central • 𝜽= =
maximum(diffraction) 𝑫 𝒂

20. • ZF=a2/λ-------(Fresnel Distance)

Limiting case of ray
• For a given size of the aperture, if distance of
optics
screen , D≤ZF ,Ray Optics is valid i.e light
Fresnel distance travels in a straight line without significant
bending..
21. • aF =√𝝀𝑫-------(size of Fresnel Zone)
Size of Fresnel zone
• For a given distance of the screen from the
plane of the slit ,if size of the aperture , a≥
aF,ray optics is valid i.e light travels in a straight
line without significant bending.

63
IMPORTANT DIAGRAMS AND GRAPHS
[Link]. Topic Diagram/graph
1. Huygen’s
Principle

2. Spherical
Wavefront

3. Converging,
diverging
spherical
wavefront

4. Plane wavefront

5. Cylindrical
Wavefront

64
6. Law of
reflection based
on Huygen’s
Principle

7. Law of
refraction based
on Huygen’s
Principle(rarer
to denser)

8. Law of
refraction based
on Huygen’s
Principle(denser
to rarer)

9. Behaviour of a
prism, convex
lens, concave
mirror when a
plane wavefront
is incident on
them

65
10. Yong’s Double
Slit Experiment

11. Diffraction at a
single slit

12. Interference
Intensity
distribution
Pattern

13. Diffraction at a
single slit
intensity
distribution

14. Single slit

pattern
superimposed
on double slit
pattern

66
 WAVE OPTICS MIND MAP

WAVE
OPTICS

HUYGEN’S
PRINCIPLE INTERFERE
NCE OF DIFFRACTION OF
LIGHT LIGHT

wavefront and
construction & superposition single slit
shapes principle experiment
Fresnel’s
y=y1+y2+y3+…
distance
Conditions for
maxima &
Verificatio Point source- minima(Path
n of laws of spherical Conditions for difference)
reflection Distant constructive and For [Link] ϴ=nλ/a
and source-plane destructive For [Link]
refraction Linear source - interference (C.I D.I) ϴ=(2n+1)λ/2a
cylindrical
For C.I (n=1,2,3,4..)
Young’s double φ=2nπ,p=nλ..(n=0,1,
slit experiment 2,3..)
𝜆𝐷
For D.I Fringe width β=
𝑎
φ=(2n-1)π,p=(2n- For C.M β0=2β
1)λ/2
Fringe width
β=λD/d
For C.M β0= β=λD/d Differences between
interference and
diffraction pattern
67
 MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS

[Link] phase difference between any two points of a wavefront is:

a)00 b π/4 c) π/2 d) π

2. In the adjoining figure, a wavefront AB moving in air is incident on a plane glass

surface XY. Its position CD, after refraction through a glass slab, is as shown also
along with the normal drawn at A and D. The refractive index of glass with respect to
air will be equal to

a) BD/AC b) AB/CD c) BD/AD d) AC/AD

3. The intensity of light issuing out of two slits in young’s experiment is in ratio 1:4.
The intensity of the minimum to the maximum will be in the ratio
a)1:2 b) 1:4
c)1:9 d) none of the above
[Link] Young’s double-slit experiment, if there is no initial phase difference between
the light from two slits, a point on the screen corresponding to the fifth minimum has
path difference
a) 5 λ/2 b) 10λ/2 c)9λ/2 d)11λ/2
5. A linear aperture whose width is 0.02 cm is placed immediately in front of a lens
of focal length 60 cm. The aperture is illuminated normally by a parallel beam of
wavelength 5 x 10-5cm. The distance of the first dark band of the diffraction pattern
from the centre of the screen is:
(a) 0.20 cm (c) 0.10 cm
(b) 0.15 cm (d) 0.25 cm

68
 6. Two slits in young’s double slit experiment have widths in the ratio 81 :1. The
ratio of the amplitudes of light waves is

(a) 3 :1 (b) 3 : 2
(c) 9 :1 (d) 6:1

7. The colour of bright fringe nearest to central achromatic fringe in the interference
pattern with white light will be

(a) violet
(b) red
(c) green
(d) yellow
[Link] the first minimum adjacent to the central maximum of a single -slit diffraction ,
the phase difference between the Huygen’s wavelet from the edge of the slit and the
wavelet from the midpoint of the slit is

(a) π radian
(b) π/8 radian
(c) π/4 radian
(d) π/2 radian

9.A parallel beam of monochromatic light of wavelength 5000A0 is incident normally

on a single narrow slit of width 0.001mm. The light is focussed by a convex lens on a
screen placed in focal plane. The first minimum will be formed for the angle of
diffraction is equal to

(a) 00 (b) 150 (c) 300 (d) 50

10. In a Young’s double slit experiment, two slits of equal width are arranged
symmetrically [Link] the sources. The intensity of the central bright fringe is I. If one
of the slit is closed, the intensity at the Centre of the screen will be
a) I
b) I/4
c)I/2
d)2I

69
 ANSWER KEY
MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS
1) a.
wavefront is the locus of all the points on a surface which are in the same
phase i.e ,phase difference is zero
2) a
refractive index , n = 𝑣1/𝑣2 = (𝐵𝐷 𝑋 𝑡)/(𝐴𝐶 𝑋 𝑡) = 𝐵𝐷/𝐴𝐶
3) c
( a1 /a2)2 = I1 /I2 = 1/4 , a1/a2 = 1/2
now, Imax / I min = (a1+a2)2 /(a1 ---a2) 2 = 9/1
I min/Imax = 1:9
4) c Path difference for nth minima = (2n−1)λ/2

For fifth minima (n = 5) = 9λ/2

5 )b
f=D = 60 cm
For first minima,
y=λ D /a = 5×10−5× 60x / 0.02 = 0.15cm
6. c W1/W2 = a12/a22
7.a

8. a

9. c
Dsinθ = nλ θ = sin−1(nλ/d/)
=s in−1((1)(5000×10−10/0.001 x10-3)) θ=30o.
10. b
When one slit is closed, then no interference pattern will be formed and the intensity at the
center is I/4

70
ASSERTION -REASON TYPE

Given below are two statements labelled as Assertion (A) and Reason (R)
Select the most appropriate answer from the options given below:
(A)Both A and R are true and R is the correct explanation of A
(B)Both A and R are true but R is not the correct explanation of A
(C)A is true but R is false.
(D) A is false and R is also false.
[Link]: According to Huygens’s principle, no backward wave-front is possible.
Reason: Amplitude of secondary wavelet is proportional to (1 + cos θ) where θ is the
angle between the ray at the point of consideration and the direction of secondary
wavelet.
2. Assertion: No interference pattern is detected when two coherent sources are
infinitely close to each other.
Reason: The fringe width is inversely proportional to the distance between the two
sources.
[Link]: On increasing the phase difference from π/3 to π/2 in young’s double
slit experiment, the intensity decreases by 1/3 rd
Reason: I=4I0COS2 (θ/2) with usual symbol meanings

4. Assertion: Two-point coherent sources of light S1 and S2 are placed on a line as

shown. P and Q are two points on that line. If at point P maximum intensity is
observed then maximum intensity should also be observed at Q

Reason: In the figure of assertion the distance |S1P−S2P| is equal to

distance |S2Q−S1Q|

5. Assertion: When tiny circular obstacle is placed in the path of light from some
distance, a bright spot is seen at the centre of the shadow of the obstacle.
Reason: Destructive interference occurs at the centre of the shadow.

71
CASE BASED QUESTIONS

1. INTERFERENCE

Interference is based on the superposition principle. According to this principle, at a

particular point in the medium, the resultant displacement produced by a number of
waves is the vector sum of the displacements produced by each of the waves. If two
sodium lamps illuminate two pinholes S1 and S2. the intensities will add up and no
interference fringes will be observed on the screen. Here the source undergoes abrupt
phase change in times of the order of 10-10 seconds

i)In Young’s double slit experiment, the central bright fringe can be identified
(a)By using white light instead of monochromatic light
(b) As it narrower than other bright fringes
(c)As it wider than other bright fringes
(d)As it has greater intensity than the other bright fringes
(ii) In a Young's double-slit experiment, the slit separation is doubled. To maintain
the same fringe spacing on the screen, the screen-to-slit distance D must be changed
to
(a) 2D (b) 4D (c) D/2 (d) D/4

(iii) In an interference experiment, third bright fringe is obtained at a point on the

screen with a light of 700 nm. What should be the wavelength of the light source in
order to obtain 5th bright fringe at the same point
(a)500nm (b)420nm (c) 750nm (d)630nm
(iv) The resultant amplitude of a vibrating particle by the superposition of the two
waves y1=a sin[ωt+π3] and y2=a sinωt is
(a) a (b)2√2 a (c) 2a (d) √3 a

72
2. SINGLE SLIT DIFFRACTION
In the single slit diffraction experiment, we can observe the bending of light or
diffraction that causes light from a source interfere with itself and produce a
distinctive pattern called the diffraction pattern. Diffraction is evident when the
sources are small enough that they are relatively the size of the wavelength of light.

i)To observe diffraction, the size of the obstacle

a) Should be λ/2 , where λ is the wavelength of light
b) Should be of the order of wave length of light
c)Has no relation to wavelength of light
d) Should be much larger than the wavelength
ii)When violet light of wavelength 415nm falls on a single slit ,it creates a central
diffraction peak that is 9.2cm wide on a screen that is 2.55m away. How wide is the slit
a)3x108m b)3.8x10-7m c)2.3x10-5m d)4.2x10-7m
iii)A single slit 1mm wide is illuminated by 450nm light. What is the width of the
central maximum in the diffraction pattern on a screen 5cm away ?
a)300x10-7m b)800x10-7cm c)450x10-7m d)500 x10-7m
iv)What happen with the diffraction pattern if the whole apparatus is immersed in
water
a)Width of central maximum increases
b)Width of central maximum decreases
c)Wavelength of light increases
d)Frequency of light decreases

73
 ANSWER KEY
ASSERTION -REASON TYPE
1.b
2. a
3. a
4. b

If maximum intensity is observed at P then for maximum intensity to be also

observed at Q, S1 and S2 must have phase difference of 2 nπ (where n is an integer).

5.c
The waves diffracted from the edges of circular obstacle, placed in the path of light,
interfere constructively at the centre of the shadow resulting in the formation of a
bright spot.

CASE BASED QUESTIONS (1)

(i) a
(ii) a ( β=λ D/d)
(iii) b , 3x700D/d = 5 λ D/d λ = 420nm
(iv) d Resultant amplitude =√ a2+a2+2axacos π/3 = √3a

CASE BASED QUESTIONS (2)

1. b
2. c
a = 2λD/β =2.3x10-5 m
3. c β=2λD/a =2λD/a = 450x10-7m
4. b Wave length decrease

74
 FREQUENTLY ASKED QUESTIONS

VERY SHORT ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS (1 MARK )

1. How does the angular separation of interference fringes change in young’s

experiment, if the distance between the slits is increased?
Answer:

2. State the reason, why two independent sources of light cannot be considered as
coherent sources.
Answer:
Two independent sources of light cannot be coherent. This is because light is
emitted by individual atoms, when they return to ground state. Even the
smallest source of light contains billions of atoms which obviously cannot
emit light waves in the same phase.
3. What type of wavefront will emerge from a
(i) point source, and
(ii) distant light source?

Answer:
(i) Point source – Spherical wavefront
(ii) Distant light source – Plane wavefront.

4. Draw a diagram to show refraction of a plane wave front incident in a convex

lens and hence draw the refracted wave front.

Answer:

5. How does the fringe width, in young’s double-slit experiment, change when the
distance of separation between the slits and screen is doubled?
Answer:
Doubled, Fringe width α D

75
6. In a single slit diffraction experiment, the width of the slit is reduced to half
its original width. How would this affect the size and intensity of the central
maximum?
Answer:
Β=λD/d=2β ,when d=d/2
Iα(width)2
Hence,I=I/4
7. Define the term ‘coherent sources’ which are required to produce interference
pattern in Young’s double slit experiment.
Answer:
Two monochromatic sources, which produce light waves, having a constant
phase difference are defined as coherent sources.
8. Define the term
‘wavefront’ Answer:
The wavefront is defined as the locus of all particles of a medium, which are
vibrating in the same phase.
9. Draw the shape of the wavefront coming out of a concave mirror when
a plane wave is incident on it.
Answer:

[Link] does the fringe width of interference fringes change, when the whole
apparatus of Young’s experiment is kept in a liquid of refractive index 1.3?
Answer:

β(water)=β(air)/n=β(air)/1.3

11.A interference pattern is obtained using a red light, what will be effect on
interference fringes, if the red light is replaced by blue light?
Answer:

Fringe width βis directly proportional to wavelength. The wave length of blue light is
less than that of red light, hence if red light is replaced by the blue light, the fringe
width decreases.

76
 SHORT ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS (2 MARKS)

1. .Two slits are made 1mm apart and the screen is placed away. What should be
the width of each slit to obtain 10 maxima of the double slit pattern within the
central maximum of the single slit pattern.
Answer:
As per question, width of central maxima of single slit pattern = width of10
maxima of double slit pattern
2λD/a=10(λD/d)
a=0.2d , 0.2×10−3=0.2×10−3m=0.2mm

2. Sketch a graph showing the variation of fringe width versus the distance of the
screen from the plane of the slits (keeping other parameters same) in young’s
double slit experiment What information can one obtain from the slope of this
graph?
Answer:

Information from graph: Wavelength λ = Slope x d

3. (i)State one feature by which the phenomenon of interference can be
distinguished from that of diffraction.
(ii)A parallel beam of light of wavelength 600 nm is incident normally on a slit of
width ‘a’. If the distance between the slits and the screen is 0.8 m and the distance
of 2nd order maximum from the centre of the screen is. 15 mm, calculate the
width of the slit.

Answer:
(i) In interference all the maxima are of equal intensity.
In diffraction pattern central fringe is of maximum intensity while intensity of
secondary maxima falls rapidly.
(ii) Position of nth maximum, y=(2n+1)λD/2d ,here n=2
y=5λD/2d
Substituting and solving, we get,d=80µm

77
4. State two conditions required for obtaining coherent sources In Young’s
arrangement to produce interference pattern, show that dark and bright fringes
appearing on the screen are equally spaced.
Answer:
Two conditions for obtaining coherent sources: (0 Two sources should give
monochromatic light.
(ii)Coherent sources of light should be obtained from a single source by some
device. The fringe width (dark and bright) is given by

Hence, it is same for both dark and bright fringes, so they are equally spaced on the
screen.
5. Laser light of wavelength 640 nm incident on a pair of slits produces an
interference pattern in which the bright fringes are separated by 7.2 mm.
Calculate the wavelength of another source of light which produces interference
fringes separated by 8.1 mm using same arrangement. Also find the minimum
value of the order ‘n’ of bright fringe of shorter wavelength which coincides with
that of the longer wavelength.

Answer:
Distance between two bright fringes = Fringe width
β=λD/d ,for same values of D and d ,we get

β1/β2=λ1/λ2

Substituting and solving we get ,λ2=720 nm

Calculation of minimum value of order for n to be minimum
(n + 1)th maxima of shorter wavelength should coincide with nth maximum of
longer wavelength (n+1)640= n(720),n=[Link] minimum order of shorter
wavelength is (n+1)=8+1=9

78
6. Yellow light (λ = 6000Å) illuminates a single slit of width 1 x 10-4 m. Calculate
(i) the distance between the two dark lines on either side of the central maximum,
when the diffraction pattern is viewed on a screen kept 1.5 m away from the slit;
(ii) the angular spread of the first diffraction minimum.
Answer:
(i) Distance between two dark lines, on either side of central maximum is
=2λD/a,Substituitng and solving we get,18mm
(ii)Angular spread of the first diffraction minimum (on either side)

ϴ=λ/a
Substituting and solving we get ϴ=6*10-3 rad
7. A parallel beam of light of 500 nm falls on a narrow slit and the resulting
diffraction pattern is observed on a screen 1 m away. It is observed that the first
minimum is at a distance of 2.5 mm from the centre of the screen. Calculate the
width of the slit.

Answer:
Path difference for nth minimum is asinϴ=nλ or aϴ=nλ Also,ϴ=x/D
From this we get,
ax/D=nλ Substituting and solving we get. a=2x10-4 m
8. (i) In what way is diffraction from each slit related to the interference pattern in a
double slit experiment?

(ii) When a tiny circular obstacle is placed in the path of light from a distance source,
a bright spot is seen at the centre of the shadow of the obstacle. Explain, why.
Answer:
(i) Diffraction from each slit is related to interference pattern in a double slit
experiment in the following ways :
The intensity of minima for diffraction is never zero, while for interference it is
generally zero.
All bright fringes for diffraction are not of uniform intensity, while for interference,
these are of uniform intensity

79
 (ii) Waves from the distant source are diffracted by the edge of the circular
obstacle and these diffracted waves interfere constructively at the centre of the
obstacle’s shadow producing a bright spot
9. (a)Write the conditions under which light sources can be said to be coherent.

(b) Why is it necessary to have coherent sources in order to produce an

interference pattern?
Answer:
a)Coherent sources of light. The sources of light, which emit continuously light
waves of the same wavelength, same frequency and in same phase are called
Coherent sources of light.

Two independent sources cannot act as coherent sources and interference pattern is
not obtained. This is because phase difference between the light waves emitted from
two different sodium lamps will change continuously.
(a)Conditions for interference. The important conditions for obtaining interference
of light are :
The two sources of light must be coherent. i.e. they should exist continuous waves
of same wavelength or frequency.
The two sources should be monochromatic. The phase difference of waves from
two sources should be constant. The amplitude of waves from two sources should
be equal.
The coherent sources must be very close to each other
10. Estimate the distance for which ray optics is good approximation for an aperture
of 4 mm and wavelength 400 nm.
Answer
Fresnel’s distance (Zf ) is the distance for which the ray optics is a good
approximation. It is given by the relation, Zf = a2/λ
Where, Aperture width, a = 4 mm = 4 ×10 -3 m
Wavelength of light, λ = 400 nm = 400 × 10 -9 m Zf = (4x10-3)2/400x10-9 = 40 m
Therefore, the distance for which the ray optics is a good approximation is 40 m.

80
 SHORT ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS (3 MARKS)

1. Draw the intensity pattern for single slit diffraction and double slit
interference. Hence, state two differences between interference and
diffraction patterns.

Answer:
Intensity distribution in the diffraction due to single slit

(iii) Intensity pattern for double slit interference.

(iv) Difference between Interference and Difference Patterns: Interference pattern

and Diffraction pattern :
(v) The diagram, given here, shows several fringes, due to double slit interference,
‘contained’ in a broad diffraction peak. When the separation between the slits is
large compared to their width, the diffraction pattern becomes very flat and we
observe the two slit interference pattern.

81
 Basic features of distinction between interference and diffraction patterns :
(i)The interference pattern has a number of equally spaced bright and dark bands
while diffraction pattern has a central bright maximum which is twice as wide as the
other maxima.

(ii)Interference pattern is the superimposition of two waves slits originating from two
narrow slits. The diffraction pattern is a superposition of a continuous family of waves
originating from each point on a single slit.
(iii)For a single slit of width ‘a’ the first null of diffraction pattern occurs at an angle
of λ/a. At the same angle of λ/a, we get a maxima for two narrow slits separated by a
distance ‘a’.
2. Two monochromatic waves emanating from two coherent sources have the
displacements represented by y1 = a cos ωt and y2 = a cos (ωt + ϕ ), where ϕ is
the phase difference between the two displacements. (a)Show that the resultant
intensity at a point due to their superposition is given by I = 4I0 cos2 ϕ/2, where
I0 = a2.
(b) Hence obtain the conditions for constructive and destructive interference.
Answer:
(a) Let the two waves be represented by equations y1=acosωt,y2=a
cos(ωt+φ)
From the Principle of superposition of waves we get,
y=y1+y2=2acos(φ/2) cos (ωt+φ/2)
Resultant Amplitude is A=2acos(φ/2)
Hence, Resultant Intensity α (amplitude)2 =4a2cos2(φ/2)
(b) For constructive interference:

(ii)For destructive interference:

Cos (Ф/2) = 0 or Ф/2 = (2n-1)π/2 Ф = (2n-1)π

82
3. A slit of width “a” is illuminated by light of wavelength, [Link] will be
the value of the width ‘a’ when
a) first minimum falls at an angle of diffraction 300?
b) first maximum falls at an angle of diffraction 300?
(c) Why does the intensity of the secondary maximum become less as compared
to the central maximum?
Answer:
(i)first minimum at 300 satisfies the condition,
d sinθ=λ, d= λ/sin 30 =1300nm
(ii) first maxima at 300 satisfies the condition
d sinθ =3λ/2 d= 3λ/2sin 30 =1950nm
(b) As the order increases only 1/nth (where n is an odd number) of the slit, will
contribute in producing brightness at a point in diffraction. So the higher order
maxima are not so bright as the central maximum

4. In Young’s double slit experiment to produce interference pattern, obtain the

conditions for constructive and destructive interference. Hence deduce the
expression for the fringe width.
Answer:
Let the Resultant wave Amplitude be ‘A’
A2=a12+a22+2a1a2cosφ
For constructive interference:
Cosφ=+1,so,Phase difference is φ=2nπ and path difference is p=nλ
So,yd/D=nλ From this we get,y=nλD/d n=0,1,2…..(position of nth minimum)
Since the separation between the centres of two consecutive bright fringes is called
fringe width. It is denoted by β
β=y(n+1) - y(n)=λD/d
For destructive interference,Cosφ=-1,So φ=(2n-1)π,n=1,2,3….
Hence path difference is p= (2n-1)λ/2
Position of nth minimum is y=(2n-1)λD/2d
Fringe width β=y(n+1) -yn=λD/d

83
 5. A plane wavefront is incident at an angle of incidence i on a reflecting
surface. Draw a diagram showing incident wavefront, reflected wavefront and
verify the laws of reflection.
Answer:

These incident wavefront is carrying two points, point A and point B, so we can say
that from point B to point C light is travelling a distance. If ‘ v ‘ represents the speed
of the wave in the medium and if ‘ t ‘ represents the time taken by the wavefront from
the point B to C then the distance

BC = vt

In order the construct the reflected wavefront we draw a sphere of radius v t from the
point A. Let CE represent the tangent plane drawn from the point C to this sphere. So,

AE = BC = vt

If we now consider the triangles EAC and BAC we will find that

AC is common , ˂ABC =˂AEC , AE=BC,

they are congruent and therefore, the angles ‘ i ‘ and ‘r ‘ would be equal. This is the
law of reflection
6. The intensity pattern at the central maxima in Young’s double slit experiment is I0.
Find out the intensity at a a point where the path difference is λ/4 &λ/3.
Answer:
If the path difference =λ/4
Here for the given, first case, the path difference is given as Δx=λ/4 , Δx=2π/λ× ϕ
⇒ϕ=π/2
Now substituting the value of ϕ=π/2 in the equation I=4I0cos2ϕ/2 which provides
us the intensity given as

84
 ⇒I=4I(π/4) ⇒I=2I0
Therefore the intensity at a point on a screen in Young’s double-slit experiment
where interfering waves of equal intensity have a path difference of λ/4 is given
as 2I0.
II. For λ/3
⇒ϕ=2π/3
⇒I=4I0cos2(2π/6 )⇒
∴I=I0
Therefore the intensity at a point on a screen in Young’s double-slit experiment
where interfering waves of equal intensity have a path difference of λ/3 is given as I0.

7. Consider two slit interference arrangements such that the distance of the screen from
the slits is half the distance between the slits. Obtain the value of D in terms of λ such
that the first minima on the screen fall at a distance D from the centre O.

Answer:
S1P = √D2 + (D – x)2 , S2P = √D2 + (D + x)2

T2P = D + x , T1P = D – x

[D2 + (D+x)2]-1/2 – [D2+(D-x)2]1/2 = λ/2 if X=D

D= λ/2(√5-1)

8. A beam of light consisting of two wavelength 800 nm and 600 nm is used to obtain
the interference fringes in young’s double slit experiment on a screen held 1.4 m
away. If the two slits are separated by 0.28 mm, calculate the least distance from the
central bright maximum, where the bright fringes of the two wavelengths coincide.

85
 Answer: The two bright fringes will coincide when
n1λ1=n2λ2
⇒n1×800×10−9= n2×600×10−9
⇒4n1=3n2
n1≠=0,n2≠ 0
For y to be minimum and since n are integers, n1=3,n2=4
y=n1λ1D/d= 3x800x10-9 x1.4/0.28x10-3
⇒y=1.2×10−2m
⇒y=1.2 cm
9. A parallel beam of light of wavelength 500 nm falls on a narrow slit and the resulting

diffraction pattern is observed on a screen 1 m away. It is observed that the first

minimum is at a distance of 2.5 mm from the centre of the screen. Find the width of

the slit.

Answer:
Wavelength of light beam, λ = 500 nm = 500 × 10 -9 m

Distance of the screen from the slit, D = 1 m

For first minima, n = 1

Distance between the slits = d

Distance of the first minimum from the centre of the screen can be obtained as:

x = 2.5 mm = 2.5 × 10 -3 m

It is related to the order of minima as:

d = nλD/x = 1x500x10-9x1 / 2.5x10-3 = 2x10-4 = 0.2 mm

Therefore, the width of the slit is 0.2 mm.

86
10. In a double-slit experiment the angular width of a fringe is found to be 0.2° on a
screen placed 1 m away. The wavelength of light used is 600 nm. What will be
the angular width of the fringe if the entire experimental apparatus is immersed
in water? Take refractive index of water to be 4/3.

Answer
Given that,
Distance of the screen from the slits, D = 1 m

Wavelength of light used, λ1 =600 nm

Angular width of the fringe in air, θ1 = 0.2°

Angular width of the fringe in water = θ,

Refractive index of water, µ = 4/3

Refractive index is related to angular width as: µ = θ1/ θ2

θ2 = 3/4 θ1 = 3/4 x 0.2 = 0.15

Therefore, the angular width of the fringe in water will reduce to 0.15°.

32. In a Young’s double-slit experiment, the slits are separated by 0.28 mm and
the screen is placed 1.4 m away. The distance between the central bright fringe
and the fourth bright fringe is measured to be 1.2 cm. Determine the wavelength
of light used in the experiment.

Answer:

Here it is given that,

Distance between the slits, d = 0.28 mm = 0.28 × 10 -3 m

Distance between the slits and the screen, D = 1.4 m

87
 Distance between the central fringe and the fourth (n = 4) fringe, u = 1.2 cm = 1.2
× 10 -2 m

For constructive interference, the distance between the two fringes is given by
relation: u = nλ D/d

where, n = Order of fringes

wavelength of the light can be given as: λ = ud/nD = 1.2x10-2x0.28x10-3/4x1.4 =

6x10-7 = 600 nm

Hence, the wavelength of the light is 6 x 10 -7 m.

11. Two towers on top of two hills are 40 km apart. The line joining them passes 50 m
above a hill halfway between the towers. What is the longest wavelength of radio
waves, which can be sent between the towers without appreciable diffraction effects?

Answer
Distance between the towers, d = 40 km

Height of the line joining the hills, d = 50 m.

Thus, the radial spread of the radio waves should not exceed 50 km.

Since the hill is located halfway between the towers, Fresnel’s distance can be
obtained as: Z P = 20 km = 2 × 10 4 m

Aperture can be taken as, a = d = 50 m

Fresnel’s distance is given by the relation, Zp = a2/λ

Where, λ = Wavelength of radio waves

Therefore, λ = a2/Zp = (50)2 / 2x104 = 1250x10-4 = 0.1250 m = 12.5 cm

Therefore, the wavelength of the radio waves is 12.5 cm.

88
LONG ANSWER QUESTIONS (5 MARKS)

1. State Huygen’s principle. Using this principle draw a diagram to show how a
plane wave front incident at the interface of the two media gets refracted when
it propagates from a rarer to a denser medium. Hence verify Snell’s law of
refraction.
(b) When monochromatic light travels from a rarer to a denser medium,
explain the following, giving reasons :
(i) Is the frequency of reflected and refracted light same as the frequency of
incident light?
(ii) Does the decrease in speed imply a reduction in the energy carried by light
wave?
Answer:

(a) Huygen’s Principle ; Huygen’s Principle is based on two assumptions :

(i) Each point on the primary wavefront is a source of a new disturbance called
secondary wavelets which travel in all directions with same velocity as that of
original waves.
(ii) A surface tangential to the secondary . wavelets gives the position and shape of
new wavefront at any instant. This is called secondary wavefront.
Verification of Snell’s Law, From the figure

If ‘ τ‘ represents the time taken by the wavefront from the point B to C, then the
distance, BC=v1 τ

89
 So, to determine the shape of the refracted wavefront, we draw a sphere of radius v2 τ
from the point A in the second medium. Let CE represent a tangent plane drawn from
the point C on to the sphere.

Then, AE = v2 τ, and CE would represent the refracted wavefront. If we now consider

the triangles ABC and AEC, we obtain
sin i = BC/AC = v1 τ /AC sin r =AE/AC= v2 τ /AC

where’ i ‘ and ‘ r ‘ are the angles of incidence and refraction, respectively.

Substituting the values of v1 and v2 in terms of we get the Snell’s Law,

n1 sin i = n2 sin r (Snell’s law)

(b) (i) Yes, frequency is the property of source. Hence, frequency does not change
when light is reflected or refracted.
(ii) No, decrease in speed does not imply reduction in energy carried by light
wave.

This is because the frequency does not change and according to the formula E =
hv, energy will be independent of speed. Energy carried by a wave depends on the
amplitude of the wave, not on the speed of wave propagation

2. (a) In a single slit diffraction experiment, the width of the slit is made double
the original width. How does this affect the size and intensity of the central
diffraction band?

(b) In what way is diffraction from each slit related to the interference pattern
in a double-slit experiment?
(c) When a tiny circular obstacle is placed in the path of light from a distant
source, a bright spot is seen at the centre of the shadow of the obstacle. Explain
why?
(d) Two students are separated by a 7 m partition wall in a room 10 m high. If
both light and sound waves can bend around obstacles, how is it that the
students are unable to see each other even though they can converse easily.

90
 (e) Ray optics is based on the assumption that light travels in a straight line.
Diffraction effects (observed when light propagates through small
apertures/slits or around small obstacles) disprove this assumption. Yet the ray
optics assumption is so commonly used in understanding location and several
other properties of images in optical instruments. What is the justification?
Answer:
(a) When width (a) of single slit is made double, the half angular width of central
maximum which is λ/a, reduces to half. The intensity of central maximum will
become 4 times. This is because area of central diffraction band would become
1/4th.
(b) If width of each slit is of the order of λ, then interference pattern in the
double slit experiment is modified by the diffraction pattern from each of the two
slits.
(c) When a tiny circular obstacle is placed in the path of light from a distant
source, a bright spot is seen at the centre of the shadow of the obstacle. This is
because light waves are diffracted from the edge of the circular obstacle, which
interferes constructively at the centre of the shadow. This constructive interference
produces a bright spot.
(d) Bending of waves by obstacles by a large angle is possible when the size of the
obstacle is comparable to the wavelength of the waves. On the one hand, the
wavelength of the light waves is too small in comparison to the size of the
obstacle. Thus, the diffraction angle will be very small. Hence, the students are
unable to see each other. On the other hand, the size of the wall is comparable to
the wavelength of the sound waves. Thus, the bending of the waves takes place at a
large angle. Hence, the students are able to hear each other.
(e) The ray optics assumption is used in understanding location and several other
properties of images in optical instruments. This is because typical sizes of
aperture involved in ordinary optical instruments are much larger than the
wavelength of light. Therefore, diffraction or bending of waves is of no
significance.

91
3. a) Describe briefly how a diffraction pattern is obtained on a screen due to a

single narrow slit illuminated by a monochromatic source of light. Hence obtain

the conditions for the angular width of secondary maxima and secondary minima.

(b) Two wavelengths of sodium light of 590 nm and 596 nm are used in turn to

study the diffraction taking place at a single slit of aperture 2 × 10-6 m. The

distance between the slit and the screen is 1.5 m. Calculate the separation

between the positions of first maxima of the diffraction pattern obtained in the

two cases.

Answer:
(a)Diffraction at a single slit. Suppose a parallel beam of monochromatic light of
wavelength λ falls normally on a slit AB of width d (of the order of the wavelength
of light). The diffraction occurs on passing through the slit. The diffraction pattern
is focused on to the screen by a convex lens. The diffraction pattern consists of a
central bright fringe (or band), having alternate dark and bright fringes of
decreasing intensity on both sides.
1. Position of central maximum. Let C be the centre of the slit AB. According to
Huygen’s principle, “when light falls on the slit, it becomes a source of secondary
wavelets.” All the wavelets originating from slit AB are in same phase. These
secondary waves reinforce each other resulting the central maximum intensity at
O.

92
Position of secondary maxima and minima. Consider a point P on the screen.
All the secondary waves travelling in a direction making angle θ with CO, reach
at a point P. The intensity at P depends on the path difference between
secondary waves.
∴ Path difference between the secondary waves reaching P from points A and B
is, BN = d sin θ
(i)If path difference ,BN =(2n+1)λ/2
d sin θ = (2n+1)λ/2
When θ is very small , then sinθ~ θ
θ = (2n+1)λ/2d
for n=1, θ=3λ/2d ,forst secondary maximum

The point P will be the position of nth secondary maxima

If path difference BN=nλ
d sin θ = nλ ,When θ is very small , then sinθ~ θ
θ=nλ/d
for n=1 , θ=λ/d ,forst secondary minima
Hence, the diffraction pattern due to single slit consists of a centre bright
maximum at O along with secondary maxima and minima on either side..

(b)First maxima due to λ1(β1) = λ1D x3/2d

First maxima doe to λ2(β2) = λ2D x3/2d

β1- β2 = 3D (λ2-λ1)/2d = 6.75 mm

****************************************

93
Chapter11: Dual Nature of Radiation and Matter
SHORT NOTES :

Three types of electron emission

(i) Thermionic emission : By suitably heating the metal, heat energy is supplied,
thereby electrons can be ejected out. The emitted electrons are called thermions.
(ii) Field emission: By applying strong electric field (108 V/m), electrons can be
emitted from the metal surface.
(iii) Photoelectric emission : when light of suitable frequency is incident on a metal
surface, electrons are emitted. Such electrons are called photoelectrons.

Work function (ф0) : The minimum energy required by an electron to just escape
from the metal surface.

Unit of work function : electron volt (eV)

Work function is less for Caesium (Cs) = 2.14 eV and high for Platinum (Pt) = 5.65 eV

Photoelectric effect :( Discovered by Heinrich Hertz)

The phenomenon of ejection of electros from a metal surface when light of
sufficiently high frequency falls on it.
Threshold frequency (ν0 ) : It is the minimum frequency of the incident photons below
which , no photoelectric emission takes place.
ф0 = h𝜈0

It depends on the nature of material of emitter plate.

Eg : Alkali metals emit photo electrons when visible light incident on it. (Li, K, Na,
Rb)
Zn, Cd , Mg etc emit electrons when UV light incident on it.

Einstein’s photo electric equation:

According to Einstein, the emission of electrons is due to the interaction of a
photon of Energy ‘hν’ with the electron. The photon is completely absorbed by the
electron. When the electron absorbs energy ‘hν’ , it uses a part of it to overcome work
function φ0 , and the emitted electron possess K.E ,
Kmax= hν – φ0.
½ mVmax2 = hν – φ0, Einstein’s photoelectric equation.
If ν0 is the threshold frequency, φ0 = hν0
hν = hν0 + ½ mVmax2

94
Photoelectric effect and wave theory of light:
According to wave theory, when light is incident on a metal surface, it spreads
evenly on metal surface. The energy is equally shared by all free electrons. But each
electron gets small energy and as time increases, electron receives more and more
energy and finally ejected out. Wave theory couldn’t explain the instantaneous
emission of electrons.
Also as per wave theory, the K.E of electron depends on the intensity of light.
But K.E is found to increase with frequency. Therefore, wave theory fails to explain
the K.E of electron.

Particle nature of light : Photon

Photon is a packet of energy (quanta of energy). Energy of each photon is E =
hν = hc/λ
Momentum of photon is P = hν/c E = mc2, m = E/C2 = h𝜈/ C2
P = mV = h𝜈 /C2 x C = h𝜈/C
Properties of photon
1. All photons of same frequency have same energy and momentum, irrespective of
intensity.
2. As intensity increases, the number of photons increases.
3. Photons are electrically neutral, not deflected by electric & magnetic Fields.
4. In a photon –electron collision, the total energy & tot. momentum remains
conserved.

Wave nature of matter :

According to de Broglie , nature has two basic entities - Matter & energy. If radiation
shows dual nature (wave & particle), matter also shows dual nature.
Matter waves : (de Broglie waves)
Waves associated with moving particle.
Properties of matter waves :
1. Independent of charge on matter.
2. They are not EM waves because EM waves are produced by accelerated charged
particle.

95
de Broglie wavelength:
According to quantum theory , E = hν, and P = hν/c = h/λ
λ = h/p = h/mv ---------------------(1) de Broglie’s wave equation for material
particles.
Where’ m’ is the mass of particle and V is velocity. This wavelength is equal to the
wavelength of EM radiation of which photon is a quantum of energy. When v = 0, λ =
∞. ie waves are associated with moving particles only.
Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle:
It is not possible to measure both the position and momentum of an electron or any
particle at the same time exactly.
There is some uncertainty ∆x in the specification of position and ∆p in momentum,
∆x .∆P ≅ h/2π.

96
IMPORTANT DIAGRAMS & GRAPHS :

(i) Effect of intensity of light on photocurrent :

Keeping the frequency of light and potential b/w the plates constant, as the intensity of
light increases, more and more photoelectrons are emitted. ie photocurrent is directly
proportional to intensity of light.

(ii) Effect of Potential on photoelectric current:

Saturation current is proportional to the intensity of light, but stopping potential is

independent of intensity, for same frequency.

97
(iii) Effect of frequency of incident radiation on stopping potential

Keeping the intensity constant, as frequency of the light increases, the stopping
potential becomes more negative but the saturation current remains same.

(iv) Variation of stopping potential V0 with frequency for given materials A and
B

(v) Verification of Einstein’s photoelectric equation : (determination of

Planck’s constant by Millikan)

V0 = hν/e - hν0/e
The graph between V0 and ν is a straight line with intercept -hν0/e . this helped to
calculate the value of h.(6.62 × 10-34 Js)

98
KEY POINTS :
• Work function (∅0 ) : The minimum energy required for an electron to escape
from the metal surface.
• Photo electric Emission : When Light of suitable frequency illuminates the
metal surface, electrons are emitted.
• Threshold Frequency : The minimum frequency of incident photons below
which no photo electric emission occurs.
• photocurrent is directly proportional to intensity of light.

• Stopping Potential : The minimum negative (retarding) potential of the

collector plate at which the photo electric current becomes zero.
• Photoelectric current is zero, when the retarding potential is able to stop the
most energetic electrons. Therefore Kmax = eV0
• ½ mVmax2 = eV0. For a given frequency of incident photon, stopping potential
is independent of intensity of light.
• As frequency of incident photon increases , K.E also increases. Kmax α 𝜈
• K.E of electrons is independent of intensity of light.
• ½ mVmax2 = hν – φ0, This is Einstein’s photoelectric equation.
• Photon is a packet of energy (quanta of energy). Energy of each photon is E =
hν = hc/λ
• Momentum of photon is P = hν/c
• de Broglie wavelength, λ = h/p = h/mv
• de- Broglie wavelength of an electron = λ = 12.27/ √𝑉 A0

IMPORTANT FORMULAE :

➢ Work function, ф0 = h𝜈0

➢ Maximum Kinetic Energy, ½ mVmax2 = eV0

➢ Photo electric equation, hν = h𝜈0 + ½ mVmax2

➢ Momentum of photon is P = hν/c

➢ de Broglie wavelength, λ = h/p = h/mv

➢ de Broglie wavelength for a charged particle accelerated through a potential ‘V’,

λ = h/√2𝑚𝑞𝑉
➢
de Broglie wavelength of an electron, λ = 12.27/ √𝑉 A

99
CONCEPT MAP ON DUAL NATURE OF MATTER AND RADIATION

Electron emission

Thermionic Emission
Photo Electric Emission

Field
Emission

Experimental study
ofPhoto electric
effect

Effect of Potential on
Effect of Intensity of Photo current and
light on Photo current Graph
and Graph

Effect of Frequency of
Incident radiation on
stopping Potential
and Graph

Einstein’s Photo Electric

Photo electric effect and Equation
Wave Theory of Light
Kmax = hν – φ0
Wave Nature of Matter
and de Broglie relation
Dual Nature of Particle Nature of
λ=h/p Radiation & Matter light:the Photon

E= hν

100
 MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS
[Link] a beam of electrons (each electron with energy E0) incident on a metal
surface kept in an evacuated chamber. Then
(a) no electrons will be emitted as only photons can emit electrons
(b) electrons can be emitted but all with an energy E0
(c) electrons can be emitted with any energy, with a maximum of E0-φ (φ is the
work function)
(d) electrons can be emitted with any energy, with a maximum of E0
[Link] wavelength for a metal having work function W0 is λ. What is the threshold
wavelength for a metal having work function 2W0?
(a)4λ (b)2 λ (c) λ/2 (d) λ/4
3.A proton, a neutron, an electron and an α particle have same energy. Then their de-
Broglie wavelengths compare as
(a) λp = λn > λe > λα (b) λα < λp = λn < λe
(c) λe < λp = λn > λα (d) λe = λp = λα = λn
4. The energy of photon of wavelength 450nm is
(a) 2.5x10-17J (b) 1.25x 10-17 J (c) 4.4x 10-19J (d) 2.5 x 10-19J
5.A proton and an α-particle have the same de Broglie wavelength. What is same for
both of them?
(a) Mass (b) Energy (c) Frequency (d) Momentum
6. Wave theory of light could not explain
(a) interference (b) diffraction (c) reflection (d) photo electric effect
[Link] photoelectric effect is based on conservation of
(a)momentum (b) energy (c) mass (d) angular momentum
8 In photoelectric effect, the number of photoelectrons emitted is proportional to
(a) intensity of incident beam (b) frequency of incident beam
(c)velocity of incident beam (d)work function of photocathode.
9. A photon will have less energy if its
(a) amplitude is higher (b) frequency is higher
(c) wave length is longer (d) wave length is shorter
10. Why do we not observe the phenomenon of photoelectric effect with non-metals?
i) For non metals the work function is high ii) Work function is low
iii) Work function can’t be calculated iv) For non metals, threshold frequency is low

101
ASSERTION- REASON

Directions: In each of the following questions, a statement of Assertion (A) is

given followed by a corresponding statement of Reason (R) just below it. Of the
statements, mark the correct answer as:

(A)If both assertion and reason are true and reason is the correct explanation
of assertion (B)If both assertion and reason are true but reason is not the
correct explanation of assertion

(C)If assertion is true and reason is false

(D)If both assertion and reason are false

1. Assertion: A photon has no rest mass , yet it carries definite momentum.
Reason: Momentum of photon is due to its energy and hence its equivalent mass.
(a)A (b)B (c)C (d)D
2. Assertion: Photoelectric effect demonstrates the wave nature of light.
Reason. The number of photoelectrons is proportional to the frequency of light.
(a)A b)B (c)C (d)D
[Link]: When light of certain wavelength falls on a metal surface it ejects
electron.
Reason: Light has wave nature.
(a)A (b)B (c)C (d)D
4. Assertion: As work function of a material increases by some mechanism, it
requires greater energy to excite the electrons from its surface.
Reason. A plot of stopping potential (V) versus frequency (v) for different
materials, has greater slope for metals with greater work functions
(a)A (b)B (c)C (d)D
5. Assertion: Light of frequency 1.5 times the threshold frequency is incident on
photosensitive material. If the frequency is halved and intensity is doubled the
photo current remains unchanged.
Reason:The photo electric current varies directly with the intensity of light and
frequency of light.
(a)A (b)B (c)C (d) D
6. Assertion: The de-Broglie wavelength of a neutron when its kinetic energy is k
is λ. Its wavelength is 2 λ when its kinetic energy is 4k.
Reason. The de - Broglie wavelength λ is proportional to square root of the kinetic
energy.
(a)A (b)B (c)C (d)D

102
 CASE BASED QUESTIONS

1. Photoelectric emission is possible only if the incident light is in the form of

packets of energy, each having a definite value, more than the work function of the

metal. This shows that light is not of wave nature but of particle nature. It is due to

this reason that photoelectric emission was accounted by quantum theory of light.

Q1. Packet of energy are called

(a)electron (b)quanta (c)frequency (d)neutron

Q2. One quantum of radiation is called

(a)meter (b)meson (c) photon (d)quark

Q3. Energy associated with each photon

(a)hc (b)mc (c)hv (d)hk

Q4. Which of the following waves can produce photo electric effect?

(a). UV radiation (b). Infrared radiation (c). Radio waves (d) Microwaves

Q5. Work function of alkali metals is

(a)less than zero (b)just equal to other metals

(c) greater than other metals (d) quite less than other metals

II. According to de-Broglie a moving material particle sometimes acts as a wave and

sometimes as a particle or a wave is associated with moving material particle which

controls the particle in every respect. The wave associated with moving material

particle is called matter wave or de-Broglie wave whose wavelength called de-Broglie

wavelength, is given by λ = h/mv

103
[Link] dual nature of light is exhibited by

(a) diffraction and photo electric effect (b) photoelectric effect

(c) refraction and interference (d)diffraction and reflection.

2. If the momentum of a particle is doubled, then its de-Broglie wavelength will

(a)remain unchanged (b)become four times

(c) become two times (d)become half

[Link] an electron and proton are propagating in the form of waves having the same λ
, it implies that they have the same

(a)energy (b)momentum (c)velocity (d)angular momentum

4. Velocity of a body of mass m, having de-Broglie wavelength λ , is given by

relation

(a) v = λ h/m (b) v = λm/h (c) v = λ/hm (d) v = h/ λm

5. Moving with the same velocity, which of the following has the longest de Broglie
wavelength?

(a) ᵦ -particle (b) α -particle (c) proton (d) neutron.

[Link] discovery of the phenomenon of photoelectric effect has been one of the
most important discoveries in modern science. The experimental observations
associated with this phenomenon made us realize that our, ‘till then’, widely
accepted picture of the nature of light – The electromagnetic (wave) theory of light
– was quite inadequate to understand this phenomenon. A ‘new picture’ of light was
needed and it was provided by Einstein through his ‘photon theory’ of light. This
theory, regarded light as a stream of particles. Attempts to understand photoelectric
effect thus led us to realize that light, which was being regarded as ‘waves’, could
also behave like ‘particles’. This led to the idea of ‘wave-particle duality’ vis-à-vis
the nature of light. Attempts to understand this ‘duality’, and related phenomenon,
led to far reaching, and very important developments, in the basic theories of
Physics.

104
1) Which of the following phenomena explain the wave nature of light?

i) Interference ii) Diffraction

iii) polarization iv) all of them

2) Wave –particle duality is shown by

i) Light only ii) matter only

iii) both light and matter iv) None of them

3) The experiment to explain the wave nature of light i.e electromagnetic wave
theory is given by

i) Hertz ii) Einstein

iii) Lenard iv) Huygen

4) The concept of photoelectric effect given by Einstein explains that the light is a

i) Photon ii)Wave

iii) Particle iv) Both

5) The practical application of the phenomenon of photoelectric effect and the

concept of ‘matter waves’ is

i) Photocells ii) Automatic doors at shops and malls

iii) automatic light switches iv) All of them

IV. Lenard observed that when ultraviolet radiations were allowed to fall on the

emitter plate of an evacuated glass tube, enclosing two electrodes (metal plates),

current started flowing in the circuit connecting the plates. As soon as the ultraviolet

radiations were stopped, the current flow also stopped. These observations proved

that it was ultraviolet radiations, falling on the emitter plate, that ejected some

charged particles from the emitter and the positive plate attracted them.

105
1) Alkali metals like Li, Na, K and Cs show photo electric effect with visible light but
metals like Zn, Cd and Mg respond to ultraviolet light. Why?

i) Frequency of visible light is more than that for ultraviolet light

ii) Frequency of visible light is less than that for ultraviolet light

iii) Frequency of visible light is same for ultraviolet light

iv) Stopping potential for visible light is more than that for ultraviolet light

2) Why do we not observe the phenomenon of photoelectric effect with non-metals?

i) For non metals the work function is high

ii) Work function is low

iii) Work function can’t be calculated

iv) For non metals, threshold frequency is low

3) What is the effect of increase in intensity on photoelectric current?

i)Photoelectric current increases ii) Decreases

iii) No change iv) Varies with the square of intensity

4) Name one factor on which the stopping potential depends

i) Work function ii) Frequency iii) Current iv) Energy of photon

5) How does the maximum K.E of the electrons emitted vary with the work function
of metal?

i) It doesn’t depend on work function

ii)It decreases as the work function increases

iii) It increases as the work function increases

iv) It’s value is doubled with the work function

106
ANSWERS
MCQ
1. (d)

2.(c) λ/2

3. (b) λα 1/√m mα > mp = mn > me

4. (c ) E = hc/ λ

5. (c)

ASSERTION- REASON

1. (A)

2. (D)

3.(B)

4.(C)

5. (D)

6.(A)

CASE STUDY

I. Q1.(b) Q2.(c) Q3.(c) Q4.(a) Q5.(d)

II. Q1.(a) Q2.(d) Q3.(b) Q4.(d) Q5.(a)

III.1) iv 2) iii 3) i 4) iii 5) iv

IV. 1) ii 2) i 3) i 4) ii 5) ii

107
 DESCRIPTIVE QUESTIONS
TWO MARKS

1. Two lines, A and B, in the plot given below show the variation of de-Broglie
wavelength, λ versus 1√V, Where V is the accelerating potential difference, for two
particles carrying the same charge. Which one of two represents a particle of smaller
mass ?

Ans. B line represents particle of larger mass because slope ∝1/√m

2. An electron is accelerated through a potential difference of 100 volt. What is the

de-Broglie wavelength associated with it? To which part of the electromagnetic
spectrum does this value of wavelength correspond?
Ans. Λ = 1.227/√V nm = 1.227/√100 =1.227A0 X rays

3. Monochromatic light of frequency 6x1014 Hz is produced by a laser. The power

emitted is 2x10-3W. i) What is the energy of photon in the light? ii) How many
photons per second on the average are emitted by the source
Ans. ν = 6x1014 Hz P = 2x10-3W
i) energy of photon = E = hν = 6.6x10-34 x6x1014 = 3.98x10-19J
If N is the number of photons emitted per second by the source then Power = N x
energy of photon
P = NE N = P/E = 2x10-3/3.98x10-19 = 5 x 10 15 photons per second
4. (i) Two monochromatic beams A and B of equal intensity I, hit a screen. The
number of photons hitting the screen by beam A is twice that by beam B. Then
what inference can you make about their frequencies?.
(ii) Draw a plot showing the variation of photoelectric current versus the intensity
of incident radiation on a given photosensitive surface

108
 Ans. Let n1, n2 be the number of photons hitting the screen per second by beam A
and B respectively Intensity of beam of photon, I = nhν n1 ν 1 = n2 ν 2 n1/ n2
= ν 2/ ν 1 1 As n1/ n2 = 2 ν 2/ ν 1 = 2 , ν 2 = 2 ν 1
5. Two monochromatic radiations of frequencies v1 and v2 (ν1 > v2) and having the
same intensity are, in turn, incident on a photosensitive surface to cause
photoelectric emission. Explain, giving reason, in which case
(i) more number of electrons will be emitted and
(ii) maximum kinetic energy of the emitted photoelectrons will be more.

Ans. . (i) Number of photoelectrons emitted will be same because intensity is same.

(ii) Kinetic energy is more for ν1

Kmax = hv – ϕ0
6. (i). The stopping potential in an experiment on photoelectric effect is 1.5 V. What
is the maximum kinetic energy of the photoelectrons emitted?

(ii) State one factor which determines the intensity of light in the photon picture
of light.

Ans. (i)1.5eV

(ii) Number of photons emitted per second

7. A metallic surface is irradiated with monochromatic light of variable wavelength.

Above a wavelength of 5000 Å, no photoelectrons are emitted from the surface.
With an unknown wavelength, stopping potential is 3 V. Find the unknown
wavelength.

Ans. λ = 5000 Å and VO = 3V

KMAX=3eV Using equation of photoelectric equation, w = hc/λ = 6.6x10-34x

3x108/5x10-7 = 3.96x10-19J = 2 48 eV

Kmax = E – W

E = W+ Kmax = 2.48+3 = 5.48Ev

5.48X1.6X10-19 = 6.6x10-34x 3x108/λ

λ = 2.26X10-7m

109
8. (a) Define the terms, (i) threshold frequency and (ii) stopping potential in
photoelectric effect. (b) Plot a graph of photocurrent versus anode potential for a
radiation of frequency u and intensities I1 and I2 (I1 < I2).

Ans.(a) (i) Threshold Frequency : The minimum frequency of incident light

which is just capable of ejecting electrons from a metal is called the threshold
frequency. It is denoted by ν0.

(ii) Stopping Potential : The minimum retarding potential applied to anode of a

photoelectric tube which is just capable of stopping photoelectric current is called
the stopping potential. It is denoted by V0

Graph

9. In an experiment on photoelectric emission, following observations were made 1)

Wavelength of the incident light = 2 × 10–7 m 2) Stopping potential = 3 V Find (i)
kinetic energy of photoelectrons with maximum speed (ii) work function

Ans. Vs = 3 V and Kmax = eVo,

so Kmax = 3 eV (ii) l = 2 × 10–7 m = 2000 Å.

Energy of incident photon = hc/ λ = 6.6x10-34x 3x108/ 2 × 10–7 = 6.20 eV

W = E – Kmax = 3.2 eV

10. An electron and a photon each have a wavelength 1.00 nm. Find (i) theirta, (ii) the
energy of the photon.

Ans. . (i) Momentum of photon

P = h/λ = 6.6x10-34/1x10-9 = 6.6x10-25 kgm/s

Momentum of electron

P = h/λ = 6.6x10-34/1x10-9 = 6.6x10-25 kgm/s

ii) Energy of photon = hc/λ

= 6.6x10-34x 3x108/1x10-9

=1.98x10-16J

110
 THREE MARKS

1. Explain de-Broglie argument to propose his hypothesis.. b) If, deuterons and alpha
particle are accelerated through same potential, find the ratio of the associated
de-Broglie wavelengths of two.

Ans. λ = h/√2mqV

for duetron m = 2mp q=e for α particle m = 4mp q = 2e

λα/λd = √2 x 2mp eV/√2x4mpx2e = 1/2

2. State the main implications of observations obtained from various photoelectric

experiments. Can these implications be explained by wave nature of light?
Justify your answer.

Ans. Explain the features of photoelectric effect. No they cannot be explained using
wave theory. Explanation.

3. An electromagnetic wave of wavelength λ is incident on a photosensitive surface

of negligible work function. If the photoelectrons emitted from this surface have
the de-Broglie wavelength λ1, prove that λ = (2mc/h)λ12

Ans. h c/λ = ½ mv2

2hmc/λ = p2. λ1 = h/p. p = h/λ1 . 2hmc/λ = h2/λ12 . λ = (2mc/h) λ12

4. The following graph shows the variation of stopping potential V0 with the
frequency v of the incident radiation for two photosensitive metals X and Y :

(i) Which of the metals has larger threshold wavelength? Give reason.
(ii) Explain, giving reason, which metal gives out electrons, having larger kinetic
energy, for the same wavelength of the incident radiation.

(iv) If the distance between the light source and metal X is halved, how will the
kinetic energy of electrons emitted from it change? Give reason.

111
Ans. (i) X as X has smaller threshold frequency

(ii) Since фY > фX so Key > KEx Therefore x gives out electrons with large KE

(iii) no change

5. Draw a plot showing the variation of photoelectric current with collector plate
potential for two different frequencies, v1 > v2, of incident radiation having the
same intensity. In which case will the stopping potential be higher? Justify your
answer.

Ans. Graph and explanation

6. Define the terms (i) cut-off voltage and (ii) threshold frequency in relation to the
Phenomenon of photoelectric effect. Using Einstein’s photoelectric equation
show how the cut -off voltage and threshold frequency for a given photosensitive
material can be determined with the help of a suitable plot.

Ans. Definitions

From Einstein’s photoelectric equation,

eV0 = hν – φ0 for ν > ν0.

Cut off voltage V0 = (h/e) ν – (φ0/e )

h/e is the slope of the graph.

ν0 = φ0/h

112
7. Draw suitable graphs to show the variation of photoelectric current with collector
plate potential for

(i) a fixed frequency but different intensities I1> I2>I3 of radiation.

(ii) a fixed intensity but different frequencies ν1 > ν2 > ν3 of radiation.

Ans. Draw graphs.

8. The work function of Caesium metal is 2.14eV. When light of frequency 6 x 10 14

Hz is incident on the metal surface photoemission of electrons occurs. What is the

(i) maximum kinetic energy of the emitted photoelectrons

(ii) stopping potential

(iii) maximum speed of the emitted photoelectrons

Ans. (i)Kmax = hv – ϕ0
6.63x10-34x6x1014/1.6x10-19 – 2.14eV = 0.314eV

(ii) eV0 = Kmax = 0.314eV V0 = 0.314V

(iii) 345.8X103 m/s

[Link] work function for a certain metal is 4.2 eV. Will this metal give photoelectric
emission for incident radiation of wavelength 330nm?

Ans. E = hc/λ = 6.6×10−34×3×108 / 330 x10-9 = 3.767eV ϕo = 4.2eV since E <

W0 no photoelectric emission.

10. The threshold frequency for a certain metal is 3.3×1014 Hz. If light of frequency
8.2×1014Hz is incident on the metal, predict the cut-off voltage for the photoelectric
emission.

Ans. Frequency of light incident on the metal, v = 8.2×1014Hz

Charge on an electron, e =1.6×10−19C Planck's constant, h = 6.626×10−34Js

Cut-off voltage for the photoelectric emission from the metal = V∘

The equation for the cut-off energy is given as: eV∘ = h(v−v∘)

V∘ = h/e(v−vo) = 6.626×10−3/(8.2×1014−3.3×1014)/1.6×10−19 =2.029eV

Therefore, the cut-off voltage for the photoelectric emission is 2.0292 V

113
 11. The following table gives the values of work functions for a few sensitive metals.
S. Work
Metal
No. function(eV)

1 Na 1.92

2 K 2.15

3 Mo 4.17

If each of these metals is exposed to radiations of wavelength 330nm

which of these will not exit photoelectrons and why?

Ans. It is known that material will not emit photoelectrons whose work function is
greater than the energy of the incident radiation.

E = hc/λ = 6.6×10−34×3×108 / 33×10−8

E = 6.20×10−19J E = 6.20×10−19/1.6×10−19eV E = 3.76 eV

Hence work function of Mo is (4.17eV) which is greater than the energy of the
incident radiation (= 3.76 eV) so Mo will not emit photoelectrons.

12. Light of wavelength 2000A0falls on an aluminum surface. In aluminium4.2 eV

are required to remove an electron. What is the kinetic energy of (a) fastest (b) the
slowest photoelectron?

Ans. . Given wavelength is λ = 2000Ao = 2×10−7 m ϕo= 4.2eV

The kinetic energy is [Link] = 1/2mV2max = hv−ϕo

(a) 1/2mV2max= hc/λ−ϕo = (6.6×10−34×3×108/2×10−7)−4.2

1/2mV2max = 2eV

This is the K.E of the fastest electron is 2eV

(b) The velocity of the slowest electron would be zero, hence the kinetic energy it
possesses is also zero.

**********************************

114
Chapter–12: ATOMS

IMPORTANT POINTS
1. All elements consists of very small invisible particles, called atom. Every atom is a
sphere of radius of the order of 10-10 m, in which entire mass is uniformly distributed
and negative charged electrons revolve around the nucleus.
2. Experimental arrangement for α-scattering experiment and trajectory followed by α
–particles

3. Impact parameter perpendicular distance of the velocity vector of a-particle from the
central line of the nucleus of the atom is called impact parameter (b).

Where, K is KE of α-particle,

θ is scattering angle,
Z is atomic number of the nucleus and 𝑒 is charge of nucleus.
4. Basic assumption of Rutherford’s atomic model
(i) Atom consists of small central core, called atomic nucleus in which whole
mass and positive charge is assumed to be concentrated.
(ii) The size of nucleus is much smaller than the size of the atom.
(iii) The nucleus is surrounded by electrons and atom is electrically neutral.
(iv) Electrons revolves around the nucleus and centripetal force is of electrostatic
nature.

115
5. Distance of Closest Approach: At a certain distance r0 from the nucleus, whole of
the KE of α-particle converts into electrostatic potential energy and α-particle cannot
go farther close to nucleus, this distance (r0) is called distance of closest approach.

6. Angle of Scattering: Angle by which a-particle gets deviated from its original path
around the nucleus is called angle of scattering.

7. Drawbacks of Rutherford’s Model:

(i) could not explained stability of atom clearly.
(ii) Unable to explain line spectrum.
8. Bohr’s Theory of Hydrogen Atom
Bohr combined classical and early quantum concepts and gave his theory in the form
of three postulates. These are
i. Bohr’s first postulate was that an electron in an atom could revolve in certain
stable orbits without the emission of radiant energy, contrary to the predictions
of electromagnetic theory.
ii. Bohr’s second postulate defines these stable orbits. This postulate states that the
electron revolves around the nucleus only in those orbits for which the angular
momentum is some integral multiple of h/2π, where h is the Planck’s constant
(= 6.6 x 10-34 J s). Thus, the angular momentum (L) of the orbiting electron is
𝑛ℎ
quantised, e. L =
2π

As, angular momentum of electron (L) = 𝑚𝑣𝑟

∴ For any permitted (stationary) orbit, mvr = nh/2π
where, n = any positive integer i.e. 1, 2, 3,…n is principal quantum number.
iii. Bohr’s third postulate states that an electron might make a transition from one
of its specified non-radiating orbits to another of lower energy. When it does so,
a photon is emitted having energy equal to the energy difference between the
initial and final states.
The frequency of the emitted photon is then given by
ℎ𝜈= Ei– Ef
where, Ei and Ef are the energies of the initial and final states and Ei > Ef .

116
9. Limitations of Bohr’s Model
(i) Applicable only for hydrogen like atom.
(ii) Does not explain the fine structure of spectral lines in H-atom.
(iii) Does not explain about shape of orbit.
10. Important formulae related to Bohr’s model of hydrogen atoms are given
below:

117
11. Energy Level The energy of an atom is the least when its electron is revolving in
an orbit closest to the nucleus i.e. for which n = 1.

12. The lowest state of the atom is called the ground state; this state has lowest
energy. The energy of this state is -13.6 eV. Therefore, the minimum energy required
to free the electron from the ground state of the hydrogen atom is -13.6 eV.
13. (i) Emission Spectrum: Hydrogen spectrum consists of discrete bright lines a
dark background and it is specifically known as hydrogen emission spectrum.
(ii) Absorption Spectrum: There is one more type of hydrogen spectrum exists
14. The atomic hydrogen emits a line spectrum consisting of various series.

118
119
 MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS

1 The ratio between Bohr radii is

(a) 1: 2: 3 (b) 2 : 4 : 6 (c) 1 : 4 : 9 (d) 1 : 3 : 5
2. The K.E. of the electron in an orbit of radius r in hydrogen atom is proportional to
𝑒2 (b) 𝑒
2
(c) 2𝑒
2
(d) 𝑒
2
(a)
𝑟 2𝑟 𝑟 3𝑟

3. In terms of Rydberg constant R, the wave number of the first Balmer line is
(a) R (b) 3R (c) 5R/36 (d) 8R/9
4. The ionisation energy of hydrogen atom is 13.6 eV. Following Bohr’s theory the
energy corresponding to a transition between 3rd and 4th orbits is
(a) 3.40 eV (b) 1.51 eV (c) 0.85 eV (d) 0.66 eV
5. The transition of electron from n = 4, 5, 6… to n = 3 corresponds to
(a) Lyman series (b) Balmer series (c) Paschen series (d) Brackett series
6. Which of the following spectral series in hydrogen atom gives spectral line of 4860 A?
(a) Lyman (b) Balmer (c) Paschen (d) Brackett
7. Which of the following postulates of the Bohr model led to the quantization of energy
of the hydrogen atom?
(a) The electron goes around the nucleus in circular orbits.
(b) The angular momentum of the electron can only be an integral multiple of h/2π.
(c) The magnitude of the linear momentum of the electron is quantized.
(d) Quantization of energy is itself a postulate of the Bohr model.
8. The transition from the state n = 5 to n = 1 in a hydrogen atom results in UV radiation.
Infrared radiation will be obtained in the transition
(a) 2 → 1 (b) 3 → 2 (c) 4 → 3 (d) 6 → 2
9. For ionising an excited hydrogen atom, the energy required (in eV) will be
(a) a little less than 13.6 eV (b) 13.6 eV
(c) more than 13.6 eV (d) 3.4 or less
10. In terms of Rydberg constant R, the shortest wavelength in Balmer series of
hydrogen atom spectrum will have wavelength
1 4 3 9
(a) (b) (c) (d)
𝑅 𝑅 2𝑅 𝑅

120
ANSWER KEY
1. Answer: c
Explanation: (c) 1: 4 : 9, In Bohr’s atomic model, rn n²
2. Answer: b
Explanation: (b) e2/2r, Since K.E = ke2/2r

3. Answer: c
Explanation:

4. Answer: d
Explanation:

5. Answer: c
Explanation: (c) In transition from n1 = 3 and n2 = 4, 5, 6…
Infrared radiation of Paschen spectral is emitted.
6. Answer: b
Explanation: (b) Since spectral line of wavelength 4860 A
lies in the visible region of the spectrum which is Balmer series of the spectrum.
7. Answer: b

8. Answer: c

9. Answer: d
Explanation: (d) As the energy of the electron is – -3.4 eV in first excited state and
magnitude is less for higher excited state.

10. Answer: b
Explanation: (b) for shortest wavelength n1 =∞, n2 = 2

121
 ASSERTION –REASON TYPE QUESTIONS

Answer: A Both are correct and reason is correct explanation of assertion.

Answer: B Both are correct but reason is not the correct explanation of assertion.
Answer: C Reason is wrong.
Answer: D Both are wrong.

1. Assertion: According to Bohr’s atomic model the ratio of angular momenta of an

electron in first excited state and in ground state is 2:1.

Reason: In a Bohr’s atom the angular momentum of the electron is directly proportional

to the principal quantum number.

2. Assertion: The force of repulsion between atomic nucleus and a-particle varies with

distance according to inverse square law.

Reason: Rutherford did a-particle scattering experiment.

3. Assertion: The positively charged nucleus of an atom has a radius of almost 10−15m.

Reason: In a-particle scattering experiment, the distance of closest approach for particles

is ≃ 10−15m.

4. Assertion: Electrons in the atom are held due to coulomb forces

Reason: The atom is stable only because the centripetal force due to Coulomb’s law is

balanced by the centrifugal force.

5. Assertion: For the scattering of a-particles at a large angles, only the nucleus of the atom

is responsible.

Reason: Nucleus is very heavy in comparison to α particle.

122
 CASE STUDY QUESTIONS

1. HYDROGEN SPECTRUM

Hydrogen spectrum Electrons in an atom or a molecule absorb energy and get excited, they

jump from a lower energy level to a higher energy level and they emit radiation when they

come back to their original states. This phenomenon accounts for the emission spectrum

through hydrogen also, better known as hydrogen emission spectra.

(i)If 13.6eV of energy is needed to ionize the hydrogen atom, then energy needed to remove
electron from n=2 is
a. 10.2eV b. 0eV c. 3.4eV d. 6.8eV
(ii)The longest wavelength in Balmer series is
a. Hα b. Hβ c. Hγ d. Hδ
(iii)The hydrogen spectrum which lies in the ultraviolet region is
a. Brackett b. Paschen c. Lyman d. Balmer
(iv)On moving up the energy states of H-like atoms, the energy difference between
consecutive energy states
a. Increase b. Decrease c. Remain the same d. May increase or
decrease
(v)The Bohr atom model
a. Assumes that the angular momentum of electrons is quantized
b. Uses Einstein’s photoelectric equation
c. Predicts continuous emission spectrum for atoms
d. None of these

123
 2. BOHR ATOM MODEL

To study about atom various scientists perform various experiments and suggest various
models of an atom with some explanation. For example, Thomson gives the "plum
pudding" model in which he said the atom consists of a positive material known as
"pudding" with some negative materials ("plums") distributed throughout. Later, famous
scientist, Rutherford gives Rutherford's model of the atom after performing an Alpha
Particle scattering experiment.

This model is a modification of the earlier Rutherford Model. According to this model, an
atom consists of a small, positively-charged nucleus and negatively-charged electrons
orbiting around it in an orbital. These orbital can have different sizes, energy, etc. And the
energy of the orbit is also related to its size, .e The lowest energy is found in the smallest
orbit. So if the electron is orbiting in nth orbit then we will study about its Velocity in nth
orbital, Radius of nth orbital, Energy of electron in nth orbit, etc. Energy is also emitted
due to the transition of electrons from one orbit to another orbit. This energy is emitted in
the form of photons with different wavelengths. This wavelength is given by the Rydberg
formula. When electrons make transitions between two energy levels in an atom various
spectral lines are obtained. The emission spectrum of the hydrogen atom has been divided
into various spectral series like Lyman series, Balmer series, Paschen series Etc.

124
Q1. The formula which gives the wavelength of emitted photon when electron jumps from
higher energy state to lower was given by

a) Balmer

b) Paschen

c) Lyman

d) Rydberg

Q2. What is true about Bohr’s atomic Model?

a) His model was unique totally different from other

b) His model is a modification of Rutherford atomic model.

c) His model is a modification of Thomson atomic model.

d) None of the above

Q3. Bohr’s atomic model is applicable for

a) All types of atoms

b) Only for hydrogen atom

c) For hydrogen like atoms

d) For H2 gas.

Q4. The cause of rejection of Rutherford atomic model was

a) It was totally wrong

b) It could not justify its stability

c) Rutherford was unable to explain it

d) none of the above.

125
ASSERTION –REASON TYPE QUESTIONS ANSWER

1. Correct answer: A
2. Correct Answer: B
Rutherford confirmed the repulsive force on a-particle due to nucleus varies with
distance according to inverse square law and that the positive charges are
concentrated at the centre and not distributed throughout the atom.
Correct Answer: A
3. In a-particle scattering experiment, Rutherford found a small number of particles
which were scattered back through an angle approaching to 180∘. This is possible
only if the positive charges are concentrated at the centre or nucleus of the atom.
4. Correct Answer: C
According to postulates of Bohr’s atom model, the electron revolve round the
nucleus in fixed orbit of definite radii. As long as the electron is in a certain orbits it
does not radiate any energy.
5. Correct Answer: A

We know that an electron is very light particle as compared to an alpha particle. Hence
electron cannot scatter the a-particle at large angles, according to law of conservation
of momentum. On the other hand, mass of nucleus is comparable with the mass of a-
particle, hence only the nucleus of atom is responsible for scattering of a-particles

CASE STUDY QUESTIONS I

ANSWER KEY
CASE STUDY QUESTIONS II
i C ANSWER KEY
Q1 d
Q2 b
Q3 c
ii A
iii C Q4 b
2
iv B En = -13.6 / n
v A

126
 SHORT ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS (2 MARKS)

1. The ground state energy of hydrogen atom is -13.6eV . What is the Kinetic
Energies and Potential Energies of the electron in the ground state and second
excited state
Ans:
KE= 13.6 eV, PE= -27.2eV in the ground state
KE= 1.51 eV PE = -3.02eV in the second excited state
2. Find the ratio of energies of photons produced due to transition of an electron of
hydrogen atom from its (i) second permitted energy level to the first level (ii) the
highest permitted energy level to the first permitted leve
Ans: ∆E= Ei – Ef Ratio=3:4
3. In Bohr’s theory of model of Hydrogen atom name of the physical quantity which
equals to an integral multiple of h/2𝜋.How is electron velocity related to radius
Ans:
(I) Angular momentum, (II) v=nh/2πmr ( inversely proportional)
4. Calculate the de-Broglie wavelength of the electron orbiting in the n=2 state of
hydrogen atom ( Ans:Wavelength = h/√2mE= 0.67nm)
5. Give any two observations of Geiger Marsden Experiment .Write the significance
of the experiment
Ans:
Observations: Many of the α-particles pass through the foil. It means that they do
not suffer any collisions. Only about 0.14% of the incident α-particles scatter by
more than 1°; and about 1 in 8000 deflect by more than 90°
Conclusions: ( Significance- To understand the structure of atom )
(i) Atom consists of small central core, called atomic nucleus in which whole mass
and positive charge is assumed to be concentrated.
(ii) The size of nucleus is much smaller than the size of the atom.
(iii) The nucleus is surrounded by electrons and atom is electrically neutral.
(iv) Electrons revolve around the nucleus and centripetal force is of electrostatic
nature.

127
6. Define impact parameter Represent diagrammatically the shape of trajectory of
alpha particles
Ans: Impact parameter perpendicular distance of the velocity vector of a-particle
from the central line of the nucleus of the atom is called impact parameter (b).

for figure refer refer page no 115

7. Show that the speed of electron in the innermost orbit of H atom is 1/137 times the
speed light in vacuum
Ans. Speed of revolving electron

2𝜋𝑘𝑒 2 2𝜋𝑘𝑒 2 𝑐 1 𝑐
𝑣= = . = .
𝑛ℎ 𝑐ℎ 𝑛 137 𝑛

Speed of revolving electron is inversely proportional to the principal quantum

number.
8. The wavelength of Hα line of Balmer series is 6533Angstrom Calculate the value
of Rydberg constant
Ans: For Balmer series: n1=2
First line: n2=3
Putting in formula shown in the figure:
λ1=R(221−321)=365R
5R36=6563×10−12m
R=1.097×107m−1
9. The wavelength of the second line of Balmer series in Hydrogen atom is
4861Angstrom. Calculate the wave length of the first line.
Ans: For the first line in balmer series
λ1=R(1/22−1/32)=365R
For second balmer line:
4861=R(1/22−1/42)=163R Divide both equations:
λ=4861×27/20= 6562.35A0

128
10. Energy of electron in the nth orbit is -3.4eV Calculate the angular momentum of
the electron according to Bohr’s theory
Ans:
-3.4eV = -13.6eV/n2 n=2,
L=nh/2π = 2.1X 10-34 Js
11. In hydrogen atom, an electron undergoes transition from 3rd excited state to the
first excited state and then to the ground state. (i)Identify the spectral series to
which these transitions belong. (ii) Find out the ratio of the wavelengths of the
emitted radiations in the two cases.
Ans:

12. What is the ratio of radii of the orbits corresponding to first excited state and
ground state in a hydrogen atom?
( Ans; R is proportional to n2ratio of radii is 4:1)
13. The radius of innermost electron orbit of a hydrogen atom is 5.3 × 10-11 m. What is
the radius of orbit in the second excited state?
Ans:
For n=1 , r1 = 5.3x 10-11 for ground state therefore r2 = 4 r1 , and r3= 9r1
r2 = 2.12x10-10m r3= 4.77 x 10 -10 m
14. What is the maximum number of spectral lines emitted by a hydrogen atom when
it is in the third excited state? Which one will have lowest wavelength
Ans: third excited state, n2 = 4, and n1 = 3, 2, 1 Hence there are 3 spectral lines.
Greater the energy lower the wavelength
15. Using Bohr’s postulates of the atomic model, derive the expression for radius of
nth electron orbit. Hence obtain the expression for Bohr’s radius. (Refer notes)

129
16. When an electron in hydrogen atom jumps from the third excited state to the
ground state, how would the de Broglie wavelength associated with the electron
change? Justify your answer.
Ans:
Wave length decreases. P = √2𝑚𝐾𝐸 = h/λ
E is proportional to 1/ λ
17. Calculate the shortest wavelength in the Balmer series of hydrogen atom. In which
region (infra-red, visible, ultraviolet) of hydrogen spectrum does this wavelength
lie?
Ans:
For shortest wavelength in the Balmer series: n1=2 n2=∞
λmin =3.646×10−7m=364.6 nm. This wavelength lies in the ultraviolet region
18. An α-particle moving with initial kinetic energy K towards a nucleus of atomic
number z approaches a distance ‘d’ at which it reverses its direction. Obtain the
expression for the distance of closest approach ‘d’ in terms of the kinetic energy of
α-particle K

Ans.
At distance of closest 𝑟0 approach:
1 1 2𝑒. 𝑍𝑒
𝑚𝑣 2 =
2 4𝜋𝜖0 𝑑
19. Using Rutherford model of atom,derive the expression for the total energy of the
electron in hydrogen [Link] is the significance of total negative energy
possessed by the electron

Ans.
For a dynamically stable orbit in a hydrogen atom, the electrostatic force of
attraction between the revolving electron and the nucleus provides the requisite
centripetal force to keep them in their orbit of radius r.
𝑚𝑣 2 1 𝑒2
∴ =
𝑟 4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟 2

130
 1 𝑒2
Kinetic energy of the revolving electron = 𝑚𝑣 2 =
2 8𝜋𝜀𝑜 𝑟

𝑒2
Potential energy of revolving electron = −
4𝜋𝜀𝑜 𝑟

∴ 𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑒𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑣𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝐸𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑛

𝑒2
= 𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 + 𝑝𝑜𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 = −
8𝜋𝜀𝑜 𝑟
The total energy of the electron is negative. This implies that the electron is bound
to the nucleus. If it is positive, an electron will not follow a closed orbit around the
nucleus.
20. Show graphically the variation of radius of orbit with principal quantum number n

Ans.
Orbital radius is directly proportional to the square of principal quantum
number

131
 SHORT ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS (3 MARKS)

1. Show that the shortest wavelength of Lyman, Balmer and Paschen series are in the
ratio[Link]

1 1 1
Ans. Use the equation = 𝑅[ − ]
𝜆 𝑛𝑓2 𝑛𝑖2

Shortest wavelength in Lyman series is transition from, ∞ to n=1

Shortest wavelength in Balmer series is transition from ∞ to n=2
Shortest wavelength in Paschen series is transition from ∞ to n=3
Substitute and solve

2. Using Rydberg formula calculate the wavelengths of the first four spectral lines in
the Balmer series of Hydrogen spectrum
Ans:
6575 A,
4870A,
4348A,
4109A
3. The energy levels of an atom of element X shows the following transitions Which
will emit photons of wavelength 620nm (Ans: transition D)

A B C D E

0eV
-1eV

-3eV

-10eV

132
4. The figure shows energy level diagram of hydogen atom

(a) Find out the transition which results in the emission of a photon of wavelength
496 nm.(b) Which transition corresponds to the emission of radiation of
maximum wavelength? Justify your answer

Ans:
n1= 2 and n2= 4

5. A 12.5 eV electron beam is used to excite a gaseous hydrogen atom at room

temperature. Determine the wavelengths and the corresponding series of the lines
emitted
Ans:-
13.6eV- 12.5eV= -1.1eV therefore n=3
From n=3 to n=1 wavelength= 1.025X10-7 m

n=3 to n=1 or n=4 to n=1, then wavelengths of lines so emitted lie in Lyman series.
Whereas transitions either from n=3 to n=2 or n=4 to n=2 correspond to Balmer series.

133
6. The electron, in a hydrogen atom, is in its second excited state.
Calculate the wavelength of the lines in the Lyman series that can be emitted
through the permissible transitions of this electron.
(Given the value of Rydberg constant, R = 1.1 × 107 m-1)
Ans: From n=3 to n=1 wavelength= 1.023X10-7 m
From n=2 to n=1 wavelength = 212nm
7. Find the ratio between the wavelengths of the ‘most energetic’ spectral lines in the
Balmer and Paschen series of the hydrogen spectrum

Ans: 9:4
8. The short wavelength limit for the Lyman series of the hydrogen spectrum is 913.4
A Calculate the short wavelength limit for Balmer series of the hydrogen spectrum
Ans: 365.36nm
9. The ground state energy of hydrogen atom is -13.6 eV. If an electron makes a
transition from an energy level -1.51 eV to -3.4 eV, calculate the wavelength of the
spectral line emitted and name the series of hydrogen spectrum to which it belongs.
Ans:∆E= Ei – Ef = hc/λ
∆E= -1.89 eV
Wave length= 6563Angstrom
10. The energy level diagram of an element is given. Identify, by doing necessary
calculations, which transition corresponds to the emission of a spectral line of
wavelength 102.7 nm.

Ans:
D corresponds to the given transition

134
11. Using Bohr’s postulates, obtain the expression for the total energy of the electron
in the stationary states of the hydrogen atom. Hence draw the energy level diagram
showing how the line spectra corresponding to Balmer series occur due to
transition between energy levels.
Ans:
Derivation of Total Energy of Electron in the nth orbit En= -13.6eV/n2
Transition of electron from any higher level to n=2
n=4
n=3

n=2

n=1

12. Using Bohr’s postulates, obtain the expressions for

(i) kinetic energy and
(ii) potential energy of the electron in stationary state of hydrogen atom. Draw the
energy level diagram showing how the transitions between energy levels result in
the appearance of Lyman Series.
TE of electron in the nth orbit En= -13.6eV/n2 KE= -TE PE= 2TE
Transition of electron from any higher level to n=1
.

135
13. i) State Bohr’s quantization condition for defining stationary orbits. How does de-
Broglie hypothesis explain the stationary orbits?
(ii) Find the relation between the three wave-lengths λ1, λ2 and λ3 from the energy
level diagram shown below:

Ans: i) Bohr's Quantization Rule:

Of all possible circular orbits allowed by the classical theory, the electrons are
permitted to circulate only in those orbits in which the angular momentum of an
electron is an integral multiple of 2πh, where h is Plank's constant.
Therefore, for any permitted orbit,
L=mvr=nh/2 π ; n=1,2,3,........
Where L, m, and v are the angular momentum, mass and the speed of the electron
respectively. r is the radius of the permitted orbit and n is positive integer called
principal quantum number.
The above equation is Bohr's famous quantum condition. When an electron of
mass m is confined to move on a line of length l with velocity v, the de-Broglie
wavelength λ associated with electron is:
λ=h/mv=h/P
Where P is Linear momentum
P=h/ λ =nh/2πr or Pr= nh/2π L= nh/2π
(ii) Using Rydberg's formula for spectra of hydrogen atom, we have
1/λ1=R(1/n22−1/n32) .....(1)
1/λ2=R(1/n12−1/n22) .....(2)
1/λ3=R(1/n12−1/n32) .....(3)
Now adding (1) and (2), we get
That is, 1/ λ1+1/λ2=1/λ3

136
 LONG ANSWER QUESTIONS (5 MARKS)
1. Using Bohr’s postulates, derive the expression for the frequency of radiation
emitted when electron in hydrogen atom undergoes transition from higher energy
state (quantum number ni) to the lower state (nf).
When electron in hydrogen atom jumps from energy state ni = 4 to nf = 3, 2, 1,
identify the spectral series to which the emission lines belong.
2. In a Geiger- Marsden experiment calculate the distance of closest approach to the
nucleus of Z= 80 when an alpha particle of 8 MeV energy impinges on it before it
comes momentarily to rest and reverses its direction.
How will the distance of closest approach be affected when the KE of the alpha
particle is doubled. Also state how impact parameter depends on angle of
scattering
Ans( i)

Impact parameter is inversely proportional to angle of scattering

3. Using Bohr’s postulates of the atomic model derive expression for radius of nth

electron orbit. Hence obtain the expression for Bohr’s radius.

Using Bohr’s postulates derive expression for total energy of electron in the nth

orbit of Hydrogen atom. Also Prove that Energy is quantized.

137
 4. (i)State Bohr’s postulates. How does de Broglie’s hypothesis explain the stability
of these orbits.
(ii) A hydrogen atom initially in the ground state absorbs a photon which excites it
to n=4 level Estimate the frequency of the photon
(iii) Based on Bohr’s postulates derive expression for Total energy of electron in
the nth orbit of Hydrogen atom.

Ans: Bohr's Postulates

(i) Bohr’s first postulate was that an electron in an atom could revolve in certain
stable orbits without the emission of radiant energy, contrary to the predictions of
electromagnetic theory.
(ii) Bohr’s second postulate defines these stable orbits. This postulate states that
the electron revolves around the nucleus only in those orbits for which the angular
momentum is some integral multiple of h/2π, where h is the Planck’s constant (=
6.6 x 10-34 J – s). Thus, the angular momentum (L) of the orbiting electron is
quantised, i. e. L = nh/2π
As, angular momentum of electron (L) = mvr
∴ For any permitted (stationary) orbit, mvr = nh/2π
where, n = any positive integer i.e. 1, 2, 3, ….
It is also called principal quantum number.
(iii) Bohr’s third postulate states that an electron might make a transition from one
of its specified non-radiating orbits to another of lower energy. When it does so, a
photon is emitted having energy equal to the energy difference between the initial
and final states.
The frequency of the emitted photon is then given by
hv – Ei– Ef
where, Ei and Ef are the energies of the initial and final states and Ei > Ef .
(ii) E=E1−E2=hc/λ
λ=E1−E2/hc (wavelength= 97nm) (frequency=3.1 X 10 15 Hz)
(iii) Refer the notes

138
5. Explain the origin of spectral lines using Bohr’s theory. On the basis of the theory
derive an expression for the wave number of radiations emitted when an electron
jumps from outer orbit to lower orbit
(For derivation use Bohr’s Third postulate and obtain frequency expression by
substituting the energy of electron for ni and nf)
Ans: The emission spectrum of hydrogen is due to the electron making transitions
between the energy levels in an atom. Using Bohr’s third postulate, Rydberg
formula is arrived at and by choosing transitions from higher energy levels to
lower ones origin of various spectral series can be explained with diagram

6. With the help of a labelled diagram describe Rutherford’s experiment on scattering

of alpha particles .Represent graphically the relation between number scattered
particles and the angle of scattering. What is the significance of the graph Also
write any one drawback of this model. (Refer the notes)

139
7. Prove that radius, velocity and Energy of electron in an atom are quantised. What

is the significance of negative value of total energy?

The electron in the given Bohr orbit has a total energy of -1.5eV Calculate its (i)

KE (ii) PE (iii) The wavelength of light emitted when electron makes a transition

to the ground state Ground state energy = -13.6eV

Ans:

(Use the concept- Centripetal force is equal to Coulomb’s force and substitute the

expression for velocity from Bohr’s quantization condition v= nh/2πmr. On solving

we get the expression for radius of the nth orbit.

TE of an electron is written by substituting the value of r.)

(: KE= 1.5eV, PE= -3eV, wavelength= 1022.7Angstrom

140
 CHAPTER 13: NUCLEI
Key points and Short Notes:
Composition of the Nucleus:
● Nucleus consists of protons and neutrons.
● Nucleus is practically responsible for the whole mass of the atom
● Every atomic nucleus except that of Hydrogen has two types of particles –
protons and neutrons which are known as Nucleons.
1. Proton is a fundamental particle with positive charge 1.6 x 10-19 C and mass
1.67 x 10-27 kg (1836 times heavier than an electron).
2. Neutron is also a fundamental particle with no charge and mass 1.675 x 10-27 kg
(1840 times heavier than an electron).

Atomic Mass Unit (u):

1 th
Atomic Mass Unit (amu) is of mass of 1 atom of carbon.
12
1 12
1u= x g
12 6.023 𝑥 1023
1u = 1.66 x 10-27 kg

Neutron:
⮚ Chadwick assumed that the neutral radiation consists of a new type of
neutral particles called neutrons.
⮚ From conservation of energy and momentum, he was able to determine the
mass of new particle ‘as very nearly the same as mass of proton’.
⮚ The mass of a neutron is now known to a high degree of accuracy.
⮚ It is mn = 1.00866 u = 1.6749×10–27 kg
⮚ A free neutron, unlike a free proton, is unstable.
⮚ It decays into a proton, an electron and an antineutrino (another elementary
particle), and has a mean life of about 1000s.
1 1 0
0𝑛 → 1𝑝 + − −1𝑒 + ̅ν
It is, however, stable inside the nucleus.

Charge and mass:

Charge:
⮚ The electron has a single negative charge, -e (e = -1.60217733 x 10-19 C)
⮚ The proton has a single positive charge, +e (e = +1.60217733 x 10-19 C)
⮚ Thus, charge of a nucleus is equal to Ze
⮚ The neutron has no charge. Makes it difficult to detect

141
 Mass:
It is convenient to use atomic mass units, u, to express masses
1 u = 1.660559 x 10-27 kg
Based on definition that the mass of one atom of C-12 is exactly 12 u
Mass can also be expressed in MeV/c2
From E= m c2
𝑀𝑒𝑉
1 u = 931.494
𝑐2

Proton is a fundamental particle with mass 1.67 x 10-27 kg

(1836 times heavier than an electron).
Neutron is also a fundamental particle with mass 1.675 x 10-27 kg
(1840 times heavier than an electron)

Atomic Number (Z):

The number of protons in a nucleus of an atom is called atomic number.
Atomic Mass Number (A):
The sum of number of protons and number of neutrons in a nucleus of an atom is
called atomic mass number.
A=Z+N
Isotopes:
The atoms of an element having same atomic number but different mass numbers.
are called isotopes.
e.g., 1H1, 1H2, 1H3 are isotopes of hydrogen
Isobars:
The atoms of different elements having same mass numbers but different atomic
numbers, are called isobars.
e.g. 1H3, 2He3 and 10Na22, 10Ne22
Isotones:
The atoms of different elements having different atomic numbers and different
mass numbers but having same number of neutrons, are called isotones.
e.g. 1H3, 2He4 and 6C14, 8O16

142
Size of Nucleus:
Nucleus does not have a sharp or well-defined boundary but its radius is about 10-
15
m.

R = R0 A⅓

where R0 = 1.2 x 10-5 m is a constant which is the same for all nuclei and
A is the mass number of the nucleus.

Nucleus Density:

Mass of nucleus, M = A amu = A x 1.66 x 10-27 kg

Nuclear Volume,
4 4
V = π R3 = π R03 A
3 3

4
= π (1.2 x 10-15)3 A m3
3

= 7.24 x 10-45 A m3
𝑀
Nucleus Density, ρ = = 2.29 x 1017 kg m-3
𝑉

Calculate the energy equivalent of 1 g of substance.

Here, m = 1 g = 10−3 kg,

E = m c2 = 10−3 (3 × 108) 2 = 9 × 1013 J

Calculate Energy Equivalent to 1 amu or 1 u

1 amu = 1 u = 1.66 × 1027 kg

C = speed of light = 3 × 108 m s-1

E = m c2 = 1.66×1027(3×108)2 = 1.49×10−10 Joule

1MeV = 1.6×10−13 J

E = 1.6 × 10−13 x 1.49 × 10−10 = 931.6 MeV

143
Mass Defect:

It is the difference between the rest mass of the nucleus and the sum of the masses
of the nucleons composing a nucleus is known as mass defect.

Δm = [ Zmp + (A – Z) mn ] - M

Binding Energy:
It is the energy required to break up a nucleus into its constituent parts and place
them at an infinite distance from one another.
Eb = ∆ M c2
NUCLEAR FORCE:

● The protons and neutrons are held together by the strong attractive forces
inside the nucleus. These forces are called as nuclear forces.
● These forces, which act between the nucleons, are mainly responsible for the
stability of the nucleus.

Characteristics of nuclear forces:

(i) Nuclear forces are attractive in nature: - The magnitude which depends upon
inter nucleon distance is of very high order.

(ii) Nuclear forces are charge independent: - Nature of force remains the same
whether we consider force between two protons, between two neutrons or between
a proton and a neutron.

(iii) These are short range forces: - Nuclear forces operate between two nucleons
situated in close neighbourhood only.

(iv) Nuclear forces decrease very quickly with distance between two nucleons: -
Their rate of decrease is much rapid than that of inverse square law forces. The
forces become negligible when the nucleons are more than 10-12 cm apart.

(v) Nuclear forces are spin dependent: - Nucleons having parallel spin are more
strongly bound to each other than those having anti-parallel spin.

144
Potential energy of a pair of nucleons as a function of their separation:

⮚ The potential energy is a minimum (Negative PE) at a distance r0 of about

0.8 fm.
⮚ At large distances (> r0) the force is attractive for distances larger than 0.8
fm and negative PE goes on decreasing.
⮚ For distances < r0, the forces become repulsive i.e if they are separated by
distances less than 0.8 fm. The negative PE decreases to zero and becomes
positive.
Nuclear Fission:
The phenomenon of splitting of heavy nuclei (uranium) into two small nuclei when
a high energetic neutron incident on it, is known as the Nuclear Fission.
141
1
0𝑛 + 235 92 1
92𝑈 → 36𝐾𝑟 + 56𝐵𝑎 + 0𝑛 + 200 MeV
Fission does not always produce barium and krypton. A different pair can be
produced, for example
133
1
0𝑛 + 235
92𝑈 → 236
92𝑈 → 51𝑆𝑏
99
+ 41𝑁𝑏 + 4 10𝑛
140
1
0𝑛+ 235
92𝑈 →
94 1
54𝑋𝑒 + 38𝑆𝑟 + 2 0𝑛
Types of Nuclear Fission:
There are two type of nuclear fission reaction-
1. Controlled Nuclear Fission –
Example – Nuclear Reactor
2. Uncontrolled Nuclear Fission reaction
Example – Atom Bomb

145
Nuclear Fusion:
In nuclear fusion, two nuclei with low mass numbers combine to produce a
single nucleus with a higher mass number.
Nuclear fusion is defined as a type of nuclear reaction in which two lighter
nuclei merge into one another to form a heavier nucleus accompanied by a
release of a large amount of energy.
Thermonuclear fusion:
● To generate useful amount of energy, nuclear fusion must occur in bulk matter.
● To raise the temperature of the material until the particles have enough energy –
due to their thermal motions alone – to penetrate the coulomb barrier and
undergo fusion. This process is called thermonuclear fusion.
Proton – Proton Cycle:
1H
1
+ 1H1 → 1H2 + 1e0 + 0.4 MeV
1H
1
+ 1H2 → 2He3 + n + 5.5 MeV
2He
3
+ 2He → 2He + 2 1H + 12.9 MeV
3 4 1

Important Formula:
Atomic Mass Unit (u):
1 th
Atomic Mass Unit (amu) is of mass of 1 atom of carbon.
12
1 12
1u= x g
12 6.023 𝑥 1023
1u = 1.66 x 10-27 kg
Size of Nucleus:
Nucleus does not have a sharp or well-defined boundary but its radius is about 10-
15
m.
R = R0 A⅓
where R0 = 1.2 x 10-5 m is a constant which is the same for all nuclei and
A is the mass number of the nucleus.
Nucleus Density:
Mass of nucleus, M = A amu = A x 1.66 x 10-27 kg
4 4 4
Nuclear Volume, V = π R3 = π R03 A = π (1.2 x 10-15)3 A m3
3 3 3

= 7.24 x 10-45 A m3
𝑀
Nucleus Density, ρ = = 2.29 x 1017 kg m-3
𝑉

146
Calculate the energy equivalent of 1 g of substance.
Here, m = 1 g = 10−3 kg,
E = m c2 = 10−3 (3 × 108) 2 = 9 × 1013 J
Calculate Energy Equivalent to 1 amu or 1 u
1 amu = 1 u = 1.66 × 1027 kg
C = speed of light = 3 × 108 m s-1
E = m c2 = 1.66×1027(3×108)2 = 1.49×10−10 Joule
1MeV = 1.6×10−13 J
E = 1.6 × 10−13 x 1.49 × 10−10 = 931.6 MeV
Mass Defect:
Δm = [ Z mp + (A – Z) mn ] - M
Binding Energy:
It is the energy required to break up a nucleus into its constituent parts and place
them at an infinite distance from one another.
Eb = ∆ M c2
Important Graphs
Potential energy of a pair of nucleons as a function of their separation

147
 Flow chart/mind map:
Discovered by Rutherford
by Alpha Scattering NUCLEUS
Experiment

Nuclear density (𝝆) Size of Nucleus Composition

It is a constant and Radius of Nucleus Nucleus composed Mass-Energy Nuclear
independent of mass R ∝ A1/3 of protons and Relation and Reaction
number (A) R = RoA1/3 neutrons collectively Mass Defect
ρ = 2.3 x 1017 kg/m3 It is of the order of known as nucleons.
1 fermi

Nuclear Force
Atomic Number(Z) Mass Number(A)
The protons and neutrons are held
No. of protons in the Total no. of protons and together by the strong attractive
nucleus of the atom neutrons in the nucleus of forces inside the nucleus. These forces
the atom A = Np + Nn= Z+N are called as nuclear forces.
These forces, which act between the
nucleons, are mainly responsible for
the stability of the nucleus.

Isotopes: The atoms Isobars: The atoms Isotones: The atoms of

of an element of different elements different elements having
having same atomic having same mass different atomic numbers
number but numbers but and different mass
different mass different atomic numbers but having same
numbers are called numbers, are called number of neutrons, are
isotopes. isobars. e.g 31H, 32He, called isotones. e.g., 31H,
22 22
e.g., 11H, 21H, 31H 11Na, 10Ne 4 14 16
2He, and 6C, 8O

Einstein’s Mass- Atomic Mass Unit: Mass Defect:

Energy Equivalence Atomic Mass Unit It is the difference between
Mass is a form of the rest mass of the
(amu) is 1/12th of
energy equivalent to nucleus and the sum of the
mass of 1 atom of
E=mc2 masses of the nucleons.
carbon.
1 u = 931.25 MeV Δm = [ Z mp + (A – Z) mn ]-M
1eV = 1.6 x 10-19 J 1u = 1.66 x 10-27 kg

Nuclear Fission: The process Nuclear Fusion: The process

of the splitting of a heavy of combining of two lighter
nucleus into two or more nuclei to form one heavy
lighter nuclei is called nuclear nucleus, is called nuclear
fission. fusion.

148
 QUESTIONS
MCQ TYPE QUESTIONS
1. The radius of a nucleus is
(a) directly proportional to its mass number
(b) inversely proportional to its atomic weight
(c) directly proportional to the cube root of its mass number
(d) None of these
2. A neutron can cause fission in
(a) Hydrogen (c) Thorium
(b) Uranium – 235 (d) Uranium – 238
3. One milligram of matter converted into energy, will give
(a) 9 Joule (d) 9 x 1010 Joule
(b) 9 x 103 Joule
(c) 9 x 105 Joule
4. The mass density of a nucleus varies with mass number A as
(a) A2 (c) Constant
(b) A (d) 1/ A
5. Two spherical nuclei have mass numbers 216 and 64 with their radii R 1 and
R2 respectively. The ratio, R1/ R2 is equal to
(a) 3 : 2 (c) 1 : 3
(b) 1 : 2 (d) 2 : 3
6. Which of the following statements is true for nuclear forces?
(a) They obey the inverse square law of distance
(b) They obey the inverse third power law of distance
(c) They are short range forces
(d) They are equal in strength to electromagnetic forces
7. Fusion reaction takes place at high temperature because
(a) Nuclei break up at high temperature
(b) Atoms gets ionised at high temperature
(c) Kinetic energy is high enough to overcome the coulomb repulsion between
nuclei
(d) Molecules break up at high temperature.

149
 ANSWERS
MCQ TYPE QUESTIONS
1. c b
2. d
3. c
4. a
5. c
6. c
ASSERTION REASON TYPE QUESTIONS

Given below two statements labelled as Assertion (A) and Reason (R) .
Select the most appropriate answer from the following
(a) Both A and R are correct and R is the correct explanation of A
(b) Both A and R are correct and R is the correct explanation of A
(c) A is true but R is false
(d) Both A and R are false
1. Assertion: The nuclear force becomes weak if the nucleus contains too many
protons compared to neutrons
Reason: The electrostatic forces weaken the nuclear force.
2. Assertion: Mass is not conserved, but mass and energy as a single entity called
mass-energy.
Reason: Mass and energy are inter-convertible in accordance with Einstein’s
relation, E = mc2
3. Assertion: Two protons can attract each other.
Reason: The distance between the protons within the nucleus is about 10-15 m.

ASSERTION REASON TYPE QUESTIONS

1. c
2. a
3. a

150
 CASE STUDY TYPE QUESTIONS
1. Neutrons and protons are identical in the sense that their masses are nearly the same
and the force called nuclear force, does into distinguish them. Nuclear force is the
strongest force. Stability of nucleus determined by the neutron proton ratio or mass
defect or packing fraction. Shape of nucleus is calculated by quadrupole moment and
spin of nucleus depends on odd or even mass number. Volume of nucleus depends on
the mass number. Whole mass of the atom(nearly 99%) is centred at nucleus.
(i) The correct statements about the nuclear force is/are
(a) Charge independent
(b) Short range force
(c) Non conservative force
(d) All of these.
(ii) The range of nuclear force is the order of
(a) 2 x 10-10 m (c) 1.2 x 10-4 m
(b) 1.5 x 10-20 m (d) 1.4 x 10-15 m
(iii) Two protons are kept at a separation of 40 Å. Fn is the nuclear force and
Fe is the electrostatic force between them. Then
(a) Fn << Fe (c) Fn >> Fe
(b) Fn = F e (d) F n ≈ Fe
(iv) A force between two protons is same as the force between proton and
neutron. The nature of the force is
(a) Electrical force
(b) Weak nuclear force
(c) Gravitational force
(d) Strong nuclear force

Q. No. i ii iii iv
Ans. d d b d

151
2. In a single uranium fission about 0.9 x 235 MeV (≈ 200MeV) of energy is
liberated. If each nucleus of about 50 kg of U235 undergoes fission the amount
of energy involved is about 4 x 1015J. This energy is equivalent to about
20000tons of TNT, enough for a super explosion. Uncontrolled release of
large nuclear energy is called an atomic explosion. On August 6, 1945 an
atomic device was used in warfare for the first time. The US dropped an atom
bomb on Hiroshima, Japan. The explosion was equivalent to 20000 tons of
TNT. Instantly the radioactive products devastated 10 sq km of the city which
had 343000 inhabitants. Of this number 66000 were killed and 69000 were
injured: more than 67% of the city structures were destroyed.
235
(i) When 92U undergoes fission, about 0.1% of the original mass is converted
235
into energy. The energy released when 1 kg of 92U undergoes fission is
(a) 9 x 1011 J (c) 9 x 1015 J
(b) 9 x 1013 J (d) 9 x 10 18 J
(ii) In any fission process, ratio of mass of daughter nucleus to mass of parent
nucleus is
(a) Less than 1 (d) Depends on the mass of
(b) Greater than 1 parent nucleus
(c) Equal to 1
(iii) A nuclear fission is said to be critical when multiplication factor or K
(a) K = 1 (c) K < 1
(b) K > 1 (d) K = 0
(iv) On an average, the number of neutrons and the energy of a neutron
released per fission of a uranium atom are respectively
(a) 2.5 and 2 KeV (c) 2.5 and 2 MeV
(b) 3 and 1 KeV (d) 2 and 2 KeV

Q. No. i ii iii iv
Ans. b a a c

140
 VERY SHORT & SHORT ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS

1 Group the following six nuclides into three pairs of (i) isotopes (ii) isobars and
(iii) isotones
12 3 198 3 197 14
6𝐶 , 2𝐻𝑒 , 80𝐻𝑔, 1𝐻 , 79𝐴𝑢 , 6𝐶
12
[Link] : 6𝐶 and 146𝐶 Same Z but different A
Isobars : 32𝐻𝑒 and 31𝐻 Same A but different Z
Isotones : 198 197
80𝐻𝑔 and 79𝐴𝑢 Same A-Z
2 Natural chlorine is found to be a mixture of two isotopes of masses 34.98 amu
and 36.98 amu respectively. Their relative abundance are 75.4 and 24.6 %
respectively. Find the composite atomic mass of natural chlorine.
Ans. Average atomic mass of natural chlorine = Weighted average of
its isotopes
75.4 𝑥 34.98+24.6 𝑥 36.98
= amu
100

= 35.47 amu
3 Calculate the radius of oxygen nucleus. Take R0 = 1.1 x 10-15 m and A = 16.
[Link] R = R0A1/3
= 1.1 x 10-15 x (16)3
= 1.1 x 10-15 x 2.52 = 2.77 x 10-15 m
4 State Einstein’s mass energy relation.
[Link] mass is converted into energy in any process, the energy
obtained is given by Einstein’s mass energy relation, E= mc2.
5 State the energy equivalent of 1 amu in MeV.
Ans. 1amu = 931 MeV.
6 Express 16 mg mass into equivalent energy in eV.
Ans. Here m = 16 mg = 16 x 10-3 kg c = 3 x 108 m/s
Then Equivalent energy, E = mc2
= (16 x 10-3 x (3x 108)2 ) / 1.6 x 10-19
= 9 x 1030 eV

153
 7 What is meant by mass defect of a nucleus?
Ans. The difference between the sum of the rest masses of the nucleons
constituting a nucleus and the rest mass of the nucleus is called mass
defect.
Δm = Zmp + (A-Z)mn – mN
8 Two nuclei have mass numbers in the ratio 1:2. What is the ratio of their
nuclear densities?
Ans. The ratio of their nuclear densities 1. Because nuclear density does not
depend upon mass number
9 State two characteristic properties of nuclear forces.
Ans. Nuclear force is the strongest force in nature.
Nuclear force is charge independent.
10 Out of 235U and 238U isotopes, which is fissile and which one is fertile?
Ans. A material which can undergo nuclear fission easily is called a
fissile material. A material which does not undergo nuclear fission
easily but can be made fissionable is called fertile material.
Here 235U is fissile and 238U is fertile.
11 Plot a graph showing the variation of potential energy of a pair of nucleus as
a function of their separation.
Ans. Potential energy of a pair of nucleons as a function of their
separation:

154
12 Two nuclei have mass numbers in the ratio 1:8. What is the ratio of their
nuclear radii?
[Link] know, R = R0A1/3
Therefore, R1/R2 = (A1/A2)1/3
= (1/8)1/3
= 1/2
13 Why are nuclear fusion reactions also known as thermonuclear reactions?
Ans. Nuclear fusion requires very high temperature of 106-107 K.
14 What is meant by the term isotope?
Ans. The atoms of an element having same atomic number but different
mass numbers. are called isotopes.
e.g., 11H, 21H, 31H are isotopes of hydrogen
15 What is meant by the term isobars?
[Link] atoms of different elements having same mass numbers but
different atomic numbers, are called isobars.
e.g., 31H, 32He, 22 22
11Na, 10Ne
16 What are isotones?
[Link] atoms of different elements having different atomic numbers
and different mass numbers but having same number of neutrons, are
called isotones.
e.g., 31H, 42He, and 146C, 168O
17 Calculate the energy released in fusion reaction: 1H2 + 1H2 3
2He + n,

where Binding Energy of 1H2 = 2.23 MeV and of 2He3 = 7.73 MeV.
2 2 3
Ans.. 1H + 1H 2He +n
Energy released
= BE of products – BE of reactants
= BE (2He3) + BE (n) – 2 x BE (1H2)
= 7.73 + 0 – 2 x 2.23
= (7.73 – 4.46)
= 3.27 MeV

155
 235
18 If 200 MeV energy is released in the fission of a single nucleus of 92U ,

how many fissions must occur to produce a power of 1 kW.

Ans. . Let the number of fissions per second be ‘n’. Then,
Energy released per second = n x 200MeV
= n x 200 x 1.6 x 10-13 J
Energy required per second = Power x Time
= 1 kW x 1 s
= 1000 J
Therefor n x 200 x 1.6 x 10-13 = 1000
Or n = 1000 / (200 x 1.6 x 10-13)
n = 3.125 x 1013.
19 Show that the density of nucleus is independent of its mass number and
remains constant.
Ans. Radius of an atomic nucleus is given by
R = R0 A⅓
where R0 = 1.2 x 10-15 m
Mass of nucleus, M = A amu = A x 1.66 x 10-27 kg

Nuclear Volume,
4 4
V = π R3 = π R03 A
3 3
4
= π (1.2 x 10-15)3 A m3 = 7.24 x 10-45 A m3
3
𝑀
Nucleus Density, ρ = = 2.29 x 1017 kg m-3 .
𝑉
20 What is meant by nuclear fusion?
Ans. Nuclear fusion is defined as a type of nuclear reaction in which
two or more lighter nuclei merge into one another to form a heavier
nucleus accompanied by a release of a large amount of energy
21 What is meant by nuclear fission?
Ans. The phenomenon of splitting of heavy nuclei (uranium) into two
small nuclei when a high energetic neutron incident on it, is known as
the Nuclear Fission.
1
0n + 235
92U → 92
36Kr + 141 1
56Ba + 3 0n + 200 MeV

156
22 The fission properties of 239Pu are very similar to those of 235U. The average
energy released per fission is 180 MeV. How much energy, in MeV, is
released if all the atoms in 1 kg of pure 239Pu undergo fission?
Ans. Number of atoms present in 239g of 239 Pu = 6.023 x 1023
Therefor number of atoms present in 1kg or 1000 g of 239Pu
= (6.023 x 1023 x 1000) / 239
= 2.52 x 1024
Energy released per fission = 180 MeV
Total energy released = 2.52 x 1024 x 180MeV = 4.54 x 1026 MeV.
23 State the necessary conditions for nuclear fusion to occur.
Ans. The nuclear fusion takes place under the conditions of extreme
temperature and density due to the following reasons:
1. The high temperature is necessary for the light nuclei to have
sufficient kinetic energy so that they can overcome their mutual
columbic repulsions and come closer than the range of nuclear
force.
2. High density or pressure increase the frequency of collisions of light
nuclei and hence increase the rate of fusion
24 Assuming that four hydrogen atoms combine to form a helium atom and
two positrons, each of mass 0.000549u, calculate the energy released.
Given m(1H1) = 1.007825 u and m (2He4) = 4.002604 u.
Ans. The nuclear reaction is
4 1H1 4
2 He + 2 +1e0 +Q
The initial mass = 4 x 1.007825 = 4.031300 u
Total final mass = 4.002304 + 2 x 0.000549
= 4.003702 u
Mass defect Δm = 4.031300 – 4.031300
= 0.027598 u
Total energy released = 0.027598 x 931 MeV = 25.7 MeV

157
 25 Calculate the energy released by the fission of 1g of 235
92𝑈 in Kwh. Energy

per fission is 200 MeV.

Ans. Number of atoms in 1 gram of U235 = Avogadro ’s number / Mass
number = (6.023 x1023) / 235
Energy released per fission = 200 MeV
Therefor total energy released in fission of 1 gram of U235
= [ (6.023 x 1023) / 235] x 200
= 5.126 x 1023 MeV
We know 1 Kwh = 3.6 x 106 J
Hence total energy released = (5.126 x 1023 x 1.6 x 10-13) / 3.6 x 106
= 2.278 x 104 Kwh
26 Give some important points of differences between nuclear fission and nuclear
fission
Ans.
Nuclear Fission Nuclear Fusion
The phenomenon in which a heavy The process in which two light
nucleus when excited splits into two nuclei combine to form a single
smaller nuclei of comparable heavier nucleus is called nuclear
masses is called nuclear fission. fusion.
The conditions of high temperature The conditions of high
and pressure are not necessary for temperature and pressure are
its occurrence. necessary for its occurrence.
Neutrons are the link particles for Protons are the link particle for this
this process process
It is a quick process It occurs in several steps.
Energy available per nucleon is Energy available per nucleon is
small, about 0.85 MeV large, about 6.75 MeV
It produces very harmful The products of fusion are
radioactive wastes harmless

158
 27 Explain the characteristics of nuclear force.
Ans. Characteristics of nuclear forces:
a. Nuclear forces are attractive in nature: - The magnitude which
depends upon inter nucleon distance is of very high order.
(ii) Nuclear forces are charge independent: - Nature of force
remains the same whether we consider force between two
protons, between two neutrons or between a proton and a
neutron.
(iii) These are short range forces: - Nuclear forces operate between
two nucleons situated in close neighbourhood only.
(iv) Nuclear forces decrease very quickly with distance between
two nucleons: - Their rate of decrease is much rapid than that of
inverse square law forces. The forces become negligible when
the nucleons are more than 10-12 cm apart.
(v) Nuclear forces are spin dependent: - Nucleons having
parallel spin are more strongly bound to each other than those
having anti-parallel spin.
28 The potential energy(V), of a pair of nucleons varies with separation (r)
between them, in the manner shown below. Draw the important
conclusions from the graph

[Link] potential energy of the two nucleons is minimum at a

separation of r0 of about 0.8 fm.
(i) For separation values less than r0, the P.E increases rapidly
with the decrease in separation r. This indicates the strong
repulsion between the nucleons.
(ii) For separation values greater than r0, the P.E is negative which
falls to zero for a separation more than a few femtometers.
This indicates an attractive force between the nucleon

159
 ELECTRONIC DEVICES
Short notes

• In metals, the conduction band and valence band partly overlap each other and there

is no forbidden energy gap.

• In insulators, the conduction band is empty and valence band is completely filled

and forbidden gap is quite large = 6 eV. No electron from valence band can cross

over to conduction band at room temperature, even if electric field is applied. Hence

there is no conductivity of the insulators.

• In semiconductors, the conduction band is empty and valence band is totally filled.

But the forbidden gap between conduction band and valence band is quite small,

which is about 1 eV. No electron from valence band can cross over to conduction

band. Therefore, the semiconductor behaves as insulator. At room temperature,

some electrons in the valence band acquire thermal energy, greater than energy gap

of 1 eV and jump over to the conduction band where they are free to move under the

influence of even a small electric field. Due to which, the semiconductor acquires

small conductivity at room temperature.

Metals Insulators Semiconductors

160
 Distinguish between Intrinsic and Extrinsic Semiconductor
Intrinsic Extrinsic
1 It is pure semiconducting 1 It is prepared by doping a small quantity of
material and no impurity atoms impurity atoms to the pure semiconducting
are added to it material.
2 Examples are crystalline forms 2 Examples are silicon and germanium
of pure silicon and germanium. crystals with impurity atoms of arsenic,
antimony, phosphorous etc. or indium,
boron, aluminium etc.
3 The number of free electron in 3 The number of free electrons and holes is
conduction band and the never equal. There is excess of electrons in
number of holes in valence n-type semiconductors and excess of holes
band is exactly equal and very in p-type semiconductors.
small indeed.
4 Its electrical conductivity is low 4 Its electrical conductivity is high.
5 Its electrical conductivity is a 5 Its electrical conductivity depends upon
function of temperature alone. the temperature as well as on the quantity
of impurity atoms doped in the structure.

Distinction between n-type and p-type semiconductors

n-type semiconductors p-type semiconductors
1 It is an extrinsic 1 It is an intrinsic semiconductors which is
semiconductors which is obtained by doping the impurity atoms of
obtained by doping the IIIrd group of periodic table to the pure
impurity atoms of Vth group germanium or silicon semiconductor.
of periodic table to the pure
germanium or silicon
semiconductor.
2 The impurity atoms added, 2 The impurity atoms added, create vacancies
provide extra electrons in the of electrons (i.e. holes) in the structure and
structure, and are called donor are called acceptor atoms.
atoms.
3 The electrons are majority 3 The holes are majority carriers and electrons
carriers and holes are minority are minority carriers.
carriers.
4 The electron density (ne) is 4 The hole density (ne) is much greater than the
much greater than the hole electron density (nh) i.e. nh>> ne
density (nh)i.e. ne>>(nh)
5 The donor energy level is close 5 The acceptor energy level is close to valence
to the conduction band and far band and is far away from the conduction
away from valence band. band.
6 The Fermi energy level lies in 6 The Fermi energy level lies in between the
between the donor energy acceptor energy level and valence band.
level and conduction band.

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p-n junction diode

Two important processes occur during the formation of p-n junction - diffusion and drift.
The motion of majority charge carriers give rise to diffusion current.
Due to the space charge on n-side junction and negative space charge region on p-side the
electric field is set up and potential barrier develops at the junction Due to electric field e-
on p-side moves to n and holes from n-side to p-side which is called drift current.
In equilibrium state, there is no current across p-n junction and potential barrier across p-
n junction has maximum value .
The width of the depletion region and magnitude of barrier potential depends on the nature
of semiconductor and doping concentration on two sides of p-n junction.
Forward Bias
P-n junction is FB when p-type connected to the +ve of battery and n-type connected to –
ve battery
Potential barrier is reduced and width of depletion layer decreases.
Reverse Bias
P-n junction in RB p-type connected to the –ve battery and n-type connected to +ve
Resistance of p-n junction is high to the flow of current.
FORWARD BIAS REVERSE BIAS

DIODE CHARACTERISTICS HALF WAVE RECTIFIER

162
FULL WAVE RECTIFIER

SPECIAL PURPOSE DIODES

LED PHOTODIODE SOLARCELL

Forward biased Reverse biased No external biasing, It generates

emf when solar radiation falls on
it.
Recombination of Energy is supplied by Generation of emf by solar cells is
electrons and holes take light to take an electron due to three basic process
place at the junction and from valence band to generation of e-h pair, separation
emits e m radiations conduction band. and collection
It is used in Burglar It is used in photo It is used in satellites, space
alarm, remote control detectors in vehicles, calculators etc.
communication

163
 PRACTICE QUESTIONS

MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS

1. With fall of temperature, the forbidden energy gap of a semiconductor
(a) increases
(b) decreases
(c) sometimes increases and sometimes decreases
(d) remains unchanged

2. To obtain p-type silicon semiconductor, we need to dope pure silicon with:

(a) aluminium (c) oxygen

(b) phosphorus (d)germanium
3. Energy bands in solids are a consequence of:
(a) Ohm’s Law
(b) Pauli’s exclusion principle
(c) Bohr’s theory
(d) Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle

4. In a semi conductor what are responsible for conduction:

(a) only electron
(b) electron and hole both
(c) only hole
(d) None of these
5. On heating, resistance of semiconductors:
(a) decreases
(b) increases
(c) remains same
(d) first increases then decreases
6. In intrinsic semiconductor at room temperature, the number of electrons and
holes are:
(a) equal
(b) unequal
(c) infinite
(d) zero

164
7. In full wave rectifier, input a.c. current has a frequency v. The output frequency
of current is :
(a) ν/2
(b) ν
(c) 2ν
(d) None

8. In semi conductor, at room temperature :

(a) the valence bond is partially empty and the conduction band is partially filled
(b) the valence band is completely filled and the conduction band is partially filled
(c) the valence band is completely filled
(d) the conduction band is completely empty

9. The material most commonly used to manufacture electronic solid state devices
is :
(a) copper
(b) silicon
(c) germanium
(d) aluminium

10. On applying reverse bias to a junction diode, it:

(a) lowers the potential barrier
(b) raises the potential barrier
(c) increases the majority carrier current
(d) decreases the minority carrier current

Answers
1. d 8. a
2. a 9. b
3. b 10. b
4. b
5. a
6. a
7. c
165
ASSERTION & REASONING TYPE QUESTIONS
These questions consist of two statements, each printed as Assertion and Reason.
While answering these questions, you are required to choose any one of the following four
responses.
(a) Both Assertion and Reason are correct and the Reason is a correct explanation of
the Assertion.
(b) Both Assertion and Reason are correct but Reason is not a correct explanation of
the Assertion.
(c) Assertion is correct but Reason is incorrect.
(d) Both the Assertion and Reason are incorrect.
1. Assertion : A pure semiconductor has negative temperature coefficient of resistance.
Reason : In a semiconductor on raising the temperature, more charge carriers are released,
conductance increases and resistance decreases.
2. Assertion : Silicon is preferred over germanium for making semiconductor devices.
Reason : The energy gap in germanium is more than the energy gap in silicon.
3. Assertion : When two semi conductors of p and n type are brought in contact, they form
p-n junction which act like a rectifier.
Reason : A rectifier is used to convert alternating current into direct current.
4. Assertion : The diffusion current in a p-n junction is from the p-side to the n-side.
Reason : The diffusion current in a p-n junction is greater than the drift current when the
junction is in forward biased.
5. Assertion : Doping a germanium crystal with indium results in the formation of n-type
germanium crystal.
Reason : Indium is a pentavalent impurity atom.
Answers
1
.a
2.c
3. b
4. b
5. d

166
CASE BASED QUESTIONS
1. Read the Case Study given below and answer the questions that follow: A
Photodiode is again a special purpose p-n junction diode fabricated with a
transparent window to allow light to fall on the diode. It is operated under reverse
bias. When the photodiode is illuminated with light (photons) with energy (hν) greater
than the energy gap (E) of the semiconductor, then electron-hole pairs are generated
due to the absorption of photons. The diode is fabricated such that the generation of
e-h pairs takes place in or near the depletion region of the diode. Due to electric field
of the junction, electrons and holes are separated before they recombine. The
direction of the electric field is such that electrons reach n-side and holes reach p-side.
Electrons are collected on n-side and holes are collected on p-side giving rise to an
emf. When an external load is connected, current flows. The magnitude of the
photocurrent depends on the intensity of incident light.
I. Photo Diode is
a) forward biased b) reverse biased c) Not biased
II. Which of the following is true about photodiode?
a) E > hv b) E = hv c) E < hv d) None of these
III. Magnitude of photocurrent depends on
a) Intensity of light b) Biasing
c) Potential d) None of these
IV. Electrons and holes are separated before they recombine by:
a) Diffusion current
b) Drift current
c) Electric field
d) Electric potential
V. Direction of electric field is such that
a) electrons reach n- side
b) holes reach p- side
c) Both (a) and (b)
d) holes reach n side

167
2. This diode is a heavily doped p-n junction which under forward bias emits

spontaneous radiation. The diode is encapsulated with a transparent cover so that

emitted light can come out. When the diode is forward biased, electrons are sent from

n → p (where they are minority carriers) and holes are sent from p → n (where they

are minority carriers). At the junction boundary the concentration of minority

carriers increases compared to the equilibrium concentration (i.e., when there is no

bias). Thus at the junction boundary on either side of the junction, excess minority

carriers are there which recombine with majority carriers near the junction. On

recombination, the energy is released in the form of photons. Photons with energy

equal to or slightly less than the band gap are emitted. When the forward current of

the diode is small, the intensity of light emitted is small. As the forward current

increases, intensity of light increases and reaches a maximum. Further increase in the

forward current results in decrease of light intensity.

I. Which special purpose diode is mentioned above?

a) Solar cell b)LED
c) Photodiode d) Zener Diode
II. Which of the following device is forward biased?
a) Solar cell b)LED
c) Photodiode d) Zener Diode
III) Energy is released in the form of
a) Electron
b) Proton
c) Photon
d) None of these

168
IV. Which of the following is false?
a) As forward current increases, intensity of light increases.
b) Increase in further forward current decreases the intensity of light.
c) Photons with energy greater than band gap is emitted.
d) Photons with energy less than band gap is emitted.
V. What happens at the junction?
a) Excess minority carriers recombine with majority majority carriers.
b)Excess majority carriers recombine with majority majority carriers.
c)Excess minority carriers recombine with majority minority carriers.
d) None of these
3. A solar cell is basically a p-n junction which generates emf when solar radiation
falls on the p-n junction. It works on the same principle (photovoltaic effect) as the
photodiode, except that no external bias is applied and the junction area is kept much
larger for solar radiation to be incident because we are interested in more power. A
p-Si wafer of about 300 µm is taken over which a thin layer (~0.3 µm) of n-Si is grown
on one-side by diffusion process. The other side of p-Si is coated with a metal (back
contact). On the top of n-Si layer, metal finger electrode (or metallic grid) is deposited.
This acts as a front contact. The metallic grid occupies only a very small fraction of
the cell area so that light can be incident on the cell from the top. The generation of
emf by a solar cell, when light falls on, it is due to the following three basic processes:
generation, separation and collection— (i) generation of e-h pairs due to light (with
hν > E).
I. Working principle of solar cell is same as:
a) Photodiode c) LED
b) Zener diode d) Half wave rectifier
[Link] type of external biasing is applied in Solar cell?
a) Forward c) both (a) and (b)
b) Reverse d) No external biasing is applied
III. Which of the following is true for a solar cell?
a) hv < E
b) hv>E
c) E = hv
d) None of these

169
IV. What is the principle of Solar cell?
V. In a solar cell,
a) Junction area is large c) Junction area is negligible
b) Junction area is small d) None of these
4. Consider a thin p-type silicon (p-Si) semiconductor wafer. By adding precisely a small
quantity of pentavelent impurity, part of the p-Si wafer can be converted into n-Si.
There are several processes by which a semiconductor can be formed. The wafer now
contains p-region and n-region and a metallurgical junction between p-, and n- region.
Two important processes occur during the formation of a p-n junction: diffusion and
drift. We know that in an n-type semiconductor, the concentration of electrons (number
of electrons per unit volume) is more compared to the concentration of holes. Similarly,
in a p-type semiconductor, the concentration of holes is more than the concentration of
electrons. During the formation of p-n junction, and due to the concentration gradient
across p-, and nsides, holes diffuse from p-side to n-side (p → n) and electrons diffuse
from n-side to p-side (n → p). This motion of charge carries gives rise to diffusion
current across the junction.
[Link] can a p-type semiconductor be converted into n- type semiconductor?
a) adding pentavalent impurity
b)adding trivalent impurity
c)not possible
d) heavy doping
[Link] of the following is true about n type semiconductor?
a) concentration of electrons is less than that of holes.
b)concentration of electrons is more than that of holes.
c)concentration of electrons equal to that of holes.
d)None of these
[Link] of the following is true about p type semiconductor?
a) concentration of electrons is less than that of holes.
b)concentration of electrons is more than that of holes.
c)concentration of electrons equal to that of holes.
d)None of these

170
lV. Which of the following is the reason about diffusion current?
a) diffusion of holes from p to n
b) diffusion of electrons from n to p
c) both (a) and (b)
d) None of these
V. What are the processes that occur during formation of a p-n junction?
a) drift b) diffusion c) both (a) and (b) d)None of these
Answers
Q.1
I. B
II. C
III. A
IV. C
V. C
VI.

Q.2
I. B
II. B
III. C
IV. C
V. A

Q.3
I. A
II. D
III. B
IV. Photovoltaic
Effect
V. A

Q.4
I. A
II. B
III. A
IV. C
V. C

171
VERY SHORT ANSWER QUESTIONS (1 mark)
1. What is meant by doping?
Ana: The technique of adding impurities to a pure semiconductor is known as doping
2. What are n-type semiconductors?
Ans: n-type semiconductors are extrinsic semiconductors in which dopant atoms
provide additional conduction electrons.
3. What are p-type semiconductors?
Ans: p-type semiconductors are extrinsic semiconductors in which dopant atoms
provide additional holes for conduction.
4. What is the difference between an n-type and a p-type intrinsic semiconductor?

Ans:

5. The graph shown in the figure represents a plot of current versus voltage for a
given semi-conductor. Identify the region, if any, over which the semi-conductor
has a negative resistance.

Answer:

In the region between B and C, the semiconductor has a negative resistance.

6. Show the variation of resistivity of Si with temperature in a graph.

Answer:

7. How does the width of depletion layer change, in reverse bias of a p-n junction
diode?

Answer: Increases

172
8. In a semiconductor concentration of electron is 8 x 1013cm-3 and holes 5 x 1012
cm-3: is it P or N type semiconductor?

Ans: N type

9. In a given diagram, is the diode reverse (or) forward biased?

Ans: Reverse biased.

SHORT ANSWER QUESTIONS (2 marks)

1. The intrinsic carrier concentration in germanium crystal at 300 K is 2.5x1013 per

[Link] the electron density in an n-type germanium crystal at 300 K is 0.5x1017 per
cm3, what will be the hole density in this crystal at 300 K?
Answer:
n e n h = n i2 nh =1.25 x 1010 per cm3
2. Mention any TWO differences between an intrinsic semiconductor and a p-type
semiconductor.
Ans:

3. Give reason, why a p-type semiconductor crystal is electrically neutral

although nh >> ne?
Ans: In a p-type semiconductor, the trivalent impurity atom shares its three
valence electrons with the three tetravalent host atoms while the fourth bond
remains unbounded. The impurity atom as a whole is electrical neutral. Hence the
p-type semiconductor is also neutral.

173
4. In the given following diagram ‘S’ is a semiconductor. Would you increase
or decrease the value of R to keep the reading of the ammeter A constant when S is
heated? Give reason for your answer.

Ans: The value of ‘R’ would be increased since the resistance of ‘S’, a semi
conductor decreases on heating.

5. State the factor which controls wave length and intensity of light emitted by
LED.
Ans: (i) Nature of semi-conductor (ii) Forward Current
6. Pure Si at 300K have equal electron and holes concentration 1.5 x 1016 per
m3. Doping by Indium increases hole concentration to 4.5 x 1022 per m3. Calculate
new electron concentration.
Ans: Hint : nenh = ni2
7. A germanium diode is preferred to a silicon one for rectifying small
voltages. Explain why?
Ans: Because the energy gap for Ge (Eg = 0.7 ev) is smaller than the energy gap
for Si (Eg = 1.1eV) or barrier potential for Ge<Si.
8. Why semiconductors are opaque to visible light but transparent to infrared
radiations?
Ans: The photons of infrared radiation have smaller energies, so they fall to
excite the electrons in the valence band. Hence infrared radiations pass through the
semiconductors as such; i.e. a semiconductor is transparent to infrared radiation
9. The ratio of number of free electrons to holes ne/nh for two different materials
A and B are 1 and <1 respectively. Name the type of semiconductor to which A and
B belongs.
Ans: If ne/nh =1 . Hence A is intrinsic semiconductor. If ne/nh<1 , ne<nh hence B is
P-type.

10. With the help of a diagram show the biasing of light emitting diode. Give
two advantages over conventional incandescent Lamp.
Ans: Mono chromatic, Consume less power.

174
 11. Which of the diodes are forward biased and which are reverse biased?

Ans: (i) is forward biased, remaining all reverse biased

SHORT ANSWER QUESTIONS (3 marks)

1. In the case of n-type Si semiconductor, the donor level is slightly below the bottom
of conduction band. whereas in p-type semiconductor, the acceptor energy level is
slightly above the top of the valence band. Explain, what role do these energy levels
play in conduction and valence bands?

Ans: Role of energy levels in conduction and valence bands : In the energy band
diagram of n-type Si semiconductor, the donor energy level ED is slightly below the
conduction band and electrons from this level moves into conduction band with very
small supply of energy. At room temperature, most of the donor atoms get ionised, but
very few (~ 10-12) atoms of Si atom get ionised. So the conduction band will have most of
the electrons coming from donor impurities.
For p-type semiconductor, the acceptance energy level EA is slightly above the
valence band. With very small supply of energy, an electron from the valence band can
jump to the level EA and ionise the acceptor negatively. At room temperature, most of the
acceptor atoms get ionised leaving holes in the valence band.

175
 2. Distinguish between n-type and p-type semi-conductors on the basis of energy
band diagrams. Compare their conductivities at absolute zero temperature and at
room temperature.
Answer:

Distinction between n-type and p-type semiconductors on the basis of energy level
diagram
(i) In n-type semi conductors an extra energy level (called donor energy level) is
produced just below the bottom of the conduction band, while in the p-type
semiconductor, this extra energy band (called acceptor energy level) is just above the top
of the balanced band.
(ii) In n-type semiconductors, most of the electrons come from the donor impurity while
in p-type semiconductor, the density of holes in the valence band is predominantly due to
the impurity in the extrinsic semiconductors.
(iii) At absolute zero temperature conductivities of both types of semi-conductors will be
zero.
(iv) For equal doping, an n-type semiconductor will have more conductivity than a p-type
semiconductor, at room temperature.

176
 3. Determine the current through resistance “R” in each circuit. Diodes D1 and D2
are identical and ideal.

Answer: In circuit (i) Both D1 and D2 are forward biased hence both will conduct
current and resistance of each diode is “0”.Therefore I = 3/15 = 0.2 A
Diode D1 is forward bias and D2 is reverse bias, therefore resistance of diode D1 is
“0” and resistance of D2 is infinite. Hence D1 will conduct and D2 do not conduct.
No current flows in the circuit.

4. A photodiode is fabricated from a semiconductor with a band gap of 2.8eV.

Can it detect a wavelength of 600nm? Justify?

Ans: Energy corresponding to wavelength 600 nm is

E=hc/  = 6.6x10-34 x 3x108 joule = 0.2eV.
600x10-9
It cannot detect because E < Eg

5. Draw a circuit diagram to show how a photodiode is biased. Draw its

characteristic curves for two different illumination intensities.
Ans:

177
LONG ANSWER QUESTIONS (5 marks)

1. Draw the Energy band diagrams for (i) insulator (ii) conductor and (iii) pure

semiconductor. How does the energy band, for a pure semiconductor, get

affected when this semiconductor is doped with (a) an acceptor impurity and

(b) donor impurity? Hence discuss why the ‘holes’, and the ‘electrons’

respectively, become the ‘majority charge carriers’ in these two cases?

Answer:

Distinguishing features between conductors, semiconductors and insulators :

(i) Insulator. In insulator, the valence band is completely filled. The conduction

band is empty and forbidden energy gap is quite large. So no electron is able to go

from valence band to conduction band even if electric field is applied. Hence

electrical conduction is impossible. The solid/ substance is an insulator.

(ii) Conductors (Metals). In metals, either the conduction band is partially filled or the

conduction and valence band partly overlap each other. If small electric field is applied

across the metal, the free electrons start moving in a direction opposite to the direction of

electric field. Hence, metal behaves as a conductor.

(i) Semiconductors. At absolute zero kelvin, the conduction band is empty and the

valence band is filled. The material is insulator at low temperature. However the

energy gap between valence band and conduction band is small. At room

temperature, some valence electrons acquire thermal energy and jump to

conduction band where they can conduct electricity. The holes left behind in

valence band act as a positive charge carrier.

178
 (ii) ‘Energy Band’ diagrams :

(a) When the semiconductor is doped with an acceptor impurity, it results in an additional

energy level a little above the top of the valence band.

(b) The donor impurity results in an additional energy level a little below the bottom of

the conduction band.

In the first case, electrons from the valence band, easily jump over to the acceptor level,

leaving ‘holes’ behind. Hence, ‘holes’ becomes the majority charge carriers.

In the second case, electrons from the donor level, easily ‘jump over’ to the conduction

band. Hence, electrons become the majority charge carriers.

2. Explain the working of p-n junction diode as a full wave rectifier? Draw the

input output waveforms.

Ans: A Rectifier is a device which converts AC into DC.

Using two diodes and a centre tapped transformer, a full wave rectifier can be

constructed, as shown in figure.

179
During the positive half cycle of input AC, the diode D1 conducts and D2 do not conduct

and the current flows from B to A.

During the positive half cycle of input AC, the diode D2 conducts and D1 do not conduct

and the current flows from B to A.

180
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191
 KENDRIYA VIDYALAYA SANGATHAN
ERNAKULAM REGION
TERM II EXAMINATION- (2021-22)
SAMPLE QUESTION PAPER I
CLASS-XII (PHYSICS)
BLUE PRINT

UNIT NAME OF UNIT 2 MARK 3 CASE TOTAL

NO: QSTN MARK BASED
QSTN QUESTION
V Electromagnetic
Waves ----- 3(4) 5(1) 17
VI Optics
VII Dual Nature of
Radiation and
Matter
VIII Atoms and Nuclei 2(3) 3(4) ---- 18
IX Electronic Devices

TOTAL 6(3) 24 (8) 5(1)

Note:
1) The number outside the bracket represents the marks & the number inside the
bracket represents the total number of questions.
2) No overall choice to be given. However, an internal choice must be provided in one
question of two marks and two questions of three marks. Student needs to attempt
only one of the choices in such questions.

192
 KENDRIYA VIDYALAYA SANGATHAN
ERNAKULAM REGION
SAMPLE QUESTION PAPER 1
CLASS XII PHYSICS THEORY
TERM II SESSION 2021 – 22
Time: 2 hours Max. Marks: 35

General Instructions:
(i) There are 12 questions in all. All questions are compulsory.
(ii) This question paper has three sections: Section A, Section B and Section C.
(iii) Section A contains three questions of two marks each, Section B contains
eight questions of three marks each, Section C contains one case study-based
question of five marks.
(iv) There is no overall choice. However, an internal choice has been provided in
one question of two marks and two questions of three marks. You have to
attempt only one of the choices in such questions.
(v) You may use log tables if necessary but use of calculator is not allowed.

SECTION: A

1) Draw energy band diagram of n-type and p-type semiconductor at

temperature T > 0 K. Mark the donor and acceptor energy level.

2) Green light ejects photoelectrons from a given photosensitive surface, whereas

yellow light does not. What will happen in the case of violet and red light? Give
reason for your answer.
OR
If the frequency of light falling on a metal is doubled, what will be the effect
on
photocurrent and the maximum kinetic energy of emitted photoelectrons?

3) Assuming that the two diodes D1 and D2 used in the electric circuit are ideal,
find out the value of current flowing through the 1Ω resistor.

193
SECTION: B
4) A beam of light consisting of red green and blue colours is incident on a right angled
prism. The refractive index of the material of the prism for the above red, green and
blue wavelengths are 1.39, 1.44 and 1.47, respectively. Complete the ray diagram &
give reasons.

OR

A glass prism of refractive index 1.5 is immersed in water (refractive index 4/3). A
light beam normally on the face AB is totally reflected to reach on the face BC if θ is the
angle of incidence at BC. Prove that Sin θ ≥ 8/9.

5) (i) Name the EM waves which are suitable for radar systems & so used in
aircraft
navigation. Write the range of frequency of these waves.

(ii) If the earth did not have atmosphere, would its average surface
temperature be
higher or lower than what it is now? Explain

(iii) Optical and radio telescopes are built on the ground while X-ray astronomy is
possible only from satellites orbiting the earth. Why?

194
6) Draw the electric circuit diagram of a full wave rectifier and explain the working.
Draw the input and output wave form and give the relation between the frequency
of the input and output wave.

OR
i) What are the important processes that occur during the formation of a p-n
Junction ?

ii) How is a p-n junction diode connected to get a forward bias and
reverse bias.

iii) Draw the V-I characteristics corresponding to forward and reverse bias.

7) A screen is placed 2m away from the lens to obtain the diffraction pattern in the
focal plane of the lens in a single slit diffraction experiment.

i) What will be the slit width if the first minimum lies 5 mm on either side of
the central maximum when plane light waves of wavelength 4000 Å are
incident on the slit?

ii) Also give two points of comparison between interference pattern &
diffraction pattern.

8) Plot a graph showing the variation of photoelectric current with collector

potential for two different frequencies, ʋ1 > ʋ2, of incident radiation having the
same intensity. In which case will the stopping potential be higher? Justify your
answer.

9) Using postulates of Bohr atom model of hydrogen atom obtain the expression
for the wavelength of radiation emitted when atom makes a transition from the
higher energy state with quantum number ni to the lower energy level with
quantum number nf (nf < ni).

10) Derive Lens maker’s formula.

11) i) Define the term binding energy.

iii) Calculate the binding energy per nucleon of 20 Ca40 nucleus. Given that
mass of neutron is 1.008665u ,mass of 20 Ca40 = 39.962591u, mass of
proton is 1.007825u and 1u = 931Mev.

195
 Section: C

12) Interference occurs when several waves are added together provided that
the phase differences between them remain constant over the observation time.
Interference is essentially an energy redistribution process. The energy which is
lost at the destructive interference is regained at the constructive interference.

i) What does happen to the interference pattern the two slits S1 and S2 in
Young’s double experiment are illuminated by two independent but identical
sources?
(a) The intensity of the bright fringes doubled.
(b) The intensity of the bright fringes becomes four times.
(c) Two sets of interference fringes overlap.
(d) No interference pattern is observed .

ii) In Young’s double slit experiment, a maximum intensity is obtained when

the path difference between the interfering waves is
(a) n λ
(b) n λ / 2
(c) (2n+1) λ / 2
(d) (2n – 1) λ / 4

iii) The intensity of light emerging from the two slits, in Young’s experiment is
in the ratio 1 : 4. The ratio of, the intensity of the minimum to that of the
consecutive maximum will be :
(a)1:4
(b)1:9
(c)1:16
(d) 2 : 3

196
iv) In a Young’s Double Slit Experiment, band width is found to be 1mm & the
setup is shifted from air to water. The new band width is:
(a) 1mm
(b) 1.33mm
(c) 0.5mm
(d) 0.75mm

v) In Young’s double slit experiment, the distance between the slit and the
screen is doubled and the separation between the slits is reduced to half. The
fringe width:
(a) is doubled
(b) becomes four times
(c) is halved
(d) remains unchanged

197
 KENDRIYA VIDYALAYA SANGATHAN, ERNAKULAM REGION
SAMPLE PAPER – II
CLASS : XII MAX MARKS : 35
SUBJECT : PHYSICS TIME : 2 hours
SECTION A

1 Two identical Silicon wafers A and B are doped with Boron and Antimony 2
respectively. (i) Identify the extrinsic property of A and B after doping (ii)
Draw the energy band diagram of extrinsic semiconductor formed from A

2 Every metal has a definite work function. Then why do photoelectrons not 2
come out with same energy, even if the incident radiation is monochromatic?
Why is there an energy distribution of photoelectrons?

OR

Light from Balmer series of Hydrogen is able to eject photoelectrons from a

metal. What can be the maximum work function of the metal? Justify your
answer with necessary mathematical relations

3 Study the I-V characteristics given below and answer the following: 2
(i) Identify the device and state one use of it
(ii) Draw the circuit diagram used to obtain the typical I – V
characteristics of the device

198
 SECTION B
4 (i) How does the angular width of central band of diffraction pattern affect 3
when (a) the width of the slit is doubled? (b) blue light is replaced by
yellow light?
(ii) Two students are separated by a 7m partition wall in a room 10m high. If
both light and sound waves can bend around the obstacles, explain why
the students are unable to see each other even though they can converse
easily?

(iii) A light wave is incident normally over a slit of width 24 x10-5cm. The
angular position of second minima from the central maxima is 30o. What
is the wavelength of light?
5 A monochromatic light source of power 5mW emits 8X1015 photons per 3
second. This light ejects photoelectrons from a metal surface. The stopping
potential for this set up is 2V. Calculate the work function of the metal.
6 3
A ray of light while travelling from a denser medium to a rarer medium
undergoes total reflection. Derive the expression for the critical angle in terms
of the speed of light in the respective media.
Determine the value of the angle of incidence for a ray of light, travelling from
a medium of refractive index n1 = √2 into a medium of refractive index n2 = 1,
so that it just grazes along the surface of separation
OR
(i) Radio waves and Gamma rays both are transverse in nature and
electromagnetic in character with same speed in vacuum. In what
respects are they different, write any two points.
(ii) Electromagnetic waves with wavelengths
(a) λ1 used to treat muscular strain (b) λ2 used in FM broadcasting (c)
λ3 are produced in nuclear reactions (d) λ4 are produced by
bombarding metal target by high speed electrons. Identify these waves
and arrange them in the decreasing order of their wavelengths.

199
7 Two narrow slits are illuminated by a monochromatic source. Name the pattern 3
obtained on a screen kept at a distance. Draw the schematic diagram showing
the arrangements to obtain the pattern. Derive the expression for positions of
bright and dark fringes.
235
8 Name the reaction which takes place when slow neutron beam strikes 92𝑈. 3
Using the data given below, calculate the energy released when Uranium splits
into Krypton and Barium with the release of 2 neutrons.
235
Mass of 92𝑈 = 235.043933 amu
Mass of 141
56𝐵𝑎 = 140.917700amu
92
Mass of 36𝐾𝑟 = 91.895400 amu
Mass of 10𝑛 = 1.008665 amu
9 Draw a ray diagram showing the image formation of a distant object by a 3
refracting type telescope in normal adjustment.
Define magnifying power and write two important factors considered to
increase the magnifying power.
OR
Draw a ray diagram to show the working of a compound microscope while
forming the image at near point.
In a compound microscope, an object is placed at a distance of 1.5cm from the
objective of focal length 1.25cm. If the eyepiece has focal length 5cm and final
image is formed at near point, estimate the magnifying power of microscope.
10 An external potential difference is applied across a p-n junction diode in such a 3
way that the applied potential difference opposes the internal potential barrier.
(i) Draw the circuit arrangement to study the V-I characteristics
(ii) Explain the working of junction diode in the above arrangement
and define knee voltage.
11 (i) In hydrogen atom, an electron undergoes transition from 2nd excited state to 3
the first excited state and then to the ground state. Identify the spectral series to
which these transitions belong.
(ii) Find out the ratio of the wavelengths of the emitted radiations in the two
cases.

200
12 CASE STUDY:-
A prism is a portion of a transparent medium bounded by two plane faces
inclined to each other at a suitable angle. A ray of light suffers two refractions
on passing through a prism and hence deviates through a certain angle from its
original path. The angle of deviation of a prism is, δ = (n- 1) A, through which a
ray deviates on passing through a thin prism of small refracting angle A.
If ‘n’ is refractive index of the material of the prism, then prism formula is,
𝐴 + 𝛿𝑚 )
𝑆𝑖𝑛(
𝑛= 2
𝐴
𝑆𝑖𝑛 ( ⁄2)

(i) For which colour, angle of deviation is minimum?

(a) Red (b) Yellow (c) Violet (d) Blue
(ii) When white light moves through vacuum
(a) all colours have same speed (b) different colours have different speeds
(c) violet has more speed than red (d) red has more speed than violet.
(iii) For which colour, the refractive index of the material of prism is
maximum?

(a) Red (b) Violet (c)Blue (d) Equal for all colours

(iv) What is the deviation produced by a prism of angle 6°? (Refractive index of
the material of the prism is 1.644).
(a) 3.864° (b) 4.595° (c) 7.259° (d) 1.252°
(v) A ray of light falling at an angle of 50° is refracted through a prism and
suffers minimum deviation. If the angle of prism is 60°, then the angle of
minimum deviation is
(a) 45° (b) 75° (c) 50° (d) 40°

201
 KENDRIYA VIDYALAYA SANGATHAN
ERNAKULAM REGION
SAMPLE QUEDSTION PAPER III

CLASS XII TERM 2 (2021-22)

Time: 2 hours Max. Marks: 35

-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
General instructions

(i) There are 12 questions in all. All questions are compulsory.

(ii) This question paper has three sections: Section A, Section B and Section C.
(iii) Section A contains three questions of two marks each, Section B
contains eight questions of three marks each, and Section C contains
one case study-based question of five marks.

(iv) There is no overall choice. However, an internal choice has been

provided in one question of two marks and two questions of three marks.
You have to attempt only one of the choices in such questions.
(v) You may use log tables, if necessary, but use of calculator is not allowed.

SECTION A

1. Two thin lenses of power –4 D and +2 D are placed in contact coaxially. Find the
focal length of the combination
OR
How does the angle of minimum deviation of glass prism of refractive index 1.5
change, if it is immersed in a liquid of refractive index 1.3?

2. Draw the circuit diagram of a full-wave rectifier and explain its working

3. An electron and a proton are accelerated through the same potential difference.

Which one of the two has greater value of de-Broglie wavelength associated with

it? Why?

202
 SECTION B

4. (a)Show giving an example, how electromagnetic wave carry energy and

momentum.
(b) How are microwaves produced? Why is it necessary in microwave ovens to
select the frequency of microwaves to match the resonant frequency of water
molecule?
5. Draw a labeled ray diagram of astronomical telescope of the near point
adjustment.
You are given three lenses of power 0.5 D, 4D&[Link] with reason which two
lenses will you select for constructing a good astronomical telescope
OR
The image of a needle placed 45 cm from a lens is formed on a screen placed 90

cm on the other side of the lens. Find the displacement of the image if the object is

moved by 5 cm away from the lens.

6. What is Total internal Reflection? Mention the conditions required for it to

happen. Hence mention one of its practical applications.

7. Describe Young’s double slit experiment to produce interference pattern due to a

monochromatic source of light. Deduce the expression for the fringe width

8. Draw the diagram showing intensity distribution of light on the screen for diffraction

of light at a single slit. How is the width of central maximum affected if,

i) the width of the slit is doubled

ii) the wavelength of light used is increased? Justify your answer in each case.

9. Write Einstein’s photo electric equation. Explain how Planck’s constant and work

function can be determined from the above.

10. Draw a graph showing the variation of potential energy of a pair of nucleons as

a function of their separation. Indicate the region in which nuclear force is

i) attractive ii) repulsive.

Write any three characteristic features of nuclear force.

203
11. The ground state energy of hydrogen atom is -13.6eV.

i) What is the kinetic energy of an electron in the second excited state?

ii) What is the potential energy of an electron in the third excited state?

iii) If the electron jumps to the ground state from the third excited state, calculate the

wavelength of the photon emitted.

SECTION C (CASE STUDY)

12. A heavily doped p-n junction diode under forward bias can emit spontaneous
radiation. The diode is encapsulated with a transparent cover so that emitted light can
come out. When the diode is forward biased, electrons are sent from n → p (where
they are minority carriers) and holes are sent from p → n (where they are minority
carriers). At the junction boundary, the concentration of minority carriers increases as
compared to the equilibrium concentration (i.e., when there is no bias).
Thus at the junction boundary on either side of the junction, excess minority carriers
are there which recombine with majority carriers near the junction. On recombination,
the energy is released in the form of photons. Photons with energy equal to or slightly
less than the band gap are emitted. When the forward current of the diode is small, the
intensity of light emitted is small. As the forward current increases, intensity of light
increases and reaches a maximum. Further increase in the forward current results in
decrease of light intensity

The V-I characteristics is similar to that of a Si junction diode. But the threshold
voltages are much higher and slightly different for each colour. The reverse
breakdown voltages are very low, typically around 5 V. So, care should be taken that
high reverse voltages do not appear across them. It can emit red, yellow, orange, green
and blue light are commercially available.
(i) Which special purpose diode is mentioned above?

a) Solar cell d) Zener Diode

b) LED

c) Photodiode

204
(ii) During recombination at the junction, emitted photons have:

(a) energy equal to or slightly less than the band gap.

(b) Energy greater than the band gap.

(c) Energy which has no relation with the band gap.

(d) Very low energy compared to band gap.

(iii) Which of the following is true about n type semiconductor?

a) Concentration of electrons is less than that of holes

b) Concentration of electrons is more than that of holes.

c) Concentration of electrons equal to that of holes.

d) None of these

(iv) Which of the following device is forward biased?

a) Solar cell b)LED

c) Photodiode d) Zener Diode

(v) Threshold voltage of LED is:

(a) lower compared to other p-n junction diodes and slightly different for each
colour.
(b) lower compared to other p-n junction diodes and same for all colours.
(c) higher compared to other p-n junction diodes and same for all colours.
( d) higher compared to other p-n junction diodes and slightly different for each
colour.

205
 KENDRIYA VIDYALAYA SANGATHAN
ERNAKULAM REGION
SAMPLE QUESTION PAPER IV
CLASS XII PHYSICS (THEORY)
TERM II SESSION 2021 - 22
MM : 35 TIME : 2 Hours
………………………………………………………………………………………

General Instructions:

(i) There are 12 questions in all. All questions are compulsory.

(ii) This question paper has three sections: Section A, Section B and Section C.
(iii) Section A contains three questions of two marks each, Section B contains
eight questions of three marks each, Section C contains one case study-based
question of five marks.
(iv) There is no overall choice. However, an internal choice has been provided in
one question of two marks and two questions of three marks. You have to
attempt only one of the choices in such questions.

SECTION- A

1. The work function for a given photosensitive surface is 2.5 eV. When light of

frequency υ falls on this surface, the retarding potential needed to completely

stop the photoelectrons is found to be 4.1 V. What is the value of υ ?

OR

Calculate the frequency of the photon which can excite an electron to -3.4

eV from -13.6 eV

2. Name the electronic device used for detecting optical signals and mention the

biasing in which it is operated. Draw its I-V characteristics.

206
3. Determine the current through resistance “R” in each circuit. Diodes D1 and D2 are
identical and ideal.

SECTION-B
4. Name the following constituent radiations of electromagnetic spectrum which-
(i) are used in satellite communication/in radar and geostationary satellite
(ii) are used for studying crystal structure of solids
(iii) are similar to the radiations emitted during decay of radioactive nuclei
(iv) are used for water purification/ are absorbed from sunlight by ozone layer
Arrange the radiations in the increasing order of wavelength.
5. Draw a ray diagram of a compound microscope. Obtain the expression for its
magnifying power.
6. Write the conditions for total internal reflection to take place.
Three rays of light, red (R), green (G) and blue (B) are incident on the face AB of a
right angled prism as shown in the figure. The refractive indices of the material
prism for red, green and blue colours are 1.39, 1.44, and 1.47 respectively. Which
one of the three rays will emerge out of the prism? Give reason to support your
answer.

OR

207
 In a two slit experiment with monochromatic light, fringes are obtained on a screen

placed at some distance D from the slits. If the screen is moved 5 x 10-2 m towards

the slits, the change in fringe width is 3 x 10-5 m. If the distance between the slit is

10-3 m. Calculate the wavelength of the light used.

7. Define the term ‘wave front’. Using Huygens’s construction of a wave front,

explain the refraction of a plane wave front at a plane surface and hence deduce

Snell’s law.

8. Why macroscopic objects in our daily life do not show wave like properties?

An electron, an alpha particle and a proton have the same kinetic energy, which

one of these particles has (i) the shortest and (ii) the largest, de-Broglie wavelength?

9. What is the energy possessed by an ē for n= ∞ ?

The ground state energy of hydrogen atom is -13.6eV. What is the K.E & P.E of

the electron in this state?

[Link] a given instant there are 25% un-decayed radioactive nuclei in a sample. After

10 seconds the number of un-decayed nuclei reduces to 12.5 %.calculate the i)

mean life of the nuclei ii) the time in which the number of the un-decayed nuclei

will further reduce to 6.25 % of the reduced number.

OR

(a) State the postulates of Bohr's model of hydrogen atom.

(b) Show that the radius of the orbit in hydrogen atom varies as n2 , where n is the

principal quantum number of the atom.

11. With the help of a suitable diagram, explain the formation of depletion region in a

p-n junction. How does its width change when the junction is: (i) forward biased? &

(ii) reverse biased?

208
 SECTION-C

12 Lens maker's formula.

The lens maker’s formula relates the focal length of a lens to the refractive index of
its material and the radii of curvature of its two surfaces . This formula is used to
manufacture a lens of particular focal length from the glass of a given refractive
index. For this reason , it is called the lens maker’s formula .

1. For a plano-convex lens of radius of curvature 10 cm the focal length is 30 cm . If

the refractive index of the material of the lens is
(i).2.0 (ii).1.33 (iii).1.66 (iv).1.5
2 . A convex lens of focal length 20 cm is placed in contact with a diverging lens of
unknown focal length . The lens combination acts as a converging lens and has a
focal length of 30 cm . What is the focal length of diverging lens
(i).-90 cm (ii).-60 cm (iii).-30 cm (iv).-10 cm
3. An image is formed on the screen by a convex lens when upper half part of lens is
covered with black paper then
(i).half image is formed (ii).full image is formed
(iii).intensity of image is enhanced (iv).all of the above
4. The focal length of a biconvex lens of radii of each surface 50 cm and refractive
index 1.5, is
(a) 40.4 cm (b) 75 cm (c) 50 cm (d) 80 cm
5. How does the focal length of a convex lens change if mono chromatic red light is
used instead of violet light?
(a) Focal length is increased when red light is used
(b) Focal length is decreased when red light is used
(c) Focal length remains same when red light is used
(d) Does not depend on colour of light.

209
 KENDRIYA VIDYALAYA SANGATHAN
ERNAKULAM REGION
SAMPLE QUESTION PAPER V
CLASS XII PHYSICS THEORY
TERM II SESSION 2021 - 22
MM: 35 TIME: 2 Hours
…………………………………………………………………………………………..
General Instructions:
(i) There are 12 questions in all. All questions are compulsory.
(ii) This question paper has three sections: Section A, Section B and Section C.
(iii) Section A contains three questions of two marks each, Section B contains eight
questions
of three marks each, Section C contains one case study-based question of five
marks.
(iv) There is no overall choice. However, an internal choice has been provided in
one question
of two marks and two questions of three marks. You have to attempt only one of
the
choices in such questions.
(v) You may use log tables if necessary but use of calculator is not allowed.

SECTION A
1. In half wave rectification, what is the output frequency, if the input frequency is
50 Hz. What is the output frequency of a full wave rectifier for the same input
frequency?
2. Three photo diodes D1, D2, and D3 are made of semiconductors having band
gaps of 2.5eV, 2eV and 3eV respectively. Which one will be able to detect light
of wavelength 6000Å?
3. There is material which absorb photon of shorter wavelengths and emit photon
of longer wavelengths. Can there be stable substance which absorb photon of
larger wavelengths and emit light of shorter wavelength?
OR
The total energy of an electron in the first excited state of hydrogen atom is
about -3.36eV. What is the kinetic energy of the electron in first excited state?
What is the Potential energy of the electron in the first excited state.

210
 SECTION B
4. In hydrogen atom an electron undergoes transition from second excited state to
the first excited state and then to the ground state. Identify the spectral series to
which these transitions belong. Find out the ratio of the wavelengths of the
emitted radiation in the two cases.
5. Describe the working of LED. Write the name of semiconductors, which are
preferred to make LED and why? Give two advantages of using LED over
conventional incandescent low power lamp
6. Suppose we think of fission of iron nucleus into two equal fragment of
aluminium. Is the fission energetically possible? Explain. Given mass of
Fe= 55.93494 u and mass of Al = 27.98191 u
7. Two sources of intensity I and 4I are used in an interference experiment. Find the
intensity at a point, where the waves from two sources superimpose with a phase
difference of a) zero b) 900 c) 1800 d) also find the ratio of maximum and
minimum intensities in these cases.
8. A tank is filled with water to a height of 12.5 cm. The apparent depth of a needle
lying at the bottom of the tank is measured by a microscope to be 9.4cm. What is
the refractive index of water? If water is replaced by a liquid of refractive index
1.63 up to the same height, by what distance should the microscope have to be
moved to focus on the needle again?
9. Calculate the radius of curvature of an equi-concave lens of refractive index 1.5,
when it is kept in a medium of refractive index 1.4 to have a power of -5D
OR

Define power of a lens. Write its unit. Deduce the relation 1/f= 1/f1+ 1/f2 for 2
thin lenses kept in contact co-axially.
10. Electric field amplitude of an EM wave Is E0= 120N/C and its frequency Is
50MHz. Determine B0, ω, k, λ. Find expression for E and B

211
 OR
Which segment of e.m. wave has highest frequency? How are these produced.
Give one use of these waves. Which e.m. wave lie near the high frequency end
of visible part of e.m. spectrum? Give any one use of this. In what way this
component has harmful effect on human beings.
11. Describe briefly three experimentally observed features in the phenomenon of
photoelectric effect. Discuss briefly how wave theory of light cannot explain
these features

SECTION C
12.

An optical fibre is a thin tube of transparent material that allows light to pass through
it without being refracted into the air or another external medium. It makes use of total
internal reflection. These fibres are fabricated in such a way that light reflected at one
side of the inner surface strike the other at an angle larger than critical angle. Even if
fibre Is bent, light can easily travel along the length.
1) Which of the following Is based on the phenomenon of total internal
reflection of light?
a) Sparkling of diamond
b) Optical fibre communication
c) Instrument used in endoscopy
d) All the above
212
 2) A ray of light will undergo total internal reflection if
a) It goes from rarer to denser medium
b) It goes from denser to rarer medium
c) Strike normally at the interface
d) incident at an angle less than critical angle
3) If angle of incidence in the core of optical fibre is equal to critical angle, then
angle of refraction will be
a) 00
b) 450
c) 900
d) 1800
4) In optical fibre relation of refractive index of core and cladding is (core –
inner, cladding-Outer coating ---N for core, n for cladding
a) N>n
b) n>N
c) n=N
d) N+n=1
5) If the value of critical angle is 30 for total internal reflection from a given
optical fibre, then speed of light in that fibre is
a) 3x 10 8 m/s
b) 1.5x 10 8 m/s
c) 6 x 10 8 m/s
d) 4.5x 10 8 m/ s

213
 MARKING SCHEME

MARKING SCHEME 1 (SAMPLE QUESTION PAPER I )

Q NO: Answer key Mark

1. Correct diagram 1
Marking of energy level of donor and acceptor atom 1

2. Violet light – photo electric emission and red light no emission 1

Energy of incident radiation is hc/λ . .λv<λg . Hence violet has 1

more energy.
OR
There is no change in the photo electric 1
1
current
Kinetic energy increases
3. D1 forward biased hence resistance 0 ½
D2 reverse biased hence resistance infinity ½

Therefore, resistance = 3Ω
1
I =V/R =2A
4. ITR when i> ic , 45>ic 1
ITR when Sin45 > Sin ic , 1/Sin45 < 1/Sin ic ½
½
ITR when 1.44 < μ
1
Ray diagram (Green & violet do ITR & Red gets refracted.)
OR
½
A light beam incident normally on the face AB is totally reflected to
reach on the face BC if θ≥θc ½
The beam is grazed on face BC, e=900 1
Refractive index of water, n1=4/3 and that of prism, n2=1.5
Snell's law of refraction, n2 sinθc=n1 sine Sinθc = 8/9 1
For total internal reflection sinθ ≥ sinθc
Hence sin θ ≥ 8/9

214
5 Micro waves ½
Range of frequency (3X 1011 to 108 Hz) ½
T low, No Green House Effect ½, ½
Low wavelength for x-ray, so penetrates through matter easily ½, ½
6 Circuit diagram 1
Working 1
Wave form ½
Output frequency = double of input frequency ½

OR
Drift and diffusion of charge and formation of barrier potential 1
Correct diagram 1
Graph 1
7 Slit width, d= 2ʎD/distance 1
d= 0.32mm 1
1
2 points
8 Graph 1
Stopping potential is higher for higher frequency 1
1
Frequency increases then kinetic energy also increases and
thereby increases the stopping potential
9 Ei – Ef = hʋ ½
Derivation 2½

10 Ray diagram 1
Equations among 2 spherical surfaces 1
Assuming object to be at infinity ½
Final equation ½
11 Definition 1
BE = mass defect x c2 ½
Mass defect calculation 1
Calculation ½
12 i)d , (no coherent waves) 1
ii)a, 1
iii)b (Imax / Imin = ( ΓIA + ΓIB )2 ( ΓIA - ΓIB )2 1
iv)d (β’ = β/n) 1
v)b (β = ʎD /d ) 1

215
MARKING SCHEME II (SAMPLE QUESTION PAPER II )
KENDRIYA VIDYALAYA SANGATHAN, ERNAKULAM REGION
SAMPLE PAPER – II: MARKING SCHEME
CLASS : XII MAX MARKS : 35
SUBJECT: PHYSICS TIME: 2 hours
1 Extrinsic property of A : p – type ; B : n - type 1
1

2 The work function is the minimum energy required to eject photo 2

electrons. The electrons in the metal surface belong to various energy
levels. So the they gain different kinetic energies from photons of same
energy.
OR
Energy equation for Balmer series ½
Maximum energy from Balmer series using Rydberg equation = 3.4 eV 1
Maximum work function = 3.4eV ½

3 Photo diode ½
Any one use ½
1
Circuit diagram of photo diode
SECTION B
4 𝜆
𝐴𝑛𝑔𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑤𝑖𝑑𝑡ℎ =
𝑎
(i) (a) Become half (b) increases 1
(ii) Diffraction is prominent when the size of the aperture/obstacle 1
is of the order of wavelength. Sound waves have larger
wavelength than that of light. So diffraction takes place with
large obstacle 1
(iii) For second minima d Sinθ=2λ
=24×10−5×10−2×sin30∘
λ=6×10−7m=6000Å

216
5 𝑃 5 𝑚𝑊 2
𝐸= = = 6.25 × 10−19 𝐽 = 3.9eV
𝑛 8 𝑥 1015
1
Work function = E = eVo = 3.9 – 2 = 1.9 eV
6 Derivation with diagram 2
When grazes, angle of refraction = 90o
Using Snell’s law, angle of incidence = 45o 1
OR
Any two differences ( production/uses/detection) 1
λ1 – IR ; λ2 – Radio ; λ3 – Gamma ; λ4 – X-rays 1
λ2 > λ1 > λ4 > λ3 1
7 Interference pattern ½
Experimental set up ½
Derivation 2
8 Nuclear fission ½
Δm=[235.043933−140.9177−91.8954−2(1.008665)] 2½

=0.213503 amu
E=0.21503×931.5MeV
=198.87 MeV
9 Ray diagram, Expression for magnifying power, two correct suggestions 1,1,1
OR
Ray diagram
1
Calculate vo using formula 1/fo=1/vo−1/ uo 2
Magnification, m=vo / uo (1+D/fe) = 30
10 Circuit diagram of p-n junction with forward bias 1
Explanation and definition of knee voltage 2

11 (i) Balmer series ; Lyman series 1

(ii) Wavelength in Balmer series λB = (36/5 ) R 2

Wavelength in Lyman series λL = (4/3 ) R

Ratio = 27 : 5
12 (i) (a) 1
(ii) (a) 1
(iii) (b) 1
(iv) (a) 1
(v) (d) 1

217
MARKING SCHEME III (SAMPLE QUESTION PAPER III )

1 1
1. P=P1+P2 = -2D : F= = = −0.5𝑚
𝑃 −2

Or
𝐴+𝐷
sin( )
2 = 1.5…………….. (1)
𝒏𝒈𝒂 = 𝐴
𝑠𝑖𝑛
2

𝐴+𝐷′
sin( ) 1.5
2
𝒏𝒈𝒘 = 𝐴
=
…..(2)
𝑠𝑖𝑛 1.3
2

Since eqn1 is greater than eqn2: D’ is less than D.

2. Diagram and explanation.
ℎ 1
3. λ= ,λ.∝
√2𝑚𝑒𝑉 𝑚

Electron has less mass and hence its de Broglie wavelength will be more.
4. (a) An electric charge in a plane perpendicular to the direction of propagation of
wave, will be set in motion by the electric and magnetic fields of the wave This
shows that it carries energy and momentum. (1)
(b)Microwaves are produced by special vacuum tubes like klystron/magnetron. When
the frequency of the microwaves matches with the frequency of the water molecules,
energy is efficiently transferred to the kinetic energy of the molecules. (2)
5. RAY DIAGRAM -labelled (2)
For constructing astronomical telescope, the lens of 0.5D should be used as
objective because of its large focal length. Lens of 10 D should be used as eyepiece
because of its smaller focal length.
𝑓0
𝑚=
𝑓𝑒

OR

1 1 1
u= -45 cm v=90 cm − = F=30 cm
𝑣 𝑢 𝐹

U’=-(45+5) =-50cm 1/v’ =1/f +1/u’ =1/30 -1/50 V’=75 cm.

Displacement of image =90-75=15 cm towards the lens

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6. Definition & 2 conditions
7 .Discussion of YDS and derivation of fringe width.
8. Graph
β=.λ D/a
1. If a is doubled width is halved
2. If wavelength is increased width will increase

9.
Graph between stopping potential and frequency of incident radiation.
Slope of the graph= h/e
Work function=e* intercept on y axis.
10. Graph and explanation.
11. E1=-13.6 eV ,E3=-1.51 eV ,E4=-0.85eV,
(i) KE=-E3 =1.51 eV
(ii)PE=2E4 =-1.7 eV

12. (i) b (ii). a (iii). b (iv). b (v). d

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219
MARKING SCHEME IV (SAMPLE QUESTION PAPER IV )

[Link] ANSWER VALUE

POINT
1 hυ = eV0 +W0 1m
4.1 eV + 2.5 eV= 6.6 eV
1m
υ= [Link]/h= 6.6 x 1.6 x10 /6.6x 10
-19 -34 15
= 1.6 x10 Hz
1m
OR
1m
E2 – E1 = hυ -3.4- -13,6 = 10.2 eV
υ= [Link]/h= 10.2 x 1.6 x10-19/6.6x 10-34 = 2.5 x 1015 Hz
2 Photo diode in reverse bias ½ +½
1m
NCERT text book vol-II fig. 14.23
3 In circuit (i) Both D1 and D2 are forward biased hence both will 1m
conduct current and resistance of each diode is “0”.Therefore I = 3/15
= 0.2 A 1m
In circuit(ii) Diode D1 is forward bias and D2 is reverse bias,
therefore resistance of diode D1 is “0” and resistance of D2 is
infinite. Hence D1 will conduct and D2 do not conduct. No current
flows in the circuit.
4 Microwaves, X-rays,γ -rays, UV rays ½ +½+½
+½
λgama < λX < λ uv < λmicro
1m
5 1½ +1½
Diagram + derivation of m= -L/fo(1 +D/fe)

6 Light travel from denser medium to rare medium. 1

a 1
µb = 1/sinC For TIR, I > C, sin i> sin C, 1/sin I < 1/sin C , aµb>
1
1.414
1
green and blue will undergo TIR, red will emerge out
1
OR 1
β = Dλ/d; β ‘= D’λ/d.
β - β’ = (D-D’)λ/d.
λ = (β - β’ )d / (D-D’) = 3 x 10-5 x 10-3 / 5 x 10-2 = 6 x 10-7m = 6000
A0

220
7 1
A locus of points, which oscillate in phase is called a wavefront.
1
NCERT Vol-II ,[Link] 357,fig 10.5 1
Proof n1 sin i = n 2 sin r (Derivation)

8 Macroscopic objects in our daily life do not show wave like 1

properties because the wave length associated with them is very small
and beyond the scope of any measurement. 1
ℎ 1 1
𝜆= ,λα
√2𝑚𝐸 √𝑚

mα>mp>me so λα < λp < λe

9 Zero 1
1
T.E = -13.6 eV, K.E = 13.6 eV
1
P.E = -27.2 eV
10 t1/2=10s, λ=.0693/s, τ=1/λ=14.43s, 1
𝑁 6.25 1
=(1/2)t/T = (1/2)2 1
𝑁0 25

t/T =2 or t= 2 x 10 = 20s
11 NCERT vol-II ,[Link]-478 Fig.14.10 1
1
Formation of p-n junction
½ +½
1)decreases ii) increases
12 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
1. = (μ -1) ( - ), = (μ -1) ( - ) or μ = 1.33
𝑓 𝑅1 𝑅2 19 30 𝛼
1 1 1 1 1 1 1
2. = + , = + or f2 =60 cm
𝐹 𝑓1 𝑓2 30 10 𝑓2

3.(ii) 1
1 1 1 1 1
4. = (μ -1) ( - ) , = (1.5-1)(2/50)= 1/50, f= 50 cm
𝑓 𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑓
1 1 1
5. f ∝ ,μα so f ∝ λ Focal length increases.
𝜇 𝜆

221
 MARKING SCHEME V (SAMPLE QUESTION PAPER V )
CLASS XII PHYSICS THEORY
TERM II SESSION 2021 – 22
………………………………………………………………………………….
1. Output frequency of half wave rectifier -50 Hz ,Frequency of full wave
rectifier= 2 x 50=100Hz
2. Energy of a photon = hv = hc/λ=2.06eV. hence D2 as it has band gap less than
the radiation
3. Not possible for a stable substance. Here energy of the incident photon is low
and the energy of the emitted photon is high. Hence the material has to supply
excess energy needed for the emission which is impossible for a stable
substance.
OR
Kinetic energy = -E =3.36eV, Potential energy =2E = -6.72eV

4. First transition – Balmer , second transition – Lyman

λ1 = hc /E = hc/ 1.9
λ2 = hc /E =hc /10.2
λ1/λ2=10.2/1.9 =5.3
5. Working of LED. Semiconductor with appropriate band gap close to 1.5eV is
preferred. Material should have high optical absorption, availability, low cost.
6. E = mc 2
E =∆ m x 931MeV
∆m = - 0.2888 Hence fission is not possible
7. I = I1+I2+2√ I1I2 Cos ᵠ
ᵠ =0 Resultant intensity =9I
ᵠ =90 Resultant intensity = 5I
ᵠ =180 Resultant intensity = I
Ratio of maximum to minimum = 9:1

222
8. Refractive index of water = real depth/ apparent depth = 12.5/9.4 =1.33
1.63 =12.5/ apparent depth
Apparent depth =12.5/1.63 =7.67cm
Therefore microscope Is to be shifted by 9.4-7.67 =1.73cm
9. Use lens makers formula and solve R = 2.86 cm
Or
Definition, unit, Derivation with fig
10. B0 =E0/c =40x 10-8 =400 nanotesla
W =2∏√ =2 x 3.14 x 50x 10 6
K =w /c =1.05 rad/m
λ= c/√ =6m
E = E0 sin(kx-wt)
B = B0 sin(kx-wt) substitute for k and w
Or gamma ray , production and use, uv- any one use and harmful effect
11. Explain ---Variation of photocurrent with intensity
---------------------Kinetic energy of emitted electron increases with frequency
No time lag between incidence of radiation and emission of photoelectron
According to wave theory absorption of energy by electrons take place
continuously over the entire wave front of the radiation. Hence it will take hour
for a single electron to come out of the metal which contradict the experimental
fact that photoelectron emission is instantaneous.
12. 1)d 2) b 3) c 4) a 5) sin 30 =v /c ,ans. b

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223