MODULE 1

ALTERNATING CURRENT (AC)

CIRCUITS
MAPUA INSTITUE OF TECHNOLOGY
ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT

ENGR. JUN A. TERESA

SINUSOIDAL WAVEFORMS

θ
A. AC CIRCUITS: BASIC PRINCIPLES

1. Types of Electrical Current

 Direct Current (DC). It is electric current which flows in

one direction only.

 Alternating Current (AC). It is electric current that

reverses direction periodically usually many times per
second.

Examples of AC Waveforms:

π 2π
0

Sinusoidal wave Square Wave Triangular wave

1. Generation of Alternating Current and Voltages
Alternating voltage may be generated by:
● Rotating a coil in a magnetic field
● Rotating a magnetic field within a stationary coil
● Altering the direction of the magnetic field
Generation of Alternating Current and Voltages
Circular motion produces a sine wave naturally: -

It's just a very natural and fundamental thing to do and trying to produce
waveforms that are different is either more complicated or leads to unwanted side
effects.

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Generation of Alternating Current and Voltages
1. Faraday’s Laws of Electromagnetic Induction

First Law. An emf is induced in a coil whenever the flux linking

the coil changes with time

Second Law. The magnitude of the induced emf in an N-turn

coil is equal to the time rate of change of the magnetic flux
through it.


Where: einduced
emf
in volts
d 
eN N number
ofturns
ofthe
coil
dt 
d
rate
of
change
of
flux
in Web
per
se
dt
VARIOUS SOURCES OF AC POWER

1. Electric Generating power plant

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 2. Portable ac generator
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3. Wind turbines power stations

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4.

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5. Function Generator

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 AC vs. DC

Alternating current (AC), is

an electric current in which the
flow of electric charge
periodically reverses direction,
whereas in Direct current (DC,
also dc), the flow of electric
charge is only in one direction.

The abbreviations AC and DC

are often used to mean simply
alternating and direct, as when
they modify current or voltage.

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AC vs. DC

AC is the form in which electric power is delivered to

businesses and residences. The usual waveform of
alternating current in most electric power circuits is a sine
wave. In certain applications, different waveforms are used,
such as triangular or square waves.

Audio and radio signals carried on electrical wires are also

examples of alternating current. These types of alternating
current carry information encoded (or modulated) onto the
AC signal, such as sound (audio) or images (video). These
currents typically alternate at higher frequencies than those
used in power transmission.

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WATCH VIDEO

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2wKv0U

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What is Alternating Current?
Fig.1 shows the schematic diagram of a very basic DC circuit. It
consists of nothing more than a source (a producer of electrical
energy) and a load (whatever is to be powered by that electrical
energy). The source can be any electrical source: a chemical battery,
an electronic power supply, a mechanical generator, or any other
possible continuous source of electrical energy. For simplicity, we
represent the source in this figure as a battery.

At the same time, the load can be any electrical load: a light bulb,
electronic clock or watch, electronic instrument, or anything else that
must be driven by a continuous source of electricity. The figure here
represents the load as a simple resistor.

Regardless of the specific source and load in this circuit, electrons

leave the negative terminal of the source, travel through the circuit
in the direction shown by the arrows, and eventually return to the
positive terminal of the source. This action continues for as long as a
complete electrical circuit exists.
 Fig.1 Fig. 2

Now consider the same circuit with a single change, as shown in the
second figure to the right. This time, the energy source is constantly
changing. It begins by building up a voltage which is positive on top
and negative on the bottom, and therefore pushes electrons
through the circuit in the direction shown by the solid arrows.
However, then the source voltage starts to fall off, and eventually
reverse polarity. Now current will still flow through the circuit, but
this time in the direction shown by the dotted arrows. This cycle
repeats itself endlessly, and as a result the current through the
circuit reverses direction repeatedly. This is known as an alternating
current.
This kind of reversal makes no difference to some kinds of loads. For
example, the light bulbs in your home don't care which way current
flows through them. When you close the circuit by turning on the
light switch, the light turns on without regard for the direction of
current flow.

Of course, there are some kinds of loads that require current to flow
in only one direction. In such cases, we often need to convert
alternating current such as the power provided at your wall socket to
direct current for use by the load. There are several ways to
accomplish this, and we will explore some of them in later pages in
this section.
VOLTAGE WAVEFORMS
If a graph is constructed showing the
amplitude of a dc voltage across the
terminals of a battery with respect to time, it
will appear in figure 1-1 view A.
The dc voltage is shown to have a constant
amplitude. Some voltages go through
periodic changes in amplitude like those
shown in figure 1-1 view B.
The pattern which results when these
changes in amplitude with respect to time
are plotted on graph paper is known as a
WAVEFORM.
Figure 1-1 view B shows some of the
common electrical waveforms. Of those
illustrated, the sine wave will be dealt with
most often.
Figure 1-1. - Voltage waveforms: (A). Direct
voltage; (B) Alternating voltage.

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Basic Alternating Current Generator

The Basic AC Generation

- The process is called ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION.
- As the coil (wire) cuts the flux, an induced emf (voltage) is generated.

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AC GENERATION USING ELEMENTARY GENERATOR
THE WAVEFORM
THE FREQUENCY - one complete revolution each second. the generator
produces a number of cycles of ac during each second (1 Hz).

THE PERIOD - The time required to complete one cycle of a waveform

is called the PERIOD of the wave.
t  1/ f where : f = frequency
f  1/ t t = period
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Ex.1. Find the period of a periodic waveform with a frequency of
a) 60Hz
b) 1000Hz

Ex. 2 Find the frequency of the waveform from the figure

0 5 15 25 35ms
When dealing with sine waves in the time domain and
especially current related sine waves the unit of
measurement used along the horizontal axis of the waveform
can be either time, degrees or radians. In electrical
engineering it is more common to use the Radian as the
angular measurement of the angle along the horizontal axis
rather than degrees. For example, ω = 100 rad/s, or
500 rad/s.
Radians

The Radian, (rad) is defined mathematically as a quadrant of

a circle where the distance subtended on the circumference
equals the radius (r) of the circle. Since the circumference of
a circle is equal to 2π x radius, there must be 2π radians
around a 360o circle, so 1 radian = 360o/2π = 57.3o. In
electrical engineering the use of radians is very common so it
is important to remember the following formula.
Definition of a Radian
Using radians as the unit of measurement for a sinusoidal
waveform would give 2π radians for one full cycle of 360o.
Then half a sinusoidal waveform must be equal to 1π radians
or just π (pi). Then knowing that pi, π is equal
to 3.142 or 22÷7, the relationship between degrees and
radians for a sinusoidal waveform is given as.
Relationship between Degrees and
Radians

Applying these two equations to various points along the

waveform gives us.
The conversion between degrees and radians for the more
common equivalents used in sinusoidal analysis are given in
the following table.
Relationship between Degrees and Radians

The velocity at which the generator rotates around its central

axis determines the frequency of the sinusoidal waveform. As
the frequency of the waveform is given as ƒ Hz or cycles per
second, the waveform has angular frequency, ω, (Greek
letter omega), in radians per second. Then the angular
velocity of a sinusoidal waveform is given as.
Angular Velocity of a Sinusoidal Waveform

and in the United Kingdom, the angular velocity or frequency

of the mains supply is given as:

in the USA as their mains supply frequency is 60Hz it is

therefore: 377 rad/s
So we now know that the velocity at which the generator
rotates around its central axis determines the frequency of
the sinusoidal waveform and which can also be called
its angular velocity, ω. But we should by now also know that
the time required to complete one revolution is equal to the
periodic time, (T) of the sinusoidal waveform.

As frequency is inversely proportional to its time

period, ƒ = 1/T we can therefore substitute the frequency
quantity in the above equation for the equivalent periodic time
quantity and substituting gives us.

The above equation states that for a smaller periodic time of the sinusoidal
waveform, the greater must be the angular velocity of the waveform.
Likewise in the equation above for the frequency quantity, the higher the
frequency the higher the angular velocity.
ANGULAR VELOCITY (ω) – the velocity at which the radius
vector rotates about the center.

ω =
distance
(radia
or
deg
time
(seco
2 radian

ω = 2f or  
T  sec 

CYCLE = the portion of a waveform contained in one period of

time.
1 cycle 1 cycle 1 cycle
3. Determine the period of the following waveforms
1 sec 1 sec

T T

(a) (b)
1 sec

T (c)
4. Determine the frequency and T of (a) and (b)

The value of ω depends on the values of f and T

a) ω = 100 rad/sec

b) ω = 500 rad/sec

5. Given ω = 500 rad/sec, how long will it take the sinusoidal

waveform to pass through an angle of 90o?

6. Find the angle (in degrees) through which a sinusoidal

waveform of 60cycle will pass in a period of 5msec.
7. a) Determine the angle at which the magnitude of the
Sinusoidal function v = 10sin377t is 4V.
b) Determine the times at which this magnitude is attained.
 MODULE 2
GENERAL FORMAT FOR THE
SINUSOIDAL VOLTAGE OR
CURRENT
MAPUA INSTITUE OF TECHNOLOGY
ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT

ENGR. JUN A. TERESA

Generation of Sinusoidal Waveforms
From ELECTROMAGNETISM, we saw how an electric
current flowing through a conductor can be used to
generate a magnetic field around itself, and also if a
single wire conductor is moved or rotated within a
stationary magnetic field, an “EMF”, (Electro-Motive
Force) will be induced within the conductor due to this
movement.

From this tutorial we learnt that a relationship exists

between Electricity and Magnetism giving us, as Michael
Faraday discovered the effect of “Electromagnetic
Induction” and it is this basic principal that electrical
machines and generators use to generate a Sinusoidal
Waveform for our mains supply.
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Generation of Sinusoidal Waveforms

In the electromagnetic induction, tutorial we said that when a

single wire conductor moves through a permanent magnetic
field thereby cutting its lines of flux, an EMF is induced in it.

However, if the conductor moves in

parallel with the magnetic field in the
case of points A and B, no lines of flux
are cut and no EMF is induced into the
conductor, but if the conductor moves
at right angles to the magnetic field as
in the case of points C and D, the
maximum amount of magnetic flux is
cut producing the maximum amount of
induced EMF.
Generation of Sinusoidal Waveforms
Also, as the conductor cuts the magnetic field at different
angles between points A and C, 0 and 90o the amount of
induced EMF will lie somewhere between this zero and
maximum value. Then the amount of emf induced within a
conductor depends on the angle between the conductor and
the magnetic flux as well as the strength of the magnetic field.

An AC generator uses the principal of Faraday’s

electromagnetic induction to convert a mechanical energy such
as rotation, into electrical energy, a Sinusoidal Waveform. A
simple generator consists of a pair of permanent magnets
producing a fixed magnetic field between a north and a south
pole. Inside this magnetic field is a single rectangular loop of
wire that can be rotated around a fixed axis allowing it to cut the
magnetic flux at various angles as shown below.
Generation of Sinusoidal Waveforms
Basic Single Coil AC Generator
Generation of Sinusoidal Waveforms

As the coil rotates anticlockwise around the central axis which

is perpendicular to the magnetic field, the wire loop cuts the
lines of magnetic force set up between the north and south
poles at different angles as the loop rotates. The amount of
induced EMF in the loop at any instant of time is proportional
to the angle of rotation of the wire loop.

As this wire loop rotates, electrons in the wire flow in one

direction around the loop. Now when the wire loop has
rotated past the 180o point and moves across the magnetic
lines of force in the opposite direction, the electrons in the
wire loop change and flow in the opposite direction. Then the
direction of the electron movement determines the polarity of
the induced voltage.
Generation of Sinusoidal Waveforms
So we can see that when the loop or coil physically rotates
one complete revolution, or 360o, one full sinusoidal waveform
is produced with one cycle of the waveform being produced
for each revolution of the coil. As the coil rotates within the
magnetic field, the electrical connections are made to the coil
by means of carbon brushes and slip-rings which are used to
transfer the electrical current induced in the coil.

The amount of EMF induced into a coil cutting the magnetic

lines of force is determined by the following three factors.
• Speed – the speed at which the coil rotates inside the magnetic
field.
• Strength – the strength of the magnetic field.
• Length – the length of the coil or conductor passing through the
magnetic field.
Generation of Sinusoidal Waveforms

We know that the frequency of a supply is the number of

times a cycle appears in one second and that frequency is
measured in Hertz. As one cycle of induced emf is produced
each full revolution of the coil through a magnetic field
comprising of a north and south pole as shown above, if the
coil rotates at a constant speed a constant number of cycles
will be produced per second giving a constant frequency. So
by increasing the speed of rotation of the coil the frequency
will also be increased. Therefore, frequency is proportional to
the speed of rotation, ( ƒ ∝ Ν ) where Ν = r.p.m.
Generation of Sinusoidal Waveforms

Also, our simple single coil generator above only has two
poles, one north and one south pole, giving just one pair of
poles. If we add more magnetic poles to the generator above
so that it now has four poles in total, two north and two south,
then for each revolution of the coil two cycles will be produced
for the same rotational speed. Therefore, frequency is
proportional to the number of pairs of magnetic poles, ( ƒ ∝ P )
of the generator where P = is the number of “pairs of poles”.
Generation of Sinusoidal Waveforms
Then from these two facts we can say that the frequency
output from an AC generator is:

Where: Ν is the speed of rotation in r.p.m. P is the number of

“pairs of poles” and 60 converts it into seconds.
Generation of Sinusoidal Waveforms
Instantaneous Voltage
The EMF induced in the coil at any instant of time depends
upon the rate or speed at which the coil cuts the lines of
magnetic flux between the poles and this is dependant upon
the angle of rotation, Theta ( θ ) of the generating device.
Because an AC waveform is constantly changing its value or
amplitude, the waveform at any instant in time will have a
different value from its next instant in time.

For example, the value at 1ms will be different to the value at

1.2ms and so on. These values are known generally as
the Instantaneous Values, or Vi Then the instantaneous
value of the waveform and also its direction will vary
according to the position of the coil within the magnetic field
as shown below.
Generation of Sinusoidal Waveforms
Displacement of a Coil within a Magnetic Field
Generation of Sinusoidal Waveforms
The instantaneous values of a sinusoidal waveform is given
as the “Instantaneous value = Maximum value x sin θ ” and
this is generalized by the formula.

Where, Vmax is the maximum voltage induced in the coil

and θ = ωt, is the angle of coil rotation.
If we know the maximum or peak value of the waveform, by
using the formula above the instantaneous values at
various points along the waveform can be calculated. By
plotting these values out onto graph paper, a sinusoidal
waveform shape can be constructed.
Generation of Sinusoidal Waveforms

In order to keep things simple we will plot the instantaneous

values for the sinusoidal waveform at every 45 o of rotation
giving us 8 points to plot. Again, to keep it simple we will
assume a maximum voltage, VMAX value of 100V. Plotting
the instantaneous values at shorter intervals, for example at
every 30o (12 points) or 10o (36 points) for example would
result in a more accurate sinusoidal waveform construction.
Generation of Sinusoidal Waveforms
Sinusoidal Waveform Construction
Generation of Sinusoidal Waveforms
The points on the sinusoidal waveform are obtained by
projecting across from the various positions of rotation
between 0o and 360o to the ordinate of the waveform that
corresponds to the angle, θ and when the wire loop or coil
rotates one complete revolution, or 360 o, one full waveform is
produced.

From the plot of the sinusoidal waveform we can see that

when θ is equal to 0o, 180o or 360o, the generated EMF is
zero as the coil cuts the minimum amount of lines of flux.
But when θ is equal to 90o and 270o the generated EMF is at
its maximum value as the maximum amount of flux is cut.
Generation of Sinusoidal Waveforms
Therefore a sinusoidal waveform has a positive peak at
90o and a negative peak at 270o. Positions B, D,
F and H generate a value of EMF corresponding to the
formula e = Vmax•sinθ.

Then the waveform shape produced by our simple single

loop generator is commonly referred to as a Sine Wave as
it is said to be sinusoidal in its shape. This type of
waveform is called a sine wave because it is based on the
trigonometric sine function used in mathematics,
( x(t) = Amax•sinθ ).
Sinusoidal Waveform
Then the generalized format used for analyzing and
calculating the various values of a Sinusoidal Waveform is
as follows:
A Sinusoidal Waveform
Sinusoidal Waveform
Sinusoidal Waveform Example No1
A sinusoidal waveform is defined as: Vm = 169.8 sin(377t) volts.
Calculate the RMS voltage of the waveform, its frequency and
the instantaneous value of the voltage after a time of 6ms.
We know from above that the general expression given for a
sinusoidal waveform is:

Then comparing this to our given expression for a

sinusoidal waveform above of Vm = 169.8 sin(377t) will give
us the peak voltage value of 169.8 volts for the waveform.
Sinusoidal Waveform

The waveforms RMS voltage is calculated as:

The angular velocity (ω) is given as 377 rad/s.

Then 2πƒ = 377. So the frequency of the waveform is
calculated as:
Sinusoidal Waveform
The instantaneous voltage Vi value after a time of 6mS is
given as:
THE WAVELENGTH - The time it takes for a sine wave to complete one
cycle is defined as the period of the waveform. The distance
traveled by the sine wave during this period is referred to as
WAVELENGTH.

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ALTERNATING CURRENT VALUES
In discussing alternating current and voltage, you will often find it
necessary to express the current and voltage in terms of MAXIMUM or
PEAK values, PEAK-to-PEAK values, EFFECTIVE values, AVERAGE
values, or INSTANTANEOUS values. Each of these values has a different
meaning and is used to describe a different amount of current or voltage.

The Maximum or peak value Note that the dc starts and stops at
the same moment as does the
positive alternation, and that both
waveforms rise to the same maximum
value.
However, the dc values are greater
than the corresponding ac values at
all points except the point at which the
positive alternation passes through its
maximum value.

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During each complete cycle of ac there are always two maximum or peak
values, one for the positive half-cycle and the other for the negative half-
cycle.

The Peak-to-peak Value

The difference between the peak

positive value and the peak
negative value is called the peak-
to-peak value of the sine wave.
This value is twice the maximum or
peak value of the sine wave and is
sometimes used for measurement
of ac voltages.

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VARIOUS VALUES OF AC WAVEFORMS

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[Link]
Characteristics of a Sine Wave

A wave form is a graph showing the variation, usually of voltage or

current, against time. The horizontal axis shows the passing of
time, progressing from left to right. The vertical axis shows the
quantity measured
The PEAK TO PEAK value is the vertical distance between the top and bottom of
the wave. It will be measured in volts on a voltage waveform, and may be
labelled VPP or VPK−PK. In a current waveform it would be labelled IPP or IPK−PK as I
(not C) is used to represent current.

This is the value (voltage or current) of a wave at any particular instant. often
chosen to coincide with some other event. E.g. The instantaneous value of a sine
wave one quarter of the way through the cycle will be equal to the peak value.

The AMPLITUDE of a sine wave is the maximum vertical distance reached, in

either direction from the centre line of the wave. As a sine wave is symmetrical
about its centre line, the amplitude of the wave is half the peak to peak value
However this is not always the case, if a dc component other than zero volts is
also present, the sine wave will be symmetrical about this level rather than
zero. The bottom waveform in in the last figure shows that the peak value can
now be even larger than the peak to peak value, (the amplitude of the wave
however, remains the same, and is the difference between the peak value and
the "centre line" of the waveform).

The PERIODIC TIME (given the symbol T) is the time, in seconds milliseconds etc.
taken for one complete cycle of the wave. It can be used to find the FREQUENCY
of the wave ƒ using the formula T =1/ƒ
Thus if the periodic time of a wave is 20ms (or 1/50th of a second) then there
must be 50 complete cycles of the wave in one second. A frequency of 50 Hz.
Note that when you use this formula, if the periodic time is in seconds then the
frequency will be in Hz.
The AVERAGE value. This is normally taken to mean the average value of only
half a cycle of the wave. If the average of the full cycle was taken it would of
course be zero, as in a sine wave symmetrical about zero, there are equal
excursions above and below the zero line.
Using only half a cycle, as illustrated in figure below the average value (voltage
or current) is always 0.637 of the peak value of the wave.
As the name implies, Vavg is calculated by taking the average of the voltage in an
appropriately chosen interval. In the case of symmetrical waveforms like the sine
wave, a quarter cycle faithfully represents all four quarter cycles of the waveform.
Therefore, it is acceptable to choose the first quarter cycle, which goes from 0
radians (0°) through p/2 radians (90°).
The average value is the value that usually determines the voltage or current
indicated on a test meter. There are however some meters that will read the
RMS value, these are called "True RMS meters".

The RMS or ROOT MEAN SQUARED value is the value of the equivalent direct
(non varying) voltage or current which would provide the same energy to a
circuit as the sine wave measured. That is, if an AC sine wave has a RMS value of
240 volts, it will provide the same energy to a circuit as a DC supply of 240 volts.
It can be shown that the RMS value of a sine wave is 0.707 of the peak value.
VRMS = VPK x 0.707 and IRMS = IPK x 0.707
Also, the peak value of a sine wave is equal to 1.414 x the RMS value.
As the name implies, Vrms is calculated by taking the square root of the
mean average of the square of the voltage in an appropriately chosen
interval. In the case of symmetrical waveforms like the sinewave, a
quarter cycle faithfully represents all four quarter cycles of the waveform.
Therefore, it is acceptable to choose the first quarter cycle, which goes
from 0 radians (0°) through p/2 radians (90°).
Vrms is the value indicated by the vast majority of AC voltmeters. It is the
value that, when applied across a resistance, produces that same amount
of heat that a direct current (DC) voltage of the same magnitude would
produce. For example, 1 V applied across a 1 Ω resistor produces 1 W of
heat. A 1 Vrms sinewave applied across a 1 Ω resistor also produces 1 W of
heat. That 1 Vrms sinewave has a peak voltage of √2 V (≈1.414 V), and a
peak-to-peak voltage of 2√2 V (≈2.828 V).
If VAV (0.637) is multiplied by 1.11 the answer is 0.707, which is the
RMS value. This difference is called the Form Factor of the wave,
and the relationship of 1.11 is only true for a perfect sine wave. If
the wave is some other shape, either the RMS or the average value
(or both) will change, and so will the relationship between them.
This is important when measuring AC voltages with a meter as it is
the average value that most meters actually measure. However
they display the RMS value simply by multiplying the voltage by
1.11. Therefore if the AC wave being measured is not a perfect
sine wave the reading will be slightly wrong. If you pay enough
money however, you can buy a true RMS meter that actually
calculates the RMS value of non-sine waves.
To demonstrate some of these characteristics in use, consider a very common
sine wave, the mains supply or line waveform, which in many parts of the world is
a nominal 230V.
Electrical equipment that connects to the mains supply always carries a label
giving information about what supply the equipment can be connected to.
These labels are quite variable in appearance, but often there is a picture of a
sine wave showing that an a.c. supply must be used. The voltage quoted will be
230V (or 120V in the USA)or range of voltages including these values. These
voltages actually refer to the RMS value of the mains sine wave. The label also
states that the frequency of the supply, which is 50Hz in Europe or 60Hz in the
USA.
We all know that electric utilities in the United States generate electricity at various 60-Hz
voltage levels that result in a sine wave waveform. The height, or amplitude, of this sine
wave is called its “peak value.” Instead of using the peak value, however, we describe the
amplitude of a sine wave as its effective, or root-mean-square (rms), value.

When taking field measurements with a digital multimeter, it’s

important you understand the difference between peak and rms
readings.
DC voltages have a crest factor of 1.0, because the rms and peak amplitudes are
equal. It's the same for a square wave (50% duty cycle). For a triangle wave, it's
1.73. Crest factors for other waveforms are shown in the Table below . As you can
see, crest factor is a dimensionless quantity.
 Phase Difference
&
Phase Relationships

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The phase difference or phase shift as it is also called of a
sinusoidal waveform is the angle Φ (Greek letter Phi), in
degrees or radians that the waveform has shifted from a
certain reference point along the horizontal zero axis.

In other words phase shift is the lateral difference

between two or more waveforms along a common axis
and sinusoidal waveforms of the same frequency can have
a phase difference.
The phase difference, Φ of an alternating waveform can
vary from between 0 to its maximum time period, T of the
waveform during one complete cycle and this can be
anywhere along the horizontal axis between, Φ = 0 to
2π (radians) or Φ = 0 to 360o depending upon the angular
units used.

Phase difference can also be expressed as a time

shift of τ in seconds representing a fraction of the time
period, T for example, +10mS or - 50uS but generally it is
more common to express phase difference as an angular
measurement.
Then the equation for the instantaneous value of a
sinusoidal voltage or current waveform we developed in
the previous Sinusoidal Waveform will need to be
modified to take account of the phase angle of the
waveform and this new general expression becomes.

Phase Difference Equation

Where:
Am - is the amplitude of the waveform.
ωt - is the angular frequency of the waveform in radian/sec.
Φ (phi) - is the phase angle in degrees or radians that the
waveform has shifted either left or right from the
reference point.

If the positive slope of the sinusoidal waveform passes through the

horizontal axis "before" t = 0 then the waveform has shifted to the
left so Φ >0, and the phase angle will be positive in nature.
Likewise, if the positive slope of the sinusoidal waveform passes
through the horizontal axis "after" t = 0 then the waveform has
shifted to the right so Φ <0, and the phase angle will be negative in
nature and this is shown below.
Phase Relationship of a Sinusoidal Waveform
Firstly, lets consider that two alternating quantities such as a
voltage, v and a current, i have the same frequency ƒ in Hertz.
As the frequency of the two quantities is the same the angular
velocity, ω must also be the same. So at any instant in time we
can say that the phase of voltage, v will be the same as the
phase of the current, i.

Then the angle of rotation within a particular time period will

always be the same and the phase difference between the two
quantities of v and i will therefore be zero and Φ = 0. As the
frequency of the voltage, v and the current, i are the same they
must both reach their maximum positive, negative and zero
values during one complete cycle at the same time (although
their amplitudes may be different). Then the two alternating
quantities, v and i are said to be "in-phase".
Two Sinusoidal Waveforms - "in-phase"
Now lets consider that the voltage, v and the current, i have a phase
difference between themselves of 30o, so (Φ = 30o orπ/6 radians).
As both alternating quantities rotate at the same speed, i.e. they
have the same frequency, this phase difference will remain constant
for all instants in time, then the phase difference of 30o between
the two quantities is represented by phi, Φ as shown below.

Phase Difference of a Sinusoidal Waveform

The voltage waveform above starts at zero along the
horizontal reference axis, but at that same instant of time
the current waveform is still negative in value and does not
cross this reference axis until 30o later. Then there exists
a Phase difference between the two waveforms as the
current cross the horizontal reference axis reaching its
maximum peak and zero values after the voltage
waveform.
As the two waveforms are no longer "in-phase", they must
therefore be "out-of-phase" by an amount determined by
phi, Φand in our example this is 30o. So we can say that the
two waveforms are now 30o out-of phase. The current
waveform can also be said to be "lagging" behind the
voltage waveform by the phase angle, Φ. Then in our
example above the two waveforms have a Lagging Phase
Difference so the expression for both the voltage and
current above will be given as.

where, i lags v by angle Φ

The phase angle of a sine wave can be used to describe the
relationship of one sine wave to another by using the terms
"Leading" and "Lagging" to indicate the relationship between
two sinusoidal waveforms of the same frequency, plotted onto
the same reference axis. In our example above the two
waveforms are out-of-phase by 30o so we can say
that i lags v or v leads i by 30o.

The relationship between the two waveforms and the resulting

phase angle can be measured anywhere along the horizontal
zero axis through which each waveform passes with the "same
slope" direction either positive or negative. In AC power
circuits this ability to describe the relationship between a
voltage and a current sine wave within the same circuit is very
important and forms the bases of AC circuit analysis.
The Cosine Waveform
So we now know that if a waveform is "shifted" to the
right or left of 0o when compared to another sine wave the
expression for this waveform becomes Am sin(ωt ± Φ). But
if the waveform crosses the horizontal zero axis with a
positive going slope 90o or π/2 radians before the
reference waveform, the waveform is called a Cosine
Waveform and the expression becomes.
 Cosine Expression

The Cosine Wave, simply called "cos", is as important as

the sine wave in electrical engineering. The cosine wave
has the same shape as its sine wave counterpart that is it is
a sinusoidal function, but is shifted by +90o or one full
quarter of a period ahead of it.
Phase Difference between a Sine
wave and a Cosine wave
Alternatively, we can also say that a sine wave is a cosine wave that
has been shifted in the other direction by -90o. Either way when
dealing with sine waves or cosine waves with an angle the following
rules will always apply.

Sine and Cosine Wave Relationships

When comparing two sinusoidal waveforms it more common to
express their relationship as either a sine or cosine with positive
going amplitudes and this is achieved using the following
mathematical identities.
Phase Relations
Phase Relations
Phase Relations
Phase Relations
Phase Relations
Phase Relations
The phase relationship between two waveforms indicates
which one leads or lags the other, and by how many
degrees or radians.

Example: What is the phase relationship between the

sinusoidal waveforms of each of the following sets:
1.v = 10 sin (ωt + 30o) V 4.v = 10 cos (ωt + 10o) V
i = 5 sin (ωt + 70o) A i = 5 sin (ωt -10o) A
2. v = 15 sin (ωt + 60o) V 5.v = –10 cos (ωt + 30o) V
i = 5 sin (ωt – 20o) A i = 5 sin (ωt + 10o) A

3.v = 10 cos (ωt + 10o) V 6.v = –10 cos (ωt - 60o) V

i = 5 sin (ωt – 10o) A i = 5 sin (ωt – 150o) A
Measurements of
AC Magnitude

[Link]
Measurements of AC Magnitude
So far we know that AC voltage alternates in polarity and AC current
alternates in direction. We also know that AC can alternate in a variety of
different ways, and by tracing the alternation over time we can plot it as a
“waveform.” We can measure the rate of alternation by measuring the
time it takes for a wave to evolve before it repeats itself (the “period”),
and express this as cycles per unit time, or “frequency.” In music,
frequency is the same as pitch, which is the essential property
distinguishing one note from another.

However, we encounter a measurement problem if we try to express

how large or small an AC quantity is. With DC, where quantities of
voltage and current are generally stable, we have little trouble
expressing how much voltage or current we have in any part of a circuit.
But how do you grant a single measurement of magnitude to something
that is constantly changing?
Measurements of AC Magnitude
One way to express the intensity, or magnitude (also called
the amplitude), of an AC quantity is to measure its peak height on a
waveform graph. This is known as the peak or crest value of an AC
waveform:

Peak voltage of a waveform.

Measurements of AC Magnitude
Another way is to measure the total height between opposite
peaks. This is known as the peak-to-peak (P-P) value of an AC
waveform

Peak-to-peak voltage of a waveform

Measurements of AC Magnitude
Unfortunately, either one of these expressions of waveform
amplitude can be misleading when comparing two different types
of waves. For example, a square wave peaking at 10 volts is
obviously a greater amount of voltage for a greater amount of time
than a triangle wave peaking at 10 volts. The effects of these two AC
voltages powering a load would be quite different:

A square wave produces a

greater heating effect than the
same peak voltage triangle
wave.
Measurements of AC Magnitude

One way of expressing the amplitude of different wave shapes in a

more equivalent fashion is to mathematically average the values of
all the points on a waveform’s graph to a single, aggregate number.
This amplitude measure is known simply as the average value of
the waveform. If we average all the points on the waveform
algebraically (that is, to consider their sign, either positive or
negative), the average value for most waveforms is technically zero,
because all the positive points cancel out all the negative points
over a full cycle:

The average value of a sine

wave is zero.
Measurements of AC Magnitude
This, of course, will be true for any waveform having equal-area
portions above and below the “zero” line of a plot. However, as
a practical measure of a waveform’s aggregate value, “average” is
usually defined as the mathematical mean of all the
points’ absolute values over a cycle. In other words, we calculate
the practical average value of the waveform by considering all
points on the wave as positive quantities, as if the waveform
looked like this:

Waveform seen by AC “average responding” meter.

Measurements of AC Magnitude

Polarity-insensitive mechanical meter movements (meters

designed to respond equally to the positive and negative half-
cycles of an alternating voltage or current) register in proportion to
the waveform’s (practical) average value, because the inertia of the
pointer against the tension of the spring naturally averages the
force produced by the varying voltage/current values over time.
Conversely, polarity-sensitive meter movements vibrate uselessly if
exposed to AC voltage or current, their needles oscillating rapidly
about the zero mark, indicating the true (algebraic) average value
of zero for a symmetrical waveform. When the “average” value of a
waveform is referenced in this text, it will be assumed that the
“practical” definition of average is intended unless otherwise
specified.
Measurements of AC Magnitude

Another method of deriving an aggregate value for waveform

amplitude is based on the waveform’s ability to do useful work
when applied to a load resistance. Unfortunately, an AC
measurement based on work performed by a waveform is not the
same as that waveform’s “average” value, because
the power dissipated by a given load (work performed per unit
time) is not directly proportional to the magnitude of either the
voltage or current impressed upon it. Rather, power is proportional
to the square of the voltage or current applied to a resistance (P =
E2/R, and P = I2R). Although the mathematics of such an amplitude
measurement might not be straightforward, the utility of it is.
 Measurements of AC Magnitude
Consider a bandsaw and a jigsaw, two pieces of modern
woodworking equipment. Both types of saws cut with a thin,
toothed, motor-powered metal blade to cut wood. But while the
bandsaw uses a continuous motion of the blade to cut, the jigsaw
uses a back-and-forth motion. The comparison of alternating current
(AC) to direct current (DC) may be likened to the comparison of
these two saw types:

Bandsaw-jigsaw analogy of DC vs AC.

Measurements of AC Magnitude
The problem of trying to describe the changing quantities of AC voltage or
current in a single, aggregate measurement is also present in this saw
analogy: how might we express the speed of a jigsaw blade? A bandsaw
blade moves with a constant speed, similar to the way DC voltage pushes
or DC current moves with a constant magnitude. A jigsaw blade, on the
other hand, moves back and forth, its blade speed constantly changing.
What is more, the back-and-forth motion of any two jigsaws may not be
of the same type, depending on the mechanical design of the saws. One
jigsaw might move its blade with a sine-wave motion, while another with
a triangle-wave motion. To rate a jigsaw based on its peak blade speed
would be quite misleading when comparing one jigsaw to another (or a
jigsaw with a bandsaw!). Despite the fact that these different saws move
their blades in different manners, they are equal in one respect: they all
cut wood, and a quantitative comparison of this common function can
serve as a common basis for which to rate blade speed.
Measurements of AC Magnitude
Picture a jigsaw and bandsaw side-by-side, equipped with identical
blades (same tooth pitch, angle, etc.), equally capable of cutting the same
thickness of the same type of wood at the same rate. We might say that
the two saws were equivalent or equal in their cutting capacity. Might
this comparison be used to assign a “bandsaw equivalent” blade speed to
the jigsaw’s back-and-forth blade motion; to relate the wood-cutting
effectiveness of one to the other? This is the general idea used to assign a
“DC equivalent” measurement to any AC voltage or current: whatever
magnitude of DC voltage or current would produce the same amount of
heat energy dissipation through an equal resistance:

An RMS voltage produces

the same heating effect as
a the same DC voltage
Measurements of AC Magnitude

[Link]
om/textbook/alternating-
current/chpt-
1/measurements-ac-
magnitude/
Sinusoidal AC Voltage Characteristics and Definition
Sinusoidal AC Voltage Characteristics and Definition
Sinusoidal AC Voltage Characteristics and Definition
Sinusoidal AC Voltage Characteristics and Definition
Sinusoidal AC Voltage Characteristics and Definition
Sinusoidal AC Voltage Characteristics and Definition
Definitions:
Definitions:
Definitions:
Definitions:
Definitions:
Sinusoidal AC Voltage Characteristics and Definition
The Oscilloscope
The Oscilloscope
The Oscilloscope
The Oscilloscope
The AVERAGE VALUE
The AVERAGE VALUE
The AVERAGE VALUE
The AVERAGE VALUE
The AVERAGE VALUE
The AVERAGE VALUE
The AVERAGE VALUE
The RMS VALUE
The RMS VALUE
The RMS VALUE
The RMS VALUE
The RMS VALUE
The RMS VALUE
The RMS VALUE
The RMS VALUE
The RMS VALUE
The RMS VALUE
The RMS VALUE
The RMS VALUE
AC meters and Instruments
AC meters and Instruments
AC meters and Instruments
AC meters and Instruments
AC meters and Instruments
AC meters and Instruments
AC meters and Instruments
AC meters and Instruments
AC meters and Instruments

FIN
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Example 23.1
The phase sequence of the Y-connected generator in Fig. 23.13 is ABC.
a. Find the phase angles θ2 and θ3.
b. Find the magnitude of the line voltages.
c. Find the line currents.

Fig. 23.13
Example 23.1 – Solutions

a. For an ABC phase sequence

θ2 = -120o and θ3 = +120o

b. E L  3E  1.73120V   208V

Therefore, E AB  E BC  ECA  208V

c. Vø = Eø.
Therefore, Van = EAN Vbn = EBN Vcn = ECN

Van 120V0 120V0

IøL = Ian =    24A - 53.13
Z an 3  j 4 553.13
V 120V  120
Ibn = bn   24A - 173.13
Z bn 553.13
V 120V  120
Icn = cn   24A66.87
Z cn 553.13

And since IL = IøL,

IAa = Ian = 24A - 53.13
IBb = Ibn = 24A - 173.13
ICc = Icn = 24A66.87

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Example 23.2
For the three-phase system in Fig. 23.15:

a. Find the phase angles θ2 and θ3.

b. Find the current in each phase of the load.
c. Find the magnitude of the line currents.

Fig. 23.15
Example 23.2 – Solutions

a. For an ABC sequence,

θ2 = -120o and θ3 = +120o

b. Vø = EL.
Therefore, Vab = EAB Vca = ECA Vbc = EBC

The phase currents are

Vab 150V0 150V0

Iab =    15A - 53.13
Z ab 6  j8 1053.13
V 150V  120
Ibc = bc   15A - 173.13
Z bc 1053.13
V 150V  120
Ica = ca   15A66.87
Z ca 1053.13

c. I L  3I   1.7315A   25.95A
Therefore, IAa = IBb = ICc = 25.95 A

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Example 23.3
For the Δ-Δ system shown in Fig. 23.20:

a. Find the phase angles θ2 and θ3 for the specified phase sequence.
b. Find the current in each phase of the load.
c. Find the magnitude of the line currents.

Fig. 23.20

Example 23.3 – Solutions

a. For an ACB sequence,

θ2 = +120o and θ3 = -120o

b. Vø = EL
Therefore, Vab = EAB Vca = ECA Vbc = EBC

The phase currents are

Z  Z ab  Z bc  Z ca


Z R ZC

505  90  25  90  3.54  45
Z R  ZC 5  j 5 7.071  45

Vab 120V0
Iab =   33.9A45
Z ab 3.54  45

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Vbc 120V  120

Ibc =   33.9A165
Z bc 3.54 - 45
V 120V  120
Ica = ca   33.9A - 75
Z ca 3.54 - 45

c. I L  3I   1.7334A   58.82A
Therefore, IAa = IBb = ICc = 58.82 A

Example 23.4
For the Δ-Y system shown in Fig. 23.21:

a. Find the voltage across each phase of the load.

b. Find the magnitude of the line voltages.

Fig. 23.21

Example 23.4 – Solutions

a. IøL = IL

Therefore
Ian = IAa = 2A0
Ibn = IBb = 2A  120
Icn = ICc = 2A  120

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The phase voltages are

Van = IanZan = 2A010  53.13  20V - 53.13

Vbn = IbnZbn = 2A  12010  53.13  20V - 173.13
Vcn = IcnZcn = 2A  12010  53.13  20V66.87

b. E L  3V  1.7320V   34.6V

Therefore, EBA = ECB = EAC = 34.6 V

Example 23.5
For the Y-connected load in Fig. 23.23:

a. Find the average power to each phase and the total load.
b. Determine the reactive power to each phase and the total reactive power.
c. Find the apparent power to each phase and the total apparent power.
d. Find the power factor of the load.

Fig. 23.23

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 EET 103/4 ELECTRICAL TECHNOLOGY – Polyphase Systems
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Example 23.5 – Solutions

a. The average power is

P  V I  cos IV  100V20Acos 53.13  20000.6  1200W

P  I  R  20A  3  4003  1200W
2 2
OR

OR P 
VR
2


60V 2  1200W
R 3

PT  3P  31200W   3600W

OR PT  3E L I L cos  IV  1.732173.2V 20A 0.6  3600W

b. The reactive power is

Q  V I  sin  IV  100V20Asin 53.13  20000.8  1600VAR

Q  I  X   20A  4  4004  1600VAR
2 2
OR

QT  3Q  31600VAR   4800VAR

OR QT  3E L I L sin  IV  1.732173.2V 20A 0.8  4800VAR

c. The apparent power is

S  V I   100V 20A   2000 VA

S T  3S  32000VA   6000 VA

OR S T  3E L I L  1.732173.2V 20A   6000VA

d. The power factor is

PT 3600W
Fp    0.6 lagging
ST 6000VA

EET103/4 Sem 1 2008/2009

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 EET 103/4 ELECTRICAL TECHNOLOGY – Polyphase Systems
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Example 23.6
For the Δ-Y connected load in Fig. 23.25:

a. Find the total average, reactive and apparent power.

b. Find the power factor of the load.

Fig 23.25
Example 23.6 – Solutions

a. Consider the Δ and Y separately.

For the Δ:

Z   6  j8  10  - 53.13
E 200 V
I  L   20 A
Z 10 
PT  3I 2 R  320 6  7200 W
2

QT  3I 2 X   320 8  9600 VAR C 

2

S T  3V I   320020  12,000 VA

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 EET 103/4 ELECTRICAL TECHNOLOGY – Polyphase Systems
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For the Y:

ZY  4  j3  5 36.87
EL 200 V
3 3 116 V
I     23.12 A
ZY 5 5
PTY  3I 2 R  323.12 4  6414.41 W
2

QTY  3I 2 X   323.12 3  4810.81 VAR L 

2

S TY  3V I   311623.12  8045.76 VA

For the total load:

PT  PT  PTY  7200 W  6414.41 W  13,614.41 W

QT  QT  QTY  9600 VAR( C)  4810.81 VAR( L)  4789.19 VAR( C)
S T  PT2  S T2  (13,614.41) 2  (4789.19) 2  14,432.2 VA

b. The power factor is

PT 13,614.41W
Fp    0.943 leading
ST 14,432.20VA

Example 23.7
Each transmission line of the three-wire, three-phase system in Fig. 23.36 has an
impedance of 15 Ω + j 20 Ω. The system delivers a total power of 160 kW at 12,000 V to
a balanced three-phase load with a lagging power factor of 0.86.

a. Determine the magnitude of the line voltage EAB of the generator.

b. Find the power factor of the total load applied to the generator.
c. What is the efficiency of the system?

EET103/4 Sem 1 2008/2009

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 EET 103/4 ELECTRICAL TECHNOLOGY – Polyphase Systems
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Fig. 23.26

Example 23.7 – Solutions

VL 12,000 V
a. V (load )    6936.42 V
3 1.73

PT (load )  3V I  cos 

PT 160,000
And I    8.94 A
3V cos  36936.420.86

Since   cos 1 0.86  30.68 , assigning V  V 0 , a lagging power factor results
in
I  8.94 A - 30.68

For each phase, the system will appear as shown in Fig. 23.27, where

Fig. 23.27
The loading on each phase of the system in Fig. 23.26.

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E AN  I  Z line  V
 8.94  30.682553.13  6936.420
 223.522.45  6936.420
 206.56  j85.35  6936.42
 7142.98  j85.35
 7143.5 V0.68
Then
E AB  3Eg  1.737143.5  12,358.26 V

b.
PT  Pload  Plines
 160 kW  3I L  Rline
2

 160 kW  3 8.94 15
2

 160,000 W  3596.55 W
 163,596.55 W

And PT  3VL I L cos  T

PT 163,596.55
cos  T  
3VL I L 1.7312,358.268.94
FP  cos  T  0.856  0.86 of the load

Po Po 160 kW
    0.978
c. Pi Po  Plosses 160 kW  3596.55 W
 97.8%

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RESONANCE
Learning Objectives
Upon completion of this chapter, you will be able to:
1. State the applications of a resonant circuit.
2. Identify the conditions that exist in a resonant circuit.
3. State and apply the formula for resonant frequency of an a.c.
circuit.
4. State the effect of changes in inductance (L) and capacitance (C)
on resonant frequency (fr).
5. Identify the characteristics peculiar to a series resonant circuit.
6. Identify the characteristics peculiar to a parallel resonant circuit.
7. State and apply the formula for Q.
8. State what is meant by the bandwidth of a resonant circuit and
compute the bandwidth for a given circuit.
9. Identify the four general types of filters.
10. Identify how the series- and parallel-resonant circuit can be
used as a bandpass or a band-reject filter.
Introduction to Tuned Circuit

When your radio or television set is turned on, many

events take place within the "receiver" before you
hear the sound or see the picture being sent by the
transmitting station.

Many different signals reach the antenna of a radio

receiver at the same time. To select a station, the
listener adjusts the tuning dial on the radio receiver
until the desired station is heard.
Introduction to Tuned Circuit

Within the radio or TV receiver, the actual "selecting"

of the desired signal and the rejecting of the unwanted
signals are accomplished by what is called a TUNED
CIRCUIT. A tuned circuit consists of a coil and a
capacitor connected in series or parallel. Later in this
chapter you will see the application and advantages of
both series- and parallel-tuned circuits. Whenever the
characteristics of inductance and capacitance are
found in a tuned circuit, the phenomenon as
RESONANCE takes place.
SERIES RESONANCE
SERIES RESONANCE
SERIES RESONANCE
SERIES RESONANCE
SERIES RESONANCE
SERIES RESONANCE
SERIES RESONANCE
SERIES RESONANCE
SERIES RESONANCE
SERIES RESONANCE
SERIES RESONANCE
FREQUENCY EFFECTS ON RLC CIRCUITS

Perhaps the most often used control of a radio or

television set is the station or channel selector. Of
course, the volume, tone, and picture quality
controls are adjusted to suit the individual's taste,
but very often they are not adjusted when the
station is changed. What goes on behind this station
selecting? In this chapter, you will learn the basic
principles that account for the ability of circuits to
"tune" to the desired station.
SERIES RESONANCE
SERIES RESONANCE
SERIES RESONANCE
SERIES RESONANCE
Ex.1 R = 2Ω XL = 10Ω

I
XC = 10Ω

Find:
a) I, VR, VL, VC
b) QS
If fr = 5000Hz find
c) BW
d) HPF
SERIES RESONANCE
Ex.2 The BW of a series resonant circuit is 400Hz.
If the resonant frequency is 4000Hz, what is the
value of Qs?
If R=10Ω, what is the value of XL at resonance?
Find the inductance L and capacitance C?

Ex.3 A series RLC has fr = 12kHz, If R=5Ω and

XL at resonance =300Ω, find BW. Find the cut-off
frequency also.
SERIES RESONANCE
Ex.4 a. Determine the Qs and bandwidth for the
response curve in Fig.4.
b. For C 101.5 nF, determine L and R for the series
resonant circuit.
c. Determine the applied voltage.

Fig.4
Introduction to Tank Circuit
A condition of resonance will be experienced in a tank
circuit (Figure below) when the reactances of the
capacitor and inductor are equal to each other.
Because inductive reactance increases with increasing
frequency and capacitive reactance decreases with
increasing frequency, there will only be one frequency
where these two reactances will be equal.
Introduction to Tank Circuit
What Is a Tank Circuit?
Introduction to Tank Circuit
What Is a Tank Circuit?
Introduction to Tank Circuit
What Is a Tank Circuit?
Introduction to Tank Circuit
What Is a Tank Circuit?
PARALLEL RESONANCE

Simple parallel resonant circuit (tank circuit).

So there we have it: a formula to tell us the resonant frequency

of a tank circuit, given the values of inductance (L) in Henrys
and capacitance (C) in Farads. Plugging in the values of L and C
in our example circuit, we arrive at a resonant frequency of
159.155 Hz.
PARALLEL RESONANCE
PARALLEL RESONANCE
PARALLEL RESONANCE
PARALLEL RESONANCE
PARALLEL RESONANCE
PARALLEL RESONANCE
PARALLEL RESONANCE
PARALLEL RESONANCE
PARALLEL RESONANCE
PARALLEL RESONANCE
Ex.1 Given the parallel network in Fig. 5 composed of
“ideal” elements:
a. Determine the resonant frequency fp .
b. Find the total impedance at resonance.
c. Calculate the quality factor, bandwidth, and cutoff
frequencies f1 and f2 of the system.
d. Find the voltage VC at resonance.
e. Determine the currents IL and IC at resonance.

Fig.5