ane dis isfying the infant's initial bodily needs.

The
of the Frcudian xslicn
junctures in devel mother also has needs, which in turn are met
tenetse the critical
t r a ltenets

in caring for the child.

her
andi somewhat
ascribe
points andthem.
points by her general activity
that the situation is' inte-
at other
to This is true Sullivan thus says
op
fm ee
er nn
tt ignificances
significa
insofar as it is meaningful for both o r -
focus exclusively on graled
ulaions hatmost
ganisms. n adults, a mutually satisfying
e v e n o ff o r m u l a i o

of the systematic and

wen o n. One One of
develop- cönversation would exemplify an in-
children.

chia l accounts of personality friendly be resolved

which differs in important ways tegrated situation. Situations may then
houghtful

mthognd
e n t - a n d which
is
position-is that of Sul. when the needs are metjTherethe immed-
no

the Freudian
om
Like Freud,
Sullivan developed his posi- longer any reason for continuing immediate-
his with psychi- iate interaction unless new bases
ivan.
ainly out of experience
arise. Situations disintegrate when they
tion m a i n l y are
his close association ly
atients. Through a r e resolved. Anxiety
and other social scientists, before terminated they
anthropologists role here: it arises, for e x -
emphasis on the social en may play a large
he placed more
than Freud had. He repudiated ample, when o n e makes friendly
o v e r t u r e s to

ment
ronment than
a desirable person and
is rebuffed.
and devel
mch of the Freudian vocabulary theory ot According to Sullivan. there
arethree
ned one of his
own. interpersonal
The parataxiu,
psychiatry he
he formulated has found e x types of experience: the prokotaxic,
chiatry Fhese terms refer to the
man-

journal and has and syntaxic.

pression in an. influential nerin which experience is
registered and to
through the work of
also been disseminated because of the nature and degree of
inner elaboration
his students. Perhaps
great the which it is accorded.
In theprototaxic mode
with schizo-
difficully of communicating there is an absolute minimum of inner
elab-
concerned with the consists mainly of
phrenes,he early became who mark oration, and experiend
nature of communication. Sapir, diacrete series of momentarY states
which
intluenced Sullivan's thinking o n c o m - nor discussed The-
edly
pioneer anthropological
can neither be recalled
contrast, involves a
max-
munication, w a s a which synlaxic mode, Jin
roles in development organization and
elaboration.
linguist. The communicative processes
i m u m o f inner
by svm-
Sullivan ascribes to andbecause it is fully encompassed
the cultural mileu give his work specal and is logically
bolic formulation and
is
ordered. it
and social scientist./Our
dis- bolic tormulation communi-
completely commi
significance for the can be discussed
can be discussed and completely
and
will be based primaril parataxic mode pf experi
cussion of his position cated
Cated to Theparata
to others. The
published lec- two; In it,exper
on Sullivan's posthumously ence between
lies theoter
o r organized i n a
tures (1953). ence is partially organized there a r e also ele-
but
quasi-logical manner,
individual is unaware
Some Central Concepts ments of which the
anx- p. 29).
(1953, p.
avoidanceofsevere The child's earliest experiences
a r e in the
For Sullivan, the and he a r to
human behavior, mode, progresses to
but he quickly progresses
Cty is central to in protolaxic
prololaxC mode,
a sel-syslem
starts
to develojp
anxiety. the parataxic
parataxica as
s begins to
as he begins
soon as
under-
to under
gued that
proiection against
over he notes certain 1n-
a nmen- stand the environment and
infancy as Inallentun was Lower
of selective forunu- terconnections and simple sequences.
The process Sullivan the par-
onnection. animals a r e capable of reaching par
ioned in that require animals also The
according to Sullivan. Thelearn-
svn-
other concepts
level, according
ataxic level, syn-
lated several his develop
account
of ataxic to appear with the
claboration
before a n
make much sense to the taxic mode beginsand is confined to
will
ing of language hence
nental stages
although Sullivan takes pains
infants in- human beings,
first moments of life,
reader.
that it is rarely possible for us to
From the smainly with ther nnothi-. to emphasize
From
teract w i t l ha d u l t s - m a i t

with sat- express all aspects of a n experience

in words.
teractWi are
ncerned partieularly
who
crs,
 ends witl the
Roughlh, ihe thiee modes reresent the m (rnce

and
display
the desine
ot
al aware
nu able or inellable (prnotaxn), the lon an
ICSs
O
D tally communcable (parataxic), ancd the opposite lolescence
sex.
whichtimate ol h
wholly ommunicable (syntaxic). This culture to culture, ençds when thevaries Irow

relationhiindiv a
scheme allows a considerable place for un- has developed some social relIndivi
onscous behavior without positing an "un-
conscious mind" or instinetual urges as the
pattern of activity which fulfille
lust, or desire for sexual
onship and
activity./aeror her
cence extends the
nmansprings of behavior.
Sullivan's treatment of needs is a luid
individúal's a do
form a socially acceptable patten AS to
adoles.
one. The infant
quickly develops new needs
in addition to the initial bodily ones, both
and sexual behavior. Atadulthood
enters intoa love ihe timacy
elationship
(which r person
through experience and maturation. Needs may not satisfy the person sexual ay or
appear chronologically. some not until sever- During this era the person establishesdesire
a
al
vears have passed. Thusthe sexualdrive uonship with anotherperson who is rela
oT as he terms it, the lust dynamism-does not
garded as a signiticant other. That pers
arise until puberty. (Here Sulivan
expliciuy becomes highly important to the individual
departs from Freud. who views the sexual and his concerns
drives as present from birth.) The various the
may take precedence over
individual's own view of her
needs are given
sophisticated treatment and situation. ife
are no
regarded as inner forces. Apart from Sullivan's account ot njancy and
elementary biological needs of the infant, covers much of the same chulthood
most of
the needs wiuh which Sullivan is been covered in
ground that has
cerned arise in con chapters of this text that deal
interpersonal interaction and with the development of
have nothing to do with
biology. Needs are and self. He language, thought,
sausfied in highly complex ways through in- emphasizes
the origin of the
the role of
anxiety in
terACtOn. Much satisfaction,
Sullivan holds, self-system. The Freudian
must take
place ihroughsublimation>thatis, concepts of the ego, id, and superego are not
by indirect means. This 1s becatuse the initial included, and there is no discussion of in-
stunctual drives or the
neans adopted are met with reactions
by sig- oedipus complex. In
childhood, along with the gradual
nificant others wlich arouse learning
person.
anxiety in the of the
syntaxic use of language, children
also use may
language as an anxiety-reducing
in-
Strumen. as when thev verbally disown cer-
Stages tain of their actions-"I didn't do that, it was
Sullivan's designation of my hand," or "I did it. I am
stages is a clue o demands for apologies and sorry." Parents
mportant diflerences between his position her this explanations fur
and thau of orthodox use.
During childhood the need for
Freudian psychoana-
ysts. Sullivan distinguishyed seven tenderness, which appeared
during
snality dervelopment Anfancy, stuges of per is manitested
and elaborated in theinfancy,
Juvemle era, desine
Véhildhood, Mhe for play and physical contact with others,
freadolescencefidolescencafate
olescence, andadulthood ad-
particulartythe mother. Ifthe mother is con
(1953, pp. 33-34). sistenly
nsunecy extends frym birth to the ap- children unablebe to respond with tenderness,
pearance of [Link] covers the may compelled to sublimate the
riol from the onset of
pe- need or
they may give it up. Like other ob
he articulate speech to servers, Sullivan remarks
appearance of need to have playmates.
a upon the fact that
Theljuvenile era govers the periocl of gram- children learn to deceive acdults and so es
nar
sclhoöi Tnough, as a resull of mauura- cape stanny
rebult and anxiety. Sullivan is con
concerned with
tion, the desire for an
with a
intimate relationship handling
issues that
inacdequate means of
conpanion the sanme
of
sex.{Pvadoles- [Link]«l notes
may be*uken by the
a numder of
appropriale ,
 wlhich may lead to The
coealm«
urnlr eut
approxinn:itelr ili
Starts
des of One of then is the usc olvrr time the child school. sSchool plays a
uble later.
begins schel
e child begins
alisms, o rrational. alizations, io ward off punish- key rolc in various ways.
Many more "au
thority figures" appear on the child's hori-
ment.
of malevolent develotment may
Vicious cyclesnteraction of the sort that o zo-tcachers, playground bullies, traffic
hrough
police, and other parents-and she has to
start

w h e n the
moth continually disparages learn to live with all of them. By the end of
C u r s

and lains the child's behavior this era, authority figures-including the
he father is likehis father. Thi_ may cstab. parents-are being compared with one an-
he
saying hce sis de
by viction in the child that n de- other as persons. The parents are no longer
lish the
testable
and unworthy and must expect al- regarded as the most perfect people on
This unfort carth, nor are they any longer endowed with
to betreated badly.
rtunate
ways omniscience. At the beginning of the era.
urn o f events may "very easily prevent a
to desire contact and
typically begin
rCat deal of profit from subsequent devel. children
There is literally a play with other children; this sociability con-
Opmentalexperiences.. socialization" (1953,
. .

trasts with the greater egocentricity of

slowingdown ofhcalthy
youngerchildren. Hence, schoolchildren
are
is the idea that
D. 217). Important to Sullivan or open to tremendous
influence from their
any developmental mishap may prevent that their peers have
The arrest of peers. They learn
slow up the [Link].
a statuc thing, torthe per- points of view, and they
discover how man
development isnot and develop; how- perspectives there are. Through interaetion
to change
son continues with their peers, some of it
brutal and antag-
freedom and velocity of the con-
ever, "the onistic, they learn a great deal
about how to
structive change are markedly reduced"
very undul
handle themselves without suffering
(1953, p. 218). from anxiety. They must face possibilit the
become m o r e
In lale childhood, children the end of the period.
as males o r females ofostracism. Toward to be sensitive to their
aware of their identity especially, they begin
and begin to adopt appropriate behavior. reputation-that 1s,
their general self-con-
other cultural perspec- groups. Sul-
Their knowledge of ception deriving
from juvenile
Like Piaget, Sullivan em- the parents ma
tives also broadens. the re- livan notes that mobility of
necessity-imposed by children to continue
children continut
the be disastrous by causing
disastrous
phasizes the child to begin be from o n e school tu
quirements of others-for to be strangers as they go
and fantasy
to distinguish between reality the end
Toward
another.
uremendous
The juvenile era is given
(autism, o r a u t i s t i c t h o u ghave
ht).
learned to s o r t as
of future
determinant
ofthis period, children
concealfrom that weight by Sullivan a
ume when he worli
time
out that which they must
it will development. lt is "the
talk about
because by the presence
which they can begins to be really complicated Through
"Through
to adults. of people" (1953, p. 232).
people
make sense
malevolent
other inap-
or ot other
rough-and-ready
ròugh-and-rea
interaction with these ne
when
misonceptions of sself
has
Even organization de children's misconceptions
are

personality n e x t stage
in- people, cnildren s
Peopie, wider grasp o:
propriate
to
transition
the corrected, and they acquire a

veloped, the correction.

selfhood and their place in the community. Bi
possibility tor a m o u n t ó f
a real their development, thev
theyare fortunaie in
roduces the
impressed by over
is.
is.
dullivan is "as o n e passes
emerge with an torientation in living"that
nat
change that
can
occur determinable

of how toto sarisfo

nhe
their needs without
more-or-less

(1953, p.
an idea of satisfy This
one
of these era"
developmental
ex- arousing too
ex-much anxiety (1953, p. 244). s r
thresholds of a
some
to most important
that
children,

atresh start, represents their tirst and have not learneri

cializaton experience: if they
means

227). This choIce of they

given the r e to1
more
the
are in for trouble. They mav,
ent, a r e older they grow his, they
lthough the past.
their
own

heirs o f
Come
the
 object of
example, usethetechniqueof disparaging oth- intimacy. 1f there has
been
CTS as a This is cquivalent
protective device: to ser o u s
uarp in
seek ncreasing inlimacy
velopmenl,
ith
the child
Saying "I am not as the onher swinc.
bad as
This does not give a secure base to a sensc ot sex,the pattern ot
inumacy
member of
a
the othe
begins t
personal worth. that of preadolescence. In
being: huch like
Preadolescence is ushered in by an interest fillment of this need faces serioushe America,
thee cle
fful
f
in a new type of personal relationship: since it runs into the sex
friendship with a person of the same sex. which revents access 'to
uaboos. The Dstack
This is quite different fronm previous rela- reverie and intimacy leade
fanlasy, and in "the gang
tionships, for it turns upon intimacy and col dren may engage in discussion chil
laboration in satisfying each other's ex- it. The discussion of ho's who pertaining
pressed needs (1953, p. 248): what" in the heterosexual world and wh
is of gTe
profit for those of the
gang who are alread
Because one draws so close to another, because in the adolescent stage.
one is
newly capable of seeing onself through the In adolescence, life becomes
other's eyes, the preadolescent
phase.. . is es tremen.
dously complicated by the elaboration of
pecially significantincorrecting autistic, fantastúc
ideas about oneself or others.
po
tentially conflicing needs. The appearance
of lusta powertul need-adds greatly to
Participation in preadolescent gangs has a the problems of the period. There
similar desirable effect. The need for chums collision between the
may be
arises both as a result of and the maintenance ofrequirements of lus
interpersonal devel self-esteem. Cenitl
opment and of maturation. Sullivan empha- urges may create acute self-doubt, puzzle
Sizes the ment, embarrassment, and other
great therapeutic effects of these unpleasant
preadolescent
from previous unfortunate
Teaclions.
intimacies in saving persons Western Because of the way sex is viewed i
courses. society, the desire for sexual actüivity
However, the preadolescent period is also often clashes with a sense of security in inter
an
era of danger because of personalrelations This is true in adoles
rates of differences in cence
development among friends. Chil- and în later life as well.
Inumacy and
dren reach puberty at different ages; varia- lustrequirements may also conflict with each
tion within the same sex other. A common
may be
three or four years. Hence, some much as
as manifestation of this con
flict is the separation of
cents lag behind the preadoles- persons into two mu-
chers. Some still re- tually exclusive classes/those who can only
quire intimate chumship when the others no satusfy one's lust, and hose who can only sat
longer do, or one child may not yet need isfy the need for intimacy and friendship
these inumate
or her
relationships when most of his he disunction between "good women an
peers do, and so later may have to "bad women,"
"sexy girls" and "good giris,
establish such relations conveys this idea
or much older person. much younger (1953, pp. 269-70).
The
early stage adolescence is defined
"as extending fromof
Thus
satislying one's lust must be at considera
the expense
ital interest, felt eruption of true
gen
toone's self-esteem, since the bad 8
lust, to the patterning
as
of are unworthy and not really people in the *
sexualbehavior which is the beginning of the that good girls are... .The trouble.. is that .

last phase of adolescence" IS a

part of personality, and no one can get ve y far
(1953, p. 263).
Sullivan considers lust as the last at
of the maty completing his personality development in
ration needs, drawing a sharp line between way.
and the need for it
intimacy. The
macy starts much earlier and ias need for inti- The shift in the sex of the desired obje 10
deni
aun
indepen inimacy may also clash with security ne
development.
cence, there is
At the onset of
adoles For instance, the parents nmay disparage
a
significant change in the ridicule the adolescent's interest in the
 he reits may e ralous, inay n
h e child to grow up too fast, or may
upm. alditin, he sti
eses the girat
Cal actddenis. he various collisions
Krowth olexperiene in thC
Ayntaxic morle o
ommunication. Through formal edur
rds may lead in this
stage to homosex- And work experietue, ation
lav, but more usually produce autosex- persMOn8 acquire
er insight into thelr own and others'
great
ehavior (masturbation). behavior
and may develop enormousiy in knowledge
Sillivan points ofout (1953, pp. 271-72) and maturity. Many adults, because of their
the "number
that
wretched experiences
developmental heritage, are greatly restric
with adolescents' first hetcrosex- ted in what
al altempts is legion, and the experiences they can learn from a potentially
enlightening cnvironment (1953, p. 306)
arc sometimes very expensive to further ma- "Large aspects of living are, as it were, ta
talion of personalty. They may be de-
boo-onc avoids them." As for truly mature
ve to self-esteem and
s t r c t v c

may erect per persons, Sullivan confesses that psychiatrists

1anent barri
consummations.
to
satistactory heterosexual have very little to say, since they do not meet
them in their offices as patients. With the
Several unhappy long-term outcomes in-
clude the following: Some people feel pur- progress of patients toward maturity, he
psychiatrist loses sight of them (1953, p.
Cd by the opposite sex and expend a great 310).
dcal of cnergy trying to avoid them. Lust
may be dissociated from consciousness and
may be expressed only in fantasies. Lack of Evaluation
potency may be connected with failure to re-
Sullivan's view has much in common with
solve the
lust-intimacy problem. In some the Freudian conception. Both give consid-
persons, the appearance of lust may be ac-
erable atuention to unconscious features of
companied by the continuation of intimacy behavior, and both focus attention on the dy-
nceds on the preadolescent level, leading to namic interplay of
ransient or
persisting homosexual tenden- personal relations. Both
have a place for bodily maturation and
cies, with the genital drivehandled in a vari- a close
posit
ety of ways-homosexual relationship betwéen this maturation
reverie, homosex- and the development of
ual relations, autoeroticism. In some are also
personality. They
sons. lust may mature,
per- alike in that they are mainly derived
although they remain from clinical experience with
adults rather
chronically juvenile. The ladies' man, a than from a firsthand, intensive study of
the persistent "tease," are often
niles, chronic juve- children. One further point of similarity is
according to Sullivan. These people that botbmore or
less terminate their sys-
need to be envied by others of their sex, and tematic accounts of development at
hence often boast of their
conquests. threshold of adult life. The differences the
be-
Sullivan indicates the extreme
diversity of
alternatives which face the adolescent. He or
tween the two conceptions will become
ap-
parent as we review some of the main fea-
she has to discover (1953,
p. 297) "what he tures of Sullivan's scheme.
likes in [Link] of genital behaviorand how Sullivan's account
to fit it into the rest of
life. That is an achieve providesan important
of
place for needs which arise sequentially Sex
ment no mean magnitude." The range of appears late-rather than early, as in
alternatives demonstrated by showing that
is Freud's account-and is not [Link]
there are about 45
patterns of behavior that
are "reasonably probable." Sullivan reaches [Link]
of the
important needs arisee
from interpersonal relations rather than bio-
this ligureby setting up classifications of inti logical bases.
macy, kinds of objects of lust, and types of Those needs that are of
sexualactivity.6) biological origin,
such as the infant's need for
Late adolescence,for Sullivan, is "tenderness,"
the period quickly become transformed as they
are felt
when the mode of sCxual actüvity is decided and interpreted and as they enter into pro-
 2
So-called ariests ol devclop
mmei1eTsonal pat-
gressively
conplex
ore
"lust," with its wed by Sullivan as "lixation"
o
calls l
tems. Even
obvious
what Sullivan
biological
cooncomitants, is ol this sions. capacity
The
ence is greatly reduced
ta
Tegye
arise in interpe and development goa t
The needs which go
nature.
associated with bio changeconceived on. This
sonal relations, although
quencesmaturation,
logical
of the development
are essentially conseof
complexity
is not ofas merely new
an old personality organizatio but oas rm
a
agen chang
and the self
uine, if untortunate, innovation
the comnlnicative proresses contlict A central concept in Sullivan's
inevitably in
[Link] is
not
Sullivan explicitly re-
consensual validat STstem
by which he mean
with society-indeed, and the id concept manner in which the meaninas ns th
jects instinct
whichthemakes theoryessentially evil beings
humans and the validity of ideas, including Symboh
b
idcaso
e
held in check by social proscriptions. The self, are confirmed in the process of comm
"unconscious nind" in which Freud located nicating with others. (We have discussec thi
the instinctual impulses does not appear
as idea in numerous places in this text.) Sulli
that symbol do not carry an
such in Sullivan's theory, although he makes notes
mcaning,
ample provision for the unwiting aspects of evokeit in user and listener, and that conse
behavior. sual validation makes symbols precise and
/The crucial experiences of each period powerful instruments in handling both pe
are specified clearly by Sullivan and in such a ple and ideas. Through his emphasis on the
form that empirical testing of his views is effects of the communication process upon
possible. He
presented his position as a ten the developing personality, Sullivan intro
tative one, recognizing the need for em- duces a social dimension to the center ofin
pirical validation. He acknowledged that dividualnty. This is in line with his explicily.
many of these criticalexperiences, and even stated idea that the
the stages themselves,
might vary from cul- scientific analysis of in
terpersonal relations requires a field theony
ure to culture. The role of various adulis as
representatives of culture, rather than as ratherthan an elementaristic or atomistiC ap
unique personalities, is proach. Sullivan's main contribution has not
always
and often specified. Like other recognized been in the analysis of what he called the
writers, Sul syntaxic mode, or
livan has emphasized the important fact that in his more public comnmunciaiion, but
the differential rates of discriminating
treatment ot te
riential development of biological and expe "unconscious." He has reinterpreted the un
cially affect personality children may cru-
treatment of some ot thesedevelopment. His Conscious
uon
as a distortion of the communmea
process through sugh mechanisms 2
in his discussion of the consequences, as
transilIOn to adoles- selectiveinattenion,2) dissociation, t/m
cence, shows
great interpretation, and (4 masking proce sses
of thought which hasisight. Following a line Cottrell and
recent generally
taken
years, he also emphasizes the
hold in
23-24): Gallagher have said (194l, PP
ness and possible danger of uraining useless
before they children
can assimilate the
experience. training ullhvan attempts to show the
[Link] The scheme is gIven culture
which channelize influences withina
the sense that genuinely developmental
no genetic fallacy is intro- meaning |G.]Mead's analvsisofawaren
accept whid
the way in w
duced. No stage is a repeütion of a preceding strud emerges from an orated verb
one, and in each stage Oghts and incorpor
ior genuinely new behav- gests
emerges. A uremendous that isanborne
important duties, Sullivan's work>
change is acknowledged by possibility ol sonal relationsby verbal amendnent. nt. The mean
larlyduring transitions intoSullivan, partucu- relauons
dissociaued can be interchange in terpe
new
stages. Lone compleelv
elemenis e
and cokor
byth
distore
at weork to set u
of
the
situatic.
 urfcriticism of Sullivan's developnnental
on what it leaves out.
1earing and chld
isbased mainly his rescarch does development.
not-except However.
s c h c i n e

issions can be partly attributed

omIss

to and details the it as

The
cxplicit psychia
S u l l i v a n ' s

to the scantiness
interests and
fhis actual writings.
tal psychoanalyic
account-provide developmen-
overall an
accepts
partly

gravest omission is thellack of considera developmental systematic

theory; Sullivan's does.
rhe
rion ofpersonality change after the initiatioon
af adutho0d. 5y implication, the but
impor SUMMARY
MMARY
off
tanceo such change
is suggested,
it is
o t discussed. The consequence of this is
not

In this
thatsrch influences as the following are left chapter
research bearing on the
we have surveyed recent
out: oCcupational status and other adult sta-
tuses; the shifting of age memberships, in-
process of self-devel-
opment. The human infant enters the world
with no
cuding the effect of children on parents; ad-
aptations to the approach of death; the
self-conception.
Exposureexperiences
tion produces the socialization
to interac-
handling of slow or abrupt changes of sta- that progressively mold and build an
emerg-
tuses many kinds.
ofdevelopmental ing self-conception. The self is not a part of
he accountitself, insofar the physical body, but is rather a set of sym-
bolic indications that individuals make to
sit dealswith children, must be amplified
themselves on the basis of their interpersonal
s Sulivan himself recognized. It can be ex-
experiences with others. The formulations
tended,of course, by actual investigation of of Cooley and Mead were reviewed and con-
childrenCultural variation as well as varia- trasted with the developmental schemes of
ion by sex, and the general influence of so-
Freud, Lacan, Erikson, and Sullivan. Of
cial structures, must be more extensively the Freudian models, Sullivan's was found
taken into account. A wider range of psycho- to be the most satisfactory. Freud's original
logical processes also needs to be included. scheme: lacked any systematic view of the
One major reservation about the account
self, and Erikson's formulaions stressed in
itself is justified.úllivan makes anxiety vir- dividual crises that must be surmounted if a
tually central to-àctually, the basic motive healthy" personality is to form. Both Freud
of-human behavior, No one, of course, and Erikson heavily stressed sexual experi
shoulddeny its great importance. Despite his ences, ard Freud posited
that the sexual

great sophistication about the

ramifications
drive was the major motivating force for the
the
and the associated needs for human organism. Sullivan's theory, o n
se-
of anxiety of of the self in
and intimacy, Sullivan's treatment other hand, located the origins
curity views
interpersonal relationships. Thus, his Mead
older
this central concept is like that of the
it extended the statementsof Coolev and
motivational theories. In his defense, which c a n
tentative about the and presented testable hypotheses
should be said that he was examinauon. This
8): be subjected to empirical
centrality of anxiety (1953, p. fact makes Sullivan's theory more
attractive
or Lacan.
of anxiety, I am not at than either that of Freud, Erikson,
In discussing the conceptlast word; it may, within
give you the
empling o demonstrated that this concept is
ten ycars, be better o n e will take
its
and a
suGGESTED READINGS
quite inadequate,
place.
ERIKSON, E. H. (1950). Childhood and Society. York
New
children that has been W. W. Norton & Co., Inc. Contains a treatment oE

The research on
and sociologists the author's well-known child developmental stage=
anthropologists children which led t
done by our and presens the research on
1950s considerably amplifies Freud.
since the variations in child- his theoretical noxdification of
of cultural
knowledge