Portable Nano-Hydro Power Generator

for the DC House Project

by

Andrew Aw

James Biggs

Senior Project

ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT

California Polytechnic State University

San Luis Obispo

2013
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

Section Page

List of Figures ..............................................................................................................................i

List of Tables ...............................................................................................................................iii

Abstract ........................................................................................................................................iv

I. Introduction ......................................................................................................................1

II. Background ......................................................................................................................3

i. DC House .............................................................................................................3

ii. Portable Nano-Hydro Power Generator ...............................................................4

III. Requirements and Specifications .....................................................................................5

IV. Design ..............................................................................................................................7

i. Initial Design Considerations ...............................................................................7

ii. Block Diagram .....................................................................................................9

iii. Charger Controller ...............................................................................................11

iv. 5-15 Volt Flyback Converter ...............................................................................16

v. 12-48 Volt Flyback Converter .............................................................................22

V. Test Plans .........................................................................................................................24

VI. Development and Construction........................................................................................26

VII. Integration and Test Results.............................................................................................30

i. Simulation of Circuit............................................................................................30

ii. Motor Testing.......................................................................................................32

iii. Hardware Testing .................................................................................................33

iv. Discussion of Test Results ...................................................................................35

VIII. Future Improvements .......................................................................................................37

IX. Conclusion .......................................................................................................................39

X. Bibliography ....................................................................................................................40

Appendices

A. Senior Project Analysis ....................................................................................................42

B. Parts List and Costs ..........................................................................................................47

C. PC Board ..........................................................................................................................49
LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1: Historic and projected U.S. electricity demand ............................................................1

Figure 2: Various components of the DC House project .............................................................2

Figure 3: Pictorial diagram of the Portable Nano-Hydro Power Generator ................................4

Figure 4: Proposed Block Diagram of Portable Nano-Hydro Power Generator .........................7

Figure 5: Circuit Diagram of a Boost Converter .........................................................................8

Figure 6: Output and Input Voltage Ratio versus Duty Cycle performance trend for Ideal and
Nonideal Boost Converter............................................................................................................9

Figure 7: Block Diagram of the Portable Nano-Hydro Power Generator ....................................10

Figure 8: Circuit Diagram of a Flyback Converter ......................................................................10

Figure 9: Lead-Acid 3-Step Charging Cycle ...............................................................................11

Figure 10: Recommended 3-Step Charging Circuit Configuration .............................................13

Figure 11: Output Voltage Dependencies for the LTC4000-1 ....................................................15

Figure 12: NTC Thermistor Circuit Configuration ......................................................................15

Figure 13: Timing Resistor Value................................................................................................18

Figure 14: Snubber Circuit Configuration ...................................................................................21

Figure 15: Capture of Stepper Motor ...........................................................................................25

Figure 16: LTspice Schematic of 5-15 Volt Flyback Converter..................................................26

Figure 17: LTspice Schematic for the Battery Charge Controller ...............................................26

Figure 18: LTspice Schematic of 12-48 Volt Flyback Converter................................................27

Figure 19: Layout for Original Circuit Board Configuration for Express PCB ..........................28

Figure 20: Layout for Revised Circuit Board Configuration for Express PCB ...........................29

Figure 21: Capture of Wiring for Stepper Motor .........................................................................32

Figure 22: Capture of one phase output of Stepper Motor at 60RPM .........................................33

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Figure 23: Inductance Characteristics for Coiltronics Transformers ...........................................36

Figure 24: Float Charge Voltage Compensation Circuit Configuration ......................................38

Figure A-1: Proposed Gantt Chart for EE 460.............................................................................44

Figure A-2: Proposed Gantt Chart for EE 463.............................................................................44

Figure A-3: Proposed Gantt Chart for EE 464.............................................................................45

Figure C-1: Original PCB Layout ................................................................................................49

Figure C-2: Revised PCB Layout ................................................................................................49

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LIST OF TABLES

Table I: Portable Nano-Hydro Power Generator Requirements and Specifications....................5

Table II: Simulated Results for 5-15 Volt Flyback Converter .....................................................30

Table III: Simulated Results for 12-48Volt Flyback Converter ..................................................31

Table IV: Hardware Results for12-48Volt Flyback Converter....................................................34

Table V: Hardware Results for5-15Volt Flyback Converter .......................................................35

Table A-I: Analysis of Senior Project Design .............................................................................42

Table A-II: Cost Estimates...........................................................................................................43

Table B-I: 12-48 Volt Flyback Converter Cost ...........................................................................47

Table B-II: 5-15 Volt Flyback Converter Cost ............................................................................47

Table B-III: Battery Charge Controller Cost ...............................................................................48

Table B-IV: Additional Components Cost ..................................................................................48

Table B-V: Total System Cost .....................................................................................................48

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ABSTRACT

This senior project report explains the construction and design of a small, portable water

generator that converts kinetic energy flowing in small creeks to electrical energy as a renewable

source of energy for the DC House. The DC House, in short, is a project to build a self-

sustainable house for Third World countries that utilizes only DC electricity. The system consists

of two converters and a charge controller for a 12V lead-acid battery. The first converter

converts the hydro generator voltage output to 15 Volts for safe and proper charging of the lead-

acid battery by the charge controller. The second converter provides power output for the DC

House by converting the 12V lead-acid battery to 48 Volts at a maximum of 60 Watts. The

charge controller contains a bi-directional connection to the 12V lead-acid battery that can store

the energy generated by the hydro generator for future use during light loads or deliver additional

power during heavy loads. Since the system uses DC electricity, interfacing with the DC House

eliminates costly and inefficient conversion from DC to AC, and vice versa, normally

implemented in conventional methods. Also, assuming the user of the system owns a vehicle, the

user can use his/her existing battery without having to buy additional expensive equipment. The

Portable Nano-Hydro Power Generator provides a cheap and versatile renewable source of

energy that can provide electricity to the unfortunates without depleting the earth’s natural

resources.

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 I. INTRODUCTION

In today’s world, the demand for electricity in the United States increases annually as

more people continue buying products that run on electricity. In the early 1990s, the average

household owned at most 1 computer and 1 mobile phone. Now, in the year 2013, an average

person owns 2 computers, 1 mobile phone, and 1 portable music player. Consumers use all of

these products on a daily basis, which require greater electricity demand as seen in Figure 1.

Figure 1: Historic and projected U.S. electricity demand [1]

Since 1950, the annual demand for electricity continues to increase linearly unless the U.S.

migrates, renews, or transforms the annual demand as illustrated in Figure 1 [1]. However, as the

electricity demand increases, natural resources used for electrical generation by power plants will

begin to deplete and require industries to search for alternative forms of electrical generation.

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Current renewable sources of energy include solar, hydro, and wind power are slowly being

implemented in the U.S. to curb the trend.

Unfortunately, in other parts of the world, growing Third World countries, such as China

and India, are becoming more modern and industrialized without regard for sustainability and the

environment. Natural resources begin to deplete much more rapidly and cause greater

greenhouse gas emission. Soon, these Third World countries will experience the same problem

of high annual electricity demand as the U.S. and could potentially create a global issue when

earth's natural resources are depleted.

As an innovative and sustainable system, the Portable Nano-Hydro Power Generator is

created in order to preserve earth's natural resources while generating electrical energy in a

sustainable manner. The system can safely be placed into the water without damaging the habitat

or harming the living organisms living within the habitat. The turbine of the generator rotates

naturally with the water flow and converts the kinetic energy into electrical energy without

consuming any water resource. Also, the system requires only a small amount of materials to

create it, making it small and portable for a single person to operate.

People worldwide can benefit from the Portable Nano-Hydro Power Generator by

reducing greenhouse gas emissions and consumption of natural resources for electrical

generation. Natural resources can be used more effectively and efficiently through renewable

energy sources by creating projects like the Portable Nano-Hydro Power Generator and

promoting its use.

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 II. BACKGROUND

i. DC House

The DC House is simply a house whose electricity is provided by direct current (DC)

power. About 1.6 billion people in the world do not have access to electricity because many of

them live on or below the poverty line. Some may also be geographically isolated from access to

the utility grid. The DC House project aims to utilize renewable energy sources directly, such as

solar panels, that output DC power without the need for intermediate energy conversions, i.e. DC

to AC conversion. The elimination of the intermediate conversion process increases efficiency

and reduces cost, while simultaneously providing electricity to the less fortunate [2]. The

Portable Nano-Hydro Power Generator is just one of the various renewable sources of energy for

the DC House project as shown in Figure 2.

Figure 2: Various components of the DC House project [3]

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 ii. Portable Nano-Hydro Power Generator

The Portable Nano-Hydro Power Generator consists of a water turbine, controller, and

battery as seen in Figure 3. When placed in a small stream, the water turbine rotates and converts

the kinetic energy of the water flow into electrical energy for charging a battery or supplying

power to the DC House. The controller/charger block consists of DC-DC converters and a

battery charge controller. DC-DC converters are power electronic circuits that modify voltage or

current by using semiconductor devices as switches. These converters are necessary to step up

the output DC voltage of the water turbine for proper charging of a 12V lead-acid battery and to

step up the DC voltage to 48 Volts for the DC House. The charge controller is also necessary

because unsafe practice of charging a lead-acid battery can lead to bodily injury or even death.

Without a charge controller, the battery could overcharge and produce hydrogen gas, known as

gassing, which presents a safety hazard [5]. The system is rated at 60 Watts to provide power for

lighting appliances, which is the majority of electricity demand for people residing in developing

countries.

Figure 3: Pictorial diagram of the Portable Nano-Hydro Power Generator [4]

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III. REQUIREMENTS AND SPECIFICATIONS

TABLE I [6]
PORTABLE NANO-HYDRO POWER GENERATOR REQUIREMENTS AND SPECIFICATIONS
Marketing Engineering
Justification
Requirements Specifications
2,5 The hydro generator generates a The 60 Watt maximum provides sufficient amount
maximum of 60 Watts. of power for the consumers’ needs. Lighting consists
of the majority of the electricity demand for Third
World countries which ranges from 50 Watts to 100
Watts. The hydro generator can help supply that
electricity demand.
4 The charge controller contains a The system requires a portable battery to store the
bi-directional connection for energy generated by the generator along with
charging and discharging a providing a local energy source to the load. When a
standard 12 Volt lead-acid battery. power deficit occurs, the battery discharges to power
the load. When excess generation occurs, the battery
stores the energy.
4,5 The electrical system outputs The system receives its source from either the hydro
voltages of 15 and 48 Volts, and generator or the battery, or both. The 48 Volt output
receives inputs from the battery will connect to the DC House main bus voltage of
and hydro generator. 48 Volts, while the 15 Volt output connects to the
lead-acid battery for proper charging.
2 The electrical system is rated at 60 With the capability to operate at 60 Watts, the
Watts. components of the electrical system must operate
safely in the worst case scenario and have protection
from potential faults.
2,3,6 A protective cover with a Type 6P Since the product operates underwater, the Type 6P
NEMA rating encases the NEMA rated enclosure protects against electrical
electrical components. shock from accidental user and/or wildlife contact
while preventing water and dirt from damaging the
system.
1,3 The dimensions for the enclosure Transportation to remote and/or distant locations
for the converters and charging requires portability of product. The dimensions for
components should not exceed this enclosure mimic the typical size of a standard
12in. x 9in. x 7in. (~304mm x 12V battery, which consumers consider portable.
229mm x 178mm)
Marketing Requirements
1. Portable
2. Safe to use
3. User friendly
4. Versatile with the capability of charging and discharging a car battery
5. A renewable source of energy
6. The product can withstand outdoor elements.

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 The marking requirements and engineering specifications for the Portable Nano-Hydro

Power Generator are listed and tabulated above in Table I. Marketing requirements are a

collection of engineering and marketing requirements that a system must satisfy in order to meet

the demands of the customer or end user. Conversely, engineering requirements are technical

requirements of a system to meet standards and functionality. Each engineering specification

comes with justification and its correlating marketing requirement(s). The engineering

requirements must be verifiable and traceable to the marketing requirement(s) in order to create a

successful system. The marketing requirements and engineering specifications table format

derives from [6], Chapter 3

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IV. DESIGN

i. Initial Design Considerations

In order to develop the Portable Nano-Hydro Power Generator, a block diagram is

planned out to determine each component's functionality and its relationship with other

components within the overall system. The first proposed block diagram contains two simple

blocks, a DC-DC converter and charger controller, shown below in Figure 4. This system block

diagram minimizes power losses and component count and promotes greater efficiency.

Figure 4: Proposed Block Diagram of Portable Nano-Hydro Power Generator

However, the problem with the block diagram in Figure 4 is the receiving input of 48

Volts for the charge controller. No charge controller exists to handle an input voltage nearly 4

times greater than the nominal battery charging voltage level without having to step down the

voltage. The maximum voltage for charging a 12V lead-acid battery is approximately 14.5 Volts,

or else the battery could overcharge and release toxic chemicals [5]. Also, the connection to the

lead-acid battery fails to meet the engineering requirement of a bi-directional connection for

charging and discharging. For those reasons, two separate converters are created: one converter

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to produce the proper voltage for charging the lead-acid battery and the other converter to

produce for the proper voltage for the DC House.

Both DC-DC converters initially are chosen as non-isolated topologies, or more

commonly known as boost converters, schematically drawn in Figure [Link] derived

mathematical equation for a boost converter is given as

(4.1)

where Vo is the output voltage, Vs is the input voltage, and D is the duty cycle. The DC

component of the output voltage is controlled by adjusting the duty cycle D, which is the fraction

of the switching period that the switch is closed [7].

Figure 5: Circuit Diagram of a Boost Converter [7]

Based on the given information provided by the mechanical team, a two-phase stepper

motor with a 5.5 Volt rating is chosen as the hydro generator with an average flow rate of 50

RPM. The voltage output from the hydro generator depends on the flow rate of the stream; the

faster the stream flows, the higher the output voltage. The first boost converter converts the

hydro generator output of approximately 5 Volts to 15 Volts for the charge controller, while the

second converter converts the 12V lead-acid battery to 48 Volts for the DC House. However,

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according to equation 4.1 and rearranging to solve for D, the 5-15 boost converter's and 12-48

boost converter's duty cycles are 66.67% and 75%, respectively. The existence of small inductor

resistance, especially at high duty cycles, affects the performance of the boost converter by

increasing power loss and decreasing efficiency [7]. Ideally, design of the converters calls for a

duty cycle less than 50% to reduce the drawbacks. The trend as duty cycle increases can be seen

below in Figure 6. Therefore, isolated DC-DC converters that utilize transformers are ideal

topologies for the design of the Portable Nano-Hydro Power Generator to include the

transformer's turns ratio as a design parameter and reduce the duty cycle of the MOSFET switch.

Figure 6: Output and Input Voltage Ratio versus Duty Cycle performance trend for Ideal
and Nonideal Boost Converter [7]

ii. Block Diagram

The block diagram for implementation of the Portable Nano-Hydro Power Generator is

illustrated in Figure 7 using isolated DC-DC converter topologies. Isolated converters include

forward, flyback, and push-pull topologies with each isolated topology consisting of its own

advantages and disadvantages. After investigating each topology, the flyback converter, shown

in Figure 8, best meets the design specifications for an output of 60 Watts. The flyback converter

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is widely used for output powers from 150 Watts down to under 5 Watts and is the frequent

choice for a supply with many output voltages in the region of 50 to 150 Watts. The push-pull

topology is typically used in up to 300 Watts, while the forward topology is most widely used for

output power under 200 Watts when the maximum DC input voltage is in the range of 60-200

Volts. Below the maximum input of 60 Volts, the required primary input current becomes too

large for practical implementation [8]. All controllers chosen for the Portable Nano-Hydro Power

Generator are made by Linear Technology to design and simulate in their free software tool,

LTspice.

Figure 7: Block Diagram of the Portable Nano-Hydro Power Generator

Figure 8: Circuit Diagram of a Flyback Converter [7]

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 iii. Charge Controller

After carefully searching through all of the different charge controllers by Linear

Technology, the LTC4000-1 charge controller is chosen because it is compatible with lead-acid

battery chemistries and designed to simplify the conversion of any externally compensated DC-

DC converter into a high performance battery charger with PowerPath control [9]. Linear

Technology offers very few lead-acid battery charge controllers, but offers a plethora of charge

controllers designed for lithium-ion, nickel-metal-hydride, and nickel-cadmium battery

chemistries. The proper charge controller must be selected for a lead-acid battery chemistry

because lead-acid batteries require a different charging method and voltage per cell than for the

other battery chemistries. A 12 Volt lead-acid battery typically contains 6 cells with a float

charge voltage commonly specified at 2.25 V/cell at 25°C, or 13.5 Volts, and a -3.3 mV/°C per

cell temperature coefficient, or -19.8 mV/°C [9]. The most common charging method for a lead-

acid battery is called 3-step charging depicted below in Figure 9.

Figure 9: Lead-Acid 3-Step Charging Cycle [9]

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 The 3-step charging involves bulk charge, absorption, and float stages. In the bulk charge

step, the charge controller charges the lead-acid battery at a constant current until the battery

voltage reaches the programmed absorption voltage. Once the absorption voltage is reached, the

programmed absorption voltage level is held constant as the charge current gradually decreases

in the absorption stage. The absorption stage terminates when the charge current falls to the

programmed C/X level and enters the float stage of the charging process. Once in the float stage,

constant voltage is held indefinitely at the programmed float voltage with a small trickle charge

to maintain the battery's state of charge. When the battery voltage drops below a certain level, the

whole 3-step charging cycle is reinitiated beginning with the bulk charge stage. Other battery

chemistries charge up in a similar manner but require different steps [9].

The LTC4000-1 provides many special features such as regulation loops and status

indicators. Some of the features available on the LTC4000-1 will not be used to avoid

discrepancies with interfacing system components and/or is not necessary for the design of the

charge controller. These unused features include the enable charging pin (Pin 1), pin (Pin 7),

pin (Pin 8), output feedback voltage pin (Pin 17), input current sense negative input (Pin

22), voltage monitor input (Pin 25), pin (Pin 26), input current monitor (Pin 27), and input

voltage feedback pin (Pin 28). The enable charging, , , and pins are digital input

and output pins which requires a microcontroller to interface with these pins. The output

feedback voltage, input current sense negative input, voltage monitor input, input current

monitor, and input voltage feedback pins are unnecessary features for monitoring the DC-DC

converter's input and output. The pins are either left open or tied to a specified pin to disable its

feature as stated in the datasheet [9].

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 In order to perform the 3-step charging, the LTC4000-1 recommends configuring the

controller as shown in Figure 10. When a charging cycle begins, the charger enters the bulk

charge step and the pin is pulled low. The battery voltage rises to the absorption voltage

level programmed by [9]

(4.2)

As the charge current drops to the programmed C/X level according to the equation [9],

(4.3)

the pin turns high impedance and the charger enters the float stage charging the battery

voltage at a constant float voltage level programmed by [9]

(4.4)

Figure 10: Recommended 3-Step Charging Circuit Configuration [9]

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Beginning with equation 4.4, the float voltage is programmed at 13.5 Volts, as specified in the

datasheet for the proper float charge voltage at 25°C, by choosing standard resistor values for

RBFB1 and RBFB2. The resistor values chosen for RBFB1 and RBFB2 are 97.6 kΩ and 8.98 kΩ,

respectively. Substituting the RBFB1 and RBFB2 resistor values into equation 4.2 with an

absorption voltage programmed at 14.5 Volts, the resistor value of RBFB3 is 106 kΩ. The CL

(charge current limit programming) pin is left open and equation 4.3 simplifies to

(4.5)

where RCS is the charge current sense resistor connected across the CSP (charge current sense

positive input/input ideal diode cathode) and CSN (charge current sense negative input/battery

ideal diode cathode) pins [9]. Since the engineering specification requires a 60 Watt rating, the

charge current limit is programmed at 4 Amps with the first flyback converter outputting 15

Volts and equates to 12.5 mΩ using equation 4.5. The first flyback converter output is

designed for an output of 15 Volts due to the instant-on voltage dependencies of the LTC4000-1

and to account for any potential voltage drop. As shown in Figure 11, the output voltage should

neither be too high for the PMOS to be driven in the linear region, where it is less efficient, nor

programmed less than 105% of float voltage to ensure the battery can be fully charged. The

battery charge to terminate once the charge current drops to the programmed C/X level in

equation 4.3, which is programmed at 0.4 Amps and RCX equates to 22 kΩ [9].

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 Figure 11: Output Voltage Dependencies for the LTC4000-1 [9]

Next, the LTC4000-1's battery temperature qualified charging feature is implemented by

configuring the controller as recommended and shown in Figure 12. This feature allows for

programmable hot and cold threshold levels for the charge controller to pause charging of the

lead-acid battery until it is deemed safe. Lead-acid batteries have a charging temperature

operating range of -10°C to 60°C and should be properly temperature compensated to prolong

battery life and prevent reduction of charge acceptance [9].

Figure 12: NTC Thermistor Circuit Configuration [9]

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The resistors R3 and RD in Figure 12 are determined by the given equations provided by the

datasheet

(4.6)

(4.7)

where the RNTC is a thermistor that increases in resistance as temperature decreases or decrease

in resistance as temperature increases [9]. The hot and cold thresholds are chosen at 0°C and

50°C, respectively, where R3 is calculated at 11.8 kΩ using equation 4.6 and RD is calculated at

2.77 kΩ using equation 4.7 for a 150 kΩ NTC thermistor.

The remainder of the pins of the LTC4000-1 are connected to various positions on the

first flyback converter or to a specified connection stated in the datasheet.

iv. 5-15 Volt Flyback Converter

The first flyback converter is designed to receive a nominal input voltage of 5 Volts and

output 15 Volts for the LTC4000-1 charge controller. After viewing all the possible flyback

controllers manufactured by Linear Technology, the LTC1871 is chosen because the controller

provides a wide voltage input range suitable to connect with the hydro generator. The input to

the first flyback converter will vary based on the RPM of the turbine and water flow. A high

RPM correlates to a high voltage output from the hydro generator, while a low RPM correlates to

a low voltage output from the hydro generator. The LTC1871 controller also allows the designer

to program the operating frequency and attach external components to promote greater flexibility

in designing the converter. High switching frequency is desired to reduce the inductors and

capacitor sizes, but the tradeoffs for high switching frequency are increased power loss in the

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switch and heat produced. More heat produced decreases the converter's efficiency and may

offset the reduction in component sizes [7]. The ability to attach external components does not

limit the designer to work within the capabilities of the discrete internal components integrated in

the chip.

The LTC1871 controller comes available in two different operating modes: Burst Mode

operation and Pulse-Skip Mode operation. For applications in maximizing efficiency at very

light loads, the Burst Mode operation should be applied by connecting the MODE/SYNC pin to

ground. For applications where fixed frequency operation is more critical than low current

efficiency or lowest output ripple is desired, the Pulse-Skip Mode operation should be used by

connecting the MODE/SYNC pin to the INTVCC pin. The INTVCC pin contains an internal 5.2V

regulated output voltage which is locally bypassed with a capacitor. The Burst Mode operation is

disabled once the MODE/SYNC pin senses a DC voltage above 2 Volts and allows the ITH pin to

directly control the current comparator from no load to full load condition [10]. The Pulse-Skip

Mode is selected because the controller operates mainly with large currents.

The LTC1871 uses a constant frequency architecture that can be programmed over a 50

kHz to 1 MHz range by simply attaching the corresponding external resistor, or timing resistor,

value from the FREQ pin to ground. The resistance value of the timing resistor for the desired

operating frequency is determined by viewing the graph given in the datasheet and depicted

below in Figure 13. By careful inspection of Figure 13, the programmed operating frequency at

500 kHz is approximately 47 kΩ. 500 kHz is chosen as the operating frequency of the LTC1871

because some designers consider it the best compromise between small component size and

efficiency [7].

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 Figure 13: Timing Resistor Value [10]

In comparison to conventional current mode controllers, the LTC1871 operates its current

control loop by sensing the voltage drop across the power MOSFET switch instead of across a

discrete sense resistor. This sensing technique improves efficiency, increases power density, and

reduces the cost of the overall solution as long as the voltage on the SENSE pin is less than 36

Volts [10]. According to the theoretical calculation of the voltage across the switch of a flyback

converter, the equation is

(4.8)

where VS is the input voltage, VO is the output voltage, and N1 and N2 are the number of turns on

the primary and secondary sides of a transformer, respectively [7]. The manufacturer Coiltronics

makes configurable, multi-winding surface mount transformers ideal for flyback applications.

The transformers are made with ferrite core material and provide a power range from 1 Watt to

70 Watts [11]. The derived mathematical relation between input and output for a flyback

converter given as

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 (4.9)

where VO is the output voltage, VS is the input voltage, D is the duty cycle, and N1 and N2 are the

number of turns on the primary and secondary sides of a transformer, respectively [7]. For a 15

Volt output, 5 Volt input, and 50% duty cycle in equation 4.9, the Coiltronics transformer can be

configured with a 1:3 turns ratio. Substituting the turns ratio into equation 4.8, the voltage across

the switch is 10 Volts, which is well below the maximum rating of the SENSE pin. Thus, the

SENSE pin can be connected to the drain of the MOSFET switch without the need for a sense

resistor to operate with greater efficiency.

Next, the turn-on threshold input voltage must be programmed using a resistor divider

using the given equation in the datasheet

(4.10)

where the center node is connected to the RUN pin of the LTC1871 [10]. The controller contains

an internal comparator detection circuit to determine when the converter will turn on or off to

save power. By programming the turn-on threshold input voltage at its minimum voltage of 2.5

Volts, the resistor values for R1 and R2 are calculated to be 5 kΩ and 4.27 kΩ, respectively. A

separate resistor divider is also implemented to program the output voltage using the given

equation in the datasheet

(4.11)

where the center node is connected to the FB pin [10]. This resistor divider is connected to the

output of the flyback converter and fed into an error amplifier internal to the controller to

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program the desired output voltage. For an output voltage of 15 Volts, the resistor values for R1

and R2 are calculated to be 5 kΩ and 56 kΩ, respectively.

The remaining pins of the LTC1871 are configured according to the proper connections

explained in the datasheet. The output capacitance, though, is determined by the theoretical

mathematical equation

(4.12)

where ∆Vo is the output ripple voltage, R is resistance of the load, and f is the operating

frequency [7]. For a power rating of 60 Watts and output voltage of 15 Volts, the resistance

equates to 3.75 Ω. Substituting in the resistance, duty cycle of 50%, and frequency of 500 kHz,

the output capacitance equates to approximately 27 µF for output voltage ripple of 1% using

equation 4.12. The computed theoretical output capacitance, though, does not take into account

of the equivalent series resistance, or ESR, of the capacitor, which can significantly affect the

output voltage ripple [7]. The ESR of a capacitor can be minimized by connecting multiple

capacitors. According to basic circuit theory, multiple resistors connected in parallel equates to a

small equivalent resistance and multiple capacitors connected in parallel increase in equivalent

capacitance.

For added protection from large voltage transient spikes during the switching cycle, a

resistor-capacitor-diode (RCD) snubber is configured as shown in Figure 14. Energy is stored in

a non-magnetic gap in series with the transformer core, but the multiple windings cannot be all

equally well coupled to the core due to the physical separation between the windings. A small

amount of energy is stored within and between the windings and is represented as a leakage

inductance. Because of this, the flyback topology has the disadvantage of large transient voltage

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spikes at the drain of the power switch and at the secondary rectifier, where the spikes are a

function of the leakage inductance in the flyback transformer.

Figure 14: Snubber Circuit Configuration [12]

By placing the snubber circuit, the effects of the leakage inductance can be controlled and

improve the reliability of the power supply. There are two possible configurations for a RCD

snubber: voltage clamp snubber and rate-of-rise voltage snubber. Figure 14 represents a voltage

clamp snubber that clamps the voltage during turn-off of the MOSFET, which will discharge the

energy stored in the parasitic inductance into the RC network during each cycle [12]. In order to

determine the proper RC component values, the following equations are used

(4.13)

(4.14)

Equation 4.13 accounts for the rated wattage of the dissipation of the RC circuit, while Equation

4.14 allows for the proper RC time constant to allocate sufficient time for the RC circuit to fully

discharge. Designing for 2 Watts and assuming a maximum input voltage of 36 Volt, the

21 | P a g e
capacitance is 6.2 nF according to equation 4.13. Substituting the capacitance into equation 4.14

with a maximum operating 92% duty cycle by the LTC1871, the resistance is 60 Ω.

v. 12-48 Volt Flyback Converter

The second flyback converter receives a 12 Volt input from the lead-acid battery and

outputs 48 Volts for the DC House using the same LTC1871 controller as in the first flyback

converter. The controller is set to Pulse-Skip Mode to allow for the minimum amount of output

voltage ripple. This is done by connecting the MODE/SYNC pin to the INTVCC pin. As stated

for the 5-15 volt flyback converter, by careful inspection of Figure 13, the programmed operating

frequency at 500 kHz is approximately 47 kΩ. Similarly to the 5-15 Volt converter, the SENSE

pin is connected to the drain of the MOSFET. No sense resistor is needed because, by using

equation 4.8, the maximum switch voltage is calculated as VSW = 24V, which is below the 36

Volt maximum mentioned previously. Using a 50% duty cycle, Vs=12V, Vo=48V, and equation

4.9, the necessary transformer turns ratio is calculated to be N2/N1=4/1. This is accomplished by

connecting two windings in parallel on the primary side and four windings in series on the

secondary side.

The turn-on threshold input voltage is set to 11.8 Volts so that the converter does not

draw current from a drained battery. This voltage is set using a resistor divider where R1 is

chosen as 10kΩ and R2 is calculated to be 78.7kΩ using equation 4.10. Output voltage is

regulated using a feedback voltage from a resistor divider from the converter output. Using

equation 4.11, R1 is chosen to be 5kΩ and R2 is calculated to be 191kΩ.

The minimum value for the output capacitor is calculated using equation 4.12 to be

2.6uF. However, due to the large inductance on the transformer, we increase this value to

22 | P a g e
Cout=44uF in order to have a properly compensated output. In order to reduce ESR, two 22uF

capacitors are placed in parallel instead of one 44uF capacitor. The snubber resistance and

capacitance are calculated using equations 4.13 and 4.14 to be 60Ω and 39nF. The remaining

pins of the LTC1871 are configured according to the proper connections explained in the

datasheet.

23 | P a g e
 V. TEST PLANS

The flyback converters are tested to find parameters common for DC-DC converters.

Both converters are tested with an open circuit load and many of the bias voltages are checked to

verify the functionality of the LTC1871 controllers. Line regulation, load regulation, efficiency

and output voltage ripple are measured for both converters. Input voltage, current, and power are

measured on an AC power meter. Output voltage and current are measured from an electronic

load. These measurements are obtained for low, nominal, and high input voltages while setting

the electronic load from 0% to 100% of the max load current in steps of 20%.

Line Regulation

Line Regulation is calculated for each converter using the equation shown below [8].

(5.1)

Load Regulation

Load Regulation is calculated for each converter using the equation shown below [8].

(5.2)

Efficiency

Efficiency is calculated using the equation shown below [8].

(5.3)

Output Voltage Ripple

Output voltage ripple is found by measuring the peak to peak output voltage on an oscilloscope

for value of input voltage and output current.

24 | P a g e
 In addition to testing the electronics, the hydro generated is also tested to determine its

functionality and performance. The hydro generator selected by the mechanical team is a two-

phase stepper motor as shown in Figure 15. The stepper motor can still perform as a generator by

rotating shaft and take the output from each phase. Based on the name plate information, the

expected power output of the stepper motor is approximately 5 Watts.

Figure 15: Capture of Stepper Motor

25 | P a g e
VI. DEVELOPMENT AND CONSTRUCTION

The two flyback converters and the charge controller are developed and tested in LTspice

individually. The flyback converters are tested at full load and open load to verify that the

controllers properly maintain the correct output voltages. The 5-15 Volt flyback converter is then

combined with the battery charge controller in order to test if the 3-step charging cycle is

performed on the lead-acid battery. The LTspice schematic for the 5-15 Volt flyback converter

and charge controller are shown below in Figure 16 and Figure 17, respectively.

Figure 16: LTspice Schematic of 5-15 Volt Flyback Converter

Figure 17: LTspice Schematic for the Battery Charge Controller

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The LTspice schematic for the 12-48 Volt flyback converter is shown below in Figure 18.

Figure 18: LTspice Schematic of 12-48 Volt Flyback Converter

After the simulated versions of the circuit are functional, the circuits are transferred into a

PCB layout. Our layout is designed for a 2.5"x4" board layout from [Link]. All

components are sized and assigned appropriately sized pads on the layout. The trace widths are

chosen based on the recommended widths for expected current values in the help section of the

ExpressPCB program. Most of the components are of standard sizes with pre-set pad

arrangements in the ExpressPCB program component library. The transformers, MOSFETs, and

the LTC1871 controllers, however, require custom made pad arrangements which are based upon

recommended layouts from their respective datasheets. The layout for the original board

construction is shown below in Figure 19.

27 | P a g e
 Figure 19: Layout for Original Circuit Board Configuration for ExpressPCB

The second design for the PCB layout is shown below in Figure 20. This version of the

layout design is an attempt to fix some issues present in the previous layout. The second design

includes spaces for flyback snubber circuits used to control the large voltage transient spikes

during the switching cycle of the MOSFET switches. In addition, the layout is designed to

improve power flow from the system input and output due the thermal heat generated by the

circuit components. The controllers are also placed in a close proximity within each other for

easy identification and close to its external components to reduce trace lengths.

28 | P a g e
 Figure 20: Layout for Revised Circuit Board Configuration for Express PCB

After designing the board layout, each of the three components are built and tested

individually before being integrated. This is done to simplify the troubleshooting process by

isolating the problems to specific components as opposed to searching for a problem within the

entire system. The 5-15 Volt converter is tested first by verifying the proper output voltage and

the correct turn-on voltage. This ensures that the LTC1871 controller, among other components,

is connected and functioning properly. This test is then repeated for the 12-48 Volt converter.

29 | P a g e
VII. INTEGRATION AND TEST RESULTS

i. Simulation of Circuit

The data shown below in Table II and Table III represent the results from simulating both

flyback converters in LTSpice. The measurement parameters listed are consistent with the

hardware test plans shown previously in chapter five so that the load current is varied at high,

low, and nominal input voltage values. Table II below lists the simulated results for this test plan

on the 5-15 Volt flyback converter (circuit is shown in Figure 16).

TABLE II
SIMULATED RESULTS FOR 5-15 VOLT FLYBACK CONVERTER
Vin=5V
%Load Load Current (A) Iin (A) Pin (W) Vout (V) Pout (W) Vopp-ripple (V) Power Efficiency
20 0.8 2.69 13.45 15 12 0.032 89.22%
40 1.6 5.76 28.8 15 24 0.066 83.33%
60 2.4 9.56 47.8 14.93 35.832 3.6 74.96%
80 3.2 13.47 67.35 14.99 47.968 1.31 71.22%
100 4 14.51 72.55 11.96 47.84 0.164 65.94%
Vin=9V
%Load Load Current (A) Iin (A) Pin (W) Vout (V) Pout (W) Vopp-ripple (V) Power Efficiency
20 0.8 1.43 12.87 15 12 0.023 93.24%
40 1.6 2.99 26.91 15 24 0.047 89.19%
60 2.4 4.64 41.76 15.01 36.024 0.07 86.26%
80 3.2 6.45 58.05 15.01 48.032 0.1 82.74%
100 4 8.39 75.51 15.01 60.04 0.123 79.51%
Vin=12V
%Load Load Current (A) Iin (A) Pin (W) Vout (V) Pout (W) Vopp-ripple (V) Power Efficiency
20 0.8 1.07 12.84 15 12 0.019 93.46%
40 1.6 2.12 25.44 15 24 0.041 94.34%
60 2.4 3.52 42.24 15 36 0.063 85.23%
80 3.2 4.96 59.52 15 48 0.086 80.65%
100 4 6.04 72.48 15 60 0.103 82.78%

The results shown above in Table II are obtained using Vin=5V for minimum input,

Vin=9V for nominal input, and Vin=12V for high input. Using these values, the parameters

30 | P a g e
listed in the Test Plans section can be obtained. Using Equation 5.1, the Line Regulation at full

load current is 20.33%. Using Equation 5.2, the Load Regulation at nominal input is 0.067%.

Table III below lists the simulated results for this test plan on the 12-48 Volt flyback

converter (circuit is shown in Figure 18).

TABLE III
SIMULATED RESULTS FOR 12-48 VOLT FLYBACK CONVERTER
Vin=12V
%Load Load Current (A) Iin (A) Pin (W) Vout (V) Pout (W) Vopp-ripple (V) Power Efficiency
20 0.25 1.07 12.84 48.18 12.045 0.006 93.81%
40 0.5 2.08 24.96 48.32 24.16 0.011 96.79%
60 0.75 3.18 38.16 48.26 36.195 0.016 94.85%
80 1 4.28 51.36 48.28 48.28 0.022 94.00%
100 1.25 5.4 64.8 48.27 60.33875 0.028 93.12%
Vin=13.5V
%Load Load Current (A) Iin (A) Pin (W) Vout (V) Pout (W) Vopp-ripple (V) Power Efficiency
20 0.25 0.95 12.825 48.18 12.045 0.005 93.92%
40 0.5 1.88 25.38 48.24 24.12 0.01 95.04%
60 0.75 2.82 38.07 48.25 36.1875 0.015 95.06%
80 1 3.85 51.975 48.22 48.22 0.021 92.78%
100 1.25 4.78 64.53 48.22 60.275 0.026 93.41%
Vin=15V
%Load Load Current (A) Iin (A) Pin (W) Vout (V) Pout (W) Vopp-ripple (V) Power Efficiency
20 0.25 0.856 12.84 48.18 12.045 0.005 93.81%
40 0.5 1.69 25.35 48.22 24.11 0.009 95.11%
60 0.75 2.54 38.1 48.22 36.165 0.013 94.92%
80 1 3.42 51.3 48.22 48.22 0.018 94.00%
100 1.25 4.29 64.35 48.22 60.275 0.023 93.67%

The results shown above in Table III are obtained using Vin=12V for minimum input,

Vin=13.5V for nominal input, and Vin=15V for high input. Using these values, the parameters

listed in the Test Plans section can be obtained. Using Equation 5.1, the Line Regulation at full

load current is 0.1%. Using Equation 5.2, the Load Regulation at nominal input is 0.083%.

31 | P a g e
 ii. Motor Testing

The stepper motor is tested by rotating the shaft at a certain RPM and determining the

proper connections to receive the proper output. After measuring all the possible wiring

configurations, one phase of the stepper motor belongs to the red, white, and blue color coded

wires and the other phase of the stepper motor belongs to the black, yellow, and green color

coded wires. The white and yellow color coded wires are the center taps of its corresponding

phase. A visual picture of the testing can be seen in Figure 21.

Figure 21: Capture of Wiring for Stepper Motor

Initially, the two phases of the stepper motor are connected in a parallel configuration to

synchronize the two phases. In this configuration, the stepper motor produces a peak-to-peak

voltage of around 2 Volts rotating at 60 RPM as measured in Figure 22. Since the minimum

input voltage of the flyback controllers require at least 2.5 Volts, the two phases of the stepper

motor are connected in a series configuration. In the series connection, the stepper motor is

found to already be in synchronous phase and produces a greater voltage output approximately 9

Volts at the same RPM after rectification. Although the stepper motor produces a greater voltage

32 | P a g e
output in a series configuration, the short-circuit testing of each configuration shows that the

series configuration produces a much smaller current output than in the parallel configuration.

Nonetheless, the power output of the stepper motor is much less than 60 Watts and does not meet

the engineering specification.

Figure 22: Capture of one phase output of Stepper Motor at 60 RPM

iii. Hardware Testing

After the simulated versions of the circuit are functional, we transfer the circuit into a

PCB layout shown previously in Figure 19 of the Development and Construction section. After

designing the board layout, we built the 5-15 Volt flyback converter and tested it with no load.

The converter turns on with an input as low as 2.5V and produces the desired 15V output. The

initial PCB layout does not include an output jack for this converter, so there was no safe method

of testing output current. After testing the 5-15 Volt converter, we test the 12-48 Volt converter.

This converter turns on at an input of 12.1V and produces a 47.3V output with no load attached.

However, when the electronic load was attached, the added current caused a short from in input

connection to ground.

33 | P a g e
 Per Dr. Taufik's recommendation, we re-designed our board layout to that shown in

Figure 20. This version of the layout allows for better power flow within the circuit and to better

separate the controller circuitry from the power conversion circuitry. Additionally, this design

included an additional banana jack at the output of the 5-15 Volt converter for testing purposes

and snubber circuits for both flybacks.

After ordering the second version of the board, we assembled both flyback converters and

tested them at no load conditions to see that they were still functional. The 5-15 converter turned

on at 2.5V and provided an output of 16V. 12-48 converter turned on at 11.8V and provide an

output of 48V. After the open circuit testing confirmed that both converters were functional, we

then tested them with the electronic load. Unfortunately, both converters failed within 20% if

their rated load current and additionally showed very poor output voltage regulation. The first

test was for the 12-48 Volt converter and the results are shown below in Table IV.

TABLE IV
HARDWARE RESULTS FOR 12-48 VOLT FLYBACK CONVERTER
Iout (A) Vout (V)
0 48
0.1 3.33
0.2 2.199

Since the first converter failed after only three data points we decided to use a finer resolution for

the test on the second converter. The results of this test are shown below in Table V.

34 | P a g e
 TABLE V
HARDWARE RESULTS FOR 12-48 VOLT FLYBACK CONVERTER
Iout (A) Vout (V)
0 48
0.1 5.26
1.5 3.354
0.2 3.182
0.25 2.805
0.3 2.638
0.35 2.55
0.4 2.444
0.45 2.29
0.5 2.276
0.55 0.015

iv. Discussion of Test Results

While the simulation of the circuits in LTspice do not indicate any potential problems

with voltage regulation, the results from the hardware testing indicated otherwise. Both flyback

converters failed when drawing less than 20% of the designed rated load current. Additionally,

the controller was not properly regulating the output voltage when a load was applied. When the

converter failed, a short was caused somewhere in the system creating a connection between the

power plane and the ground plane of the PCB. We first suspected that the short was within the

MOSFET. However, after removing the MOSFET from the board, the short was still present.

Since the MOSFETs and other components were all still functional, we suspect that the core of

the transformers were saturating, which in turn does not allow for energy transfer within the

circuit. The transformer datasheet states that the rated current values listed would only cause a

30% saturation of the core [11]. This relationship is shown below in Figure 23.

35 | P a g e
 Figure 23: Inductance Characteristics for Coiltronics Transformers [11]

As seen in Figure 23, even for higher current values, the transformers should still behave

in a relatively ideal manner. Since the flyback converters provide the correct values during open

load testing, we suspect that the problem lies within energy transfer of the energy in the circuit.

Because of these reasons, we removed the transformer from the board and the short was no

longer present. The transformer terminal connected to the input voltage power plane is located

next to the terminal connected to the ground plane. Due to the saturation issues mentioned earlier

and the proximity of the input and ground terminals, we believe that the short was developed

within the transformer windings. Additionally, the charge controller is designed to be used for 4

Amp charging. Since the 5-15 Volt flyback converter was never operational at full load, there is

no way to test the charge controller within the project timeframe.

36 | P a g e
VIII. FUTURE IMPROVEMENTS

The most challenging aspect of the Portable Nano-Hydro Power Generator project is the

lack of technical knowledge in the field of power electronics. Neither of us had taken power

electronics courses prior to accepting this project as our senior project. Despite this disadvantage,

we still accepted the project because we liked the project idea and wanted to challenge ourselves

in learning a new field of electrical engineering on our own. As a recommendation to future

students pursuing this project as an improvement design, we strongly encourage taking power

electronics course in order to avoid basic pitfalls commonly encountered in power electronics.

For example, our first mistake was creating the converters on a transistor level when controllers

for the converter have already been systematically made.

A possible future improvement design of the project is to custom build the transformers

of the flyback converters. By customizing the transformers instead of purchasing a pre-made

transformer, students may gain a better understanding of how transformers function and the

various characteristics of a transformer. After testing the two flyback converters, we believe the

core of the transformers saturated prematurely which contributed to the low output voltages on

the secondary sides.

A different generator should be chosen to produce the correct power requirement. The

stepper motor is chosen by the mechanical team because the generator is small and light enough

to be carried onto their raft design. A larger power output from a generator would have required

a larger sized generator and be heavier for the raft to support, which could potentially cause the

raft to sink. Also, the generator should output a DC output versus an AC output in order to

decrease the loss from rectification and be operable with the DC-DC converter.

37 | P a g e
 Another possible future improvement design is to implement a temperature sensor on the

charge controller to properly set the correct float charge voltage for the lead-acid battery. For the

LTC4000-1 charge controller, the datasheet did recommend a particular circuit configuration to

compensate for the temperature change as illustrated in Figure 24. Because the lead-acid battery

contains a -3.3 mV/°C per cell temperature coefficient, or -19.8 mV/°C, the temperature sensor

suggested would have produced a temperature compensation scheme of battery float voltage [9].

Figure 24: Float Charge Voltage Compensation Circuit Configuration [9]

Finally, our last possible future improvement design is to create the system using just one

converter. As mentioned in the Initial Design Considerations section of the Design chapter, the

charge controller could not receive the output voltage of a DC-DC converter beyond a certain

percentage above the float voltage value. However, in the future, advances in technology could

have been realized and be able operate with the high voltage. In this way, efficiency can be

greatly improved and reduce the complexity of the system.

38 | P a g e
IX. CONCLUSION

The objective of this project is to create a product which can use electricity generated by

a small hydro generator and convert it into power for the DC House. Our proposed design uses a

flyback converter to convert from a low voltage output of the generator into a 15 Volt output to

charge a lead-acid battery. Another flyback converter is used to convert the voltage from the 12V

lead-acid battery into a 48 Volt output for the DC House. This design uses LTC1871 controllers

to regulate the output of the flyback converters and uses a LT4000-1 controller to regulate the

charging of the battery. The designs for each component were developed and tested in LTspice

and the circuit was transferred into a printed circuit board layout and fabricated by ExpressPCB.

The results from the simulations seemed promising, however testing on the physical board

proved otherwise. Both converters were functional during open circuit testing, but performed

very poorly once a load was applied. After inspection of the circuit, we conclude that the

problem lies in the transformers we used. Since the voltages were correct during open circuit

testing, we suspect that the improper energy transfer is a result of the type of transformer we

used. As a future improvement of the project, custom-made transformers should be created in

order to prevent premature saturation of the transformer. All in all, the engineering specifications

may not have been met, but a significant amount of knowledge was gained in the power

electronics field and its design process from our initial starting point.

39 | P a g e
 X. BIBLIOGRAPHY

[1] Rocky Mountain Institute. “Historic and projected U.S. electricity demand, 1950-2050”

[Online]. Available: [Link]

[2] Dr. Taufik. (2010, Sept. 13). “The DC House Project: Providing access to electricity for

the unfortunates" [Online]. Available:

[Link] [Mar. 2, 2013].

[3] Dr. Taufik. (2013, Jan. 4). "Taufik Senior Projects 2012-2013." Personal email.

[4] Dr. Taufik. (2013, Jan. 4). "Fwd: Proposal submission for Chevron Fund." Personal

email.

[5] R.A. Messenger and J. Ventre, Photovoltaic Systems Engineering. Boca Raton, FL: CRC

Press, 2010.

[6] R. Ford and C. Coulston, Design for Electrical and Computer Engineers, McGraw-Hill,

2007, p.37.

[7] Daniel W. Hart, Power Electronics. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill, 2011.

[8] Taufik and D. Dolan, Introduction to Power Electronics, San Luis Obispo: California

Polytechnic State University, 11th Revision 2013.

[9] Linear Technology, "High Voltage High Current Controller for Battery Charging with

Maximum Power Point Control," LTC4000-1 datasheet, 2012 [Online]. Available:

[Link] [May 26, 2013].

[10] Linear Technology, "Wide Input Range, No RSENSE Current Mode Boost, Flyback and

SEPIC Controller," LTC1871 datasheet, 2001 [Online]. Available:

[Link] [May 26, 2013].

40 | P a g e
[11] Coiltronics - Cooper Industries, "Versa-Pac Inductors and Transformers," VPH4-0075-R

& VPH5-0155-R datasheet, 2007 [Online]. Available:

[Link]

s/product-datasheets/Bus_Elx_DS_PM%204301_VERSA-

PAC(VP1_2_3_4_5_VPH1_2_3_4_5).pdf [May 26,2013].

[12] Maxim Integrated, "Snubber Circuits Suppress Voltage Transient Spikes in Multiple

Output DC-DC Flyback Converter Power Supplies," Appl. Note 848, 12 Nov. 2001

[Online]. Available: [Link]

[November 25, 2013].

[13] D. Barashev and A. Thomas, GanttProject [Software]. GanttProject Team: 2003-2013.

41 | P a g e
APPENDIX A - Senior Project Analysis

TABLE A-I
ANALYSIS OF SENIOR PROJECT DESIGN
Project Title: Portable Nano-Hydro Power Generator for the DC House Project

Students’ Name: Andrew Aw & James Biggs

Students’ Signature:

Advisor’s Name: Dr. Taufik

Advisor’s Initials:
Date:

● 1. Summary of Functional Requirements

The Portable Nano-Hydro Power Generator generates a maximum of 60 Watts and outputs a voltage of 48 Volts.
The electrical system contains a bi-directional connection with a 12V lead-acid battery for charging and
discharging, depending on the generation. Table I contains detailed listings and justifications of the marketing
requirements and engineering specifications.

● 2. Primary Constraints
The lack of technical knowledge for the majority of the project’s engineering specifications and similar designs
provide significant challenges for the design and implementation of the project. Without similar designs to model
from, the solutions to the problems we encounter contain no references to learn from. We plan to document any
unprecedented problems for future references and share to the engineering community.

● 3. Economic
The Portable Nano-Hydro Power Generator requires lots of human capital due to its innovative design. We
generated the gantt chart for the duration of the project using the GanttProject software as shown in Figures A-1,
A-2, and A-3 [13]. Figure A-1 shows the intense planning, research, and preparation performed for the project. As
seen in Figures A-2 and A-3, the gantt charts also demonstrate designing, simulating, building, and testing the
three modules require at least 14 weeks before interfacing with the mechanical system. Chevron provided
financial capital for the materials of the project. This financial capital assists in purchasing real capital necessary
for the project such as the car battery and power electronics. Fortunately, the senior project room already provides
the measurement tools and bench equipment which helps relieve the real capital. The hydro generates uses water
as its natural capital for electrical generation.

A typical engineering project lifecycle consists of seven phases: proposal, requirement, design, build, integration,
test, and operations and maintenance. Labor costs accrue during all seven phases. Materials and parts cost accrue
during the design and integration phases. Benefits accrue during proposal and operations and maintenance phases.

The experiment requires inputs from the hydro generator and the car battery. The project cost approximately $600
in parts as calculated in Table A-II. The anticipated prices may vary according to the quality and performance of
the item. As stated prior, Chevron funds the majority of the cost.

42 | P a g e
 TABLE A-II: COST ESTIMATES
Anticipated
Item Price ($) Justification
12 V Car Battery 125 Car batteries cost between $100-$200 plus a core
charge, or state mandate tax. We plan to purchase
a low end or used car battery for the project.

Car Battery Connections Kit 30 The car battery requires specific cables to connect
to its terminals which cost about $5. However,
purchasing additional adapters and terminal
protectors also necessitate the complete
connection needed for the DC-DC converter.

PCB 50 The PCB, or printed circuit board, ranges from $5

to $100 depending on the size and quality. For this
project, we use a medium size PCB of sufficient
quality.

Circuit Components 300 The circuit components range from resistors to

MOSFETs to ICs which vary from a few cents to
a couple bucks. The few extra components
purchased serve as a backup or replacement of
defective part(s).
Housing Unit Components 80 The housing unit protecting the electrical
components from water and/or human contact
consists of mainly plastic material. Plastic
material cost a couple bucks and the fasteners and
sealers add to the cost of the complete housing
unit.

Subtotal ($) 585

The $24/hr rate for the average engineering intern
Labor ($24/hr for 150 hrs.) 3600 wage.
Total ($) 4185

This project targets areas without access to an electrical grid and nonprofit endeavor sponsored by companies or
organizations. From a commercial basis, the manufacturers and designers profit from the earnings of the project
by including the labor costs into the material cost.

The product should emerge by the end of 2013 as required by the senior project completion date. The product
should exist for about 25 years with minimal maintenance. The maintenance mostly consists of cleaning and
maintaining the hydro generator rotor from buildup of algae and/or dirt. After project completion, the project may
undergo improvements or revisions for interfacing with the DC House.

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Figure A-1: Proposed Gantt Chart for EE 460 [13]

Figure A-2: Proposed Gantt Chart for EE 463 [13]

44 | P a g e
 Figure A-3: Proposed Gantt Chart for EE 464 [13]

● 4. If manufactured on a commercial basis:

The number of devices sold per year would likely range from 50-100 and cost approximately $600 for materials
as estimated in Table A-II. The cost of each unit sold should not exceed $3,500 which produces a profit of about
$250,000 per year. Labor to transport the device comprises of the majority of the operation cost. Depending on
the user’s point of view for labor, the operation cost varies from person to person. Limiting factors of operation
cost include the life of the user's car battery and possibly circuit level components within the product.

● 5. Environmental
This system should provide a source of free electricity to a customer without access to an electrical grid.
However, the device would likely interfere with the organisms living in the stream or water source in which the
user places it. Alteration in the water flow of the stream also presents an environmental impact associated with the
use of the Portable Nano-Hydro Power Generator. If place in a narrow stream, the device may impede the flow of
water and cause water to back up. The device restricts access to water, vital for all known forms of life, for the
animals and plants downstream and potentially destroying the habitat. Other environmental impacts include the
materials used and emissions from manufacturing and transporting the device. The materials for production may
be toxic and/or non-degradable.

● 6. Manufacturability
Manufacturing the seal-tight case presents an issue associated with manufacturing the Portable Nano-Hydro
Power Generator. Since the product submerges in water, a seal-tight case encloses the electrical system to prevent
water from entering and shorting the circuit. However, complications could occur which allow water to come into
contact. Also, mounting components on PCB has become increasingly common in today's industry. Therefore,
manufacturing the generator box should prove more complicated than manufacturing the converter box.
Manufacturing the product in other countries outside the United States presents another issue of manufacturing. If
not made in the United States, other countries may not possess strict regulation of quality control for
manufacturing their products.

● 7. Sustainability
As a source of renewable energy, the project comprises of a sustainable background. Both the generator box and
the converter box function interchangeably with replacement or improved parts easily. The selected individual
components designed for longevity eliminate the need for frequent replacement. Making the product compatible
with 12V lead-acid batteries provides opportunities for recycling and reuse. However, durability against

45 | P a g e
environmental factors may present an issue associated with maintaining the completed system. The primary
consumers reside in developing countries with harsher environmental hardships than in developed countries.

● 8. Ethical
The manufacturer needs to produce and transport the device as efficiently and responsibly as possible. The ethical
implication of designing the system without regard for safety affects both the users and its surrounding
environment. This correlates to the ethical framework of The Platinum Rule, treat others as they would like you to
treat them. The users could experience electrical shock or even death when operating the device. Insulating all
conductive components should prevent such hazards. Wildlife may also experience electrical shock or death if
water comes into contact with the electrical system. The water can create a short in the system and become a
conductor, shocking wildlife such as live fish and birds currently in contact. As stated in the IEEE Code of Ethics,
members of the IEEE community agree to avoid injuring others and take responsibility for the safety of the
public.

● 9. Health and Safety

The device contains high powered electronics and, when left unattended, presents a potential hazard for users,
children, and animals near the device. The user may experience electrical shock from accidental contact of the
electrical system. A protective case encloses the electrical system of the Portable Nano-Hydro Power Generator,
but the user may accidentally leave the case open and come into contact. Electrical shock can also occur when the
user connects the device with the car battery. Manufacturing and transporting the product also produces emissions
which would require regulation.

● 10. Social and Political

Environmental degradation creates a social issue with the design of the project. The generator may obstruct the
flow of water due to its size and prevent water from reaching downstream, destroying the habitat below. The
potential for renewable energy sources to dominate creates a political issue with power utility corporations. The
power utility corporations may see a loss of business and profit if their customers remain off the grid and depend
solely on this product to obtain electricity.

The project benefits the less fortunate and those who can’t obtain electricity due to geographic isolation. The
direct stakeholders comprises of manufacturers, designers, delivery workers, electronic industries, and consumers,
while the indirect stakeholders comprises of utility companies, diplomats, and government. The various electronic
industries, delivery workers, manufacturers, and designers receive profit from the sale of the project. The
consumers benefit from the product itself by generating electricity for use. The utility companies may feel
threatened by the decrease of demand for electric service. Diplomats and government for the consumer’s
corresponding nation could threaten its nation’s economy. The extent in which stakeholders benefit equally
depend on the response of the corresponding nation; otherwise, inequalities for the stakeholders remain.

● 11. Development
The project requires general power electronics concepts, principles involving boost converters, and charging
circuits. Project planning and organization techniques facilitate the completion of the project. The following
sources helped develop an understanding of these concepts. The PSIM software simulation program also provides
helpful simulation and analysis of power electronics and power systems.

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APPENDIX B - Parts List and Cost

TABLE B-I
12-48 VOLT FLYBACK CONVERTER COST
Component Per item cost # of items Cost
Rt $0.28 1 $0.28
R_run1 $0.34 1 $0.34
R_run2 $0.26 1 $0.26
R_fb1 $1.40 1 $1.40
R_fb2 $0.47 1 $0.47
Rsnub $0.93 1 $0.93
Rc $1.96 1 $1.96
Cvcc $0.36 1 $0.36
Cin $0.76 1 $0.76
Cc $1.06 1 $1.06
Csnub $0.39 1 $0.39
Cout $2.06 2 $4.12
Transformer $7.26 1 $7.26
Mosfet $1.11 1 $1.11
Diode $1.18 2 $2.36
LTC1871 $4.38 1 $4.38
Component Total $27.44

TABLE B-II
5-15 VOLT FLYBACK CONVERTER COST
Component Per item cost # of items Cost
Rt $0.28 1 $0.28
R_run1 $2.52 1 $2.52
R_run2 $0.75 1 $0.75
R_fb1 $2.52 1 $2.52
R_fb2 $0.47 1 $0.47
Rsnub $0.93 1 $0.93
Rc $2.52 1 $2.52
Cvcc $0.36 1 $0.36
Cin $0.64 1 $0.64
Cc $0.73 1 $0.73
Csnub $0.29 1 $0.29
Cout $2.52 4 $10.08
Transformer $8.11 1 $8.11
Mosfet $0.80 1 $0.80
Diode $1.18 2 $2.36
LTC1871 $4.38 1 $4.38
Component Total $37.74

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 TABLE B-III
BATTERY CHARGE CONTROLLER COST
Component Per item cost # of items Cost
Rb1 $0.85 1 $0.85
Rb2 $0.85 1 $0.85
Rb3 $0.75 1 $0.75
Rntc $4.01 1 $4.01
Rd $0.82 1 $0.82
R3 $0.59 1 $0.59
Rcx $0.75 1 $0.75
Rcs $1.92 1 $1.92
Cim $0.35 1 $0.35
Cb $0.36 1 $0.36
Mosfet $2.68 2 $5.36
LTC4000-1 $6.43 1 $6.43
Component Total $23.04

TABLE B-IV
ADDITIONAL COMPONENTS COST
Component Per item cost # of items Cost
Banana Jacks $1.65 6 $9.90
Switch $6.40 1 $6.40
PCB (3 copies) $118.00 1 $118.00
Component Total $134.30

TABLE B-V
TOTAL SYSTEM COST
Component Cost
12 to 48 Flyback $27.44
5 to 15 Flyback $37.74
Battery Charger $23.04
Other $134.30
Total Cost $222.52

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APPENDIX C - PC Board

Figure C-1: Original PCB Layout

Figure C-2: Revised PCB Layout

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